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CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

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Page 1: CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory. Introduction  Why should you know about plate tectonics?  Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from

CHAPTER 2Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

Page 2: CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory. Introduction  Why should you know about plate tectonics?  Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from

Introduction Why should you know about plate

tectonics?

Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from destruction caused by volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, or politically and economically due to the formation and distribution of valuable natural resources.

Plate tectonics is the unifying theory of geology, tying together many seemingly unrelated geologic phenomena and illustrating why Earth is a dynamic planet of interacting subsystems and cycles.

Page 3: CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory. Introduction  Why should you know about plate tectonics?  Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from

Early Ideas About Continental Drift Alfred Wegener and the Continental

Drift Hypothesis. The idea that continents

have moved in the past is not new.

The concept of continental movement was first suggested when it was noticed that Africa and South America had coastlines which appeared to be counterparts of one another.

This suggested they may once have been joined and drifted apart.

Fig. 2.3, p. 30

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Early Ideas About Continental Drift

Alfred Wegener and the Continental Drift Hypothesis.

Alfred Wegener originally proposed the continental drift hypothesis in 1912.

He postulated that all landmasses were originally united into a supercontinent named Pangaea. Fig. 2.2, p. 29

Page 5: CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory. Introduction  Why should you know about plate tectonics?  Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from

Early Ideas About Continental Drift

Alfred Wegener and the Continental Drift Hypothesis.

Pangaea consisted of a northern landmass called Laurasia and a southern landmass called Gondwana.

As Pangaea broke up, the various continents moved to their present-day locations.

Fig. 2.1, p. 28

The Glossopteris fern, also known as the “Pangaea plant”

Page 6: CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory. Introduction  Why should you know about plate tectonics?  Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from

What is the Evidence for Continental Drift?

Continental Fit

Wegener and others amassed a large amount of evidence in support of continental drift.

There are close fits between the continents at their margins off the coasts at depths of about 2000 m.

Fig. 2.3, p. 30

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What is the Evidence for Continental Drift?

Similarity of Rock Sequences and Mountain Ranges

Marine, nonmarine, and glacial rock sequences of Pennsylvanian to Jurassic age are nearly identical on all the Gondwana continents Fig. 2.4, p. 30

Page 8: CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory. Introduction  Why should you know about plate tectonics?  Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from

What is the Evidence for Continental Drift?

Similarity of Rock Sequences and Mountain Ranges

The trend of several major mountain ranges produces a continuous mountain range when the continents are positioned next to each other as they were during the formation of Pangea.

Page 9: CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory. Introduction  Why should you know about plate tectonics?  Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from

What is the Evidence for Continental Drift?

Glacial Evidence Glacial tills and striations on the bedrock

beneath the till provide evidence of glaciation at the same time on all the Gondwana continents, with South Africa located at the South Pole.

Fig. 2.5, p. 31

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What is the Evidence for Continental Drift?

Fossil Evidence Some of the most compelling evidence

comes from fossils like the Glossopteris fern.

One of the strongest examples is the Mesosaurus, a fresh water reptile.

Fig. 2.6, p. 32

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What is the Evidence for Continental Drift?

Wegener could not provide a convincing mechanism to demonstrate ‘how’ the continents could have moved.

Continental drift was largely ignored.

Fig. 2.2, p. 29

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Features of the Seafloor

Topography of the seafloor often affected by plate tectonics

Major features of the seafloor: Continental shelves Continental slopes Continental rises Abyssal plains Oceanic ridges Submarine vents Oceanic trenches

Continental Margins

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Features of the Seafloor

Continental margins lying below sea level separate the continents from ocean basins.

The continental margins include the continental shelf, continental slope, and in some places a continental rise.

Fig. 2.7, p. 33

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Features of the Seafloor

Continental Shelf

Continental shelves extend from the shoreline to the more steeply dipping continental slope. They vary in width from ten's of meters to more than 1,000 kilometers.

Fig. 2.7, p. 33

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Features of the Seafloor

Continental Slope

The continental slope starts at an average depth of 135 m and is located where the slope of the sea floor increases from less than 1° to several degrees.

Fig. 2.7, p. 33

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Features of the Seafloor

Continental Rise

A continental rise with less dip than the continental slope may be located at the base of the continental slope.

Fig. 2.7, p. 33

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Features of the Seafloor

Abyssal Plains Abyssal plains are the flattest locations on

Earth! Cover large areas of the seafloor Deep sea sediments accumulate on their

surfaces

Fig. 2.7, p. 33

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Features of the Seafloor

Oceanic ridges Oceanic ridges are long, continuous

submarine mountain ranges composed of volcanic rock.

Oceanic ridges nearly encircle the world but are offset at intervals by large fracture zones.

Fig. 2.7, p. 33

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Features of the Seafloor

Submarine Hydrothermal Vents

Seafloor vents at or very near spreading ridges where circulating water is heated to over 400°C and discharged into seawater.

As the hot water circulates through the oceanic crust it dissolves metals that discharge as plumes, called black smokers.

Fig. 2.8, p. 34

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Fig. 2.8, p. 34

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Features of the Seafloor

Oceanic trenches are the seafloor expressions of subduction zones.

They are long, narrow, features which reach the greatest oceanic depths, sometimes >1.1 km.

Characterized by low heat flow and frequent seismic activity.

Fig. 2.7, p. 33

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Features of the Seafloor

Seamounts and Guyots

Fig. 2.9, p. 34

Seamounts are extinct oceanic volcanoes. Many rise more than a kilometer above the ocean floor. They formed as the oceanic crust moved over a hot mantle plume.

Guyots have the same origin, but have flat tops created when the volcanoes sank to sea level. Once near sea level, erosion by waves flattened the tops.

Page 23: CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory. Introduction  Why should you know about plate tectonics?  Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from

Features of the Seafloor

Aseismic Ridges Aseismic ridges are long, narrow ridges and broad

plateaus that rise off the seafloor. Commonly form near hot-spot volcanoes,

consisting of seamounts and guyots extending away from spreading ridges.

Fig. 2.9, p. 2.9

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Earth’s Magnetic Field

Paleomagnetic studies during the 1950s revived interest in continental drift

They indicated that either the magnetic poles had wandered and each continent had its own pole (an impossibility), or

The continents had moved over time. If the continents are moved into different positions relative to each other, the separate poles could be resolved into one.

Fig. 2.12, p. 36

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Earth’s Magnetic Field

Paleomagnetism is the remnant magnetism in ancient rocks recording the direction and intensity of Earth’s magnetic field at the time of the rock’s formation.

The Curie point is the temperature at which hot iron-bearing minerals cool enough to gain magnetism. As long as the rock is not subsequently heated above the Curie point, it will preserve its remnant magnetism.

Fig. 2.11, p. 35

Page 26: CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory. Introduction  Why should you know about plate tectonics?  Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from

Paleomagnetism and Polar Wandering How can the apparent wandering of

the magnetic poles be best explained? The magnetic poles have

remained near their present locations at the geologic north and south pole and the continents have moved.

Evidence: When the continents are fitted together, the paleomagnetic data for all of them have the same magnetic poles.

Fig. 2.12, p. 36

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Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading

Earth’s present magnetic field is considered "normal."

Normal - with the north and south magnetic poles located approximately at the north and south geographic poles, respectively.

At various times in the geologic past, Earth’s magnetic field has completely reversed.

Reversed: the magnetic south pole is near the geographic north pole and the magnetic north pole is near the geographic south pole.

Page 28: CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory. Introduction  Why should you know about plate tectonics?  Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from

Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading

Earth’s present magnetic field is normal

The existence of magnetic reversals was discovered in continental lava flows by: A) age dating B) determining the

orientation of the remnant magnetism.

Fig. 2.13, p. 37

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Fig. 2-13, p. 37

Stepped Art

North magneticpole (reversed)

North magneticpole (reversed)

South magneticpole (normalposition)

South magneticpole (normal)

South magneticpole (reversed)

South magneticpole (reversed)

North magneticpole (normal)

North magneticpole (normalposition)

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Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading

Harry Hess proposed the theory of seafloor spreading in 1962.

He suggested that the seafloor separates at oceanic ridges, where new crust is formed by upwelling magma.

As the magma cools, the newly formed oceanic crust moves laterally away from the ridge.

Fig. 2.15, p. 38

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Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading

Deep-Sea Drilling and the Confirmation of Seafloor Spreading

Seafloor spreading was confirmed by magnetic anomalies in the ocean crust that were both parallel to and symmetric around the ocean ridges.

This indicates that new oceanic crust forms along the spreading ridges.

Fig. 2.14, p. 38

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Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading

Deep-Sea Drilling and the Confirmation of Seafloor Spreading

Sea floor spreading confirmed by: the ages of fossils in

ocean sediments radiometric dating

Oceanic crust is youngest at the spreading ridges and oldest at the farthest points from the ridges.

Fig. 2.15, p. 38

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Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

Overwhelming evidence in support of plate tectonics led to its rapid acceptance and elaboration since the early 1970's.

The theory is widely accepted because it explains so many geologic phenomena, including: volcanism, seismicity, mountain building, climatic changes, animal and plant distributions in the past and present, and the distributions of natural resources.

For these reasons, it is known as a

unifying theory.

Page 34: CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory. Introduction  Why should you know about plate tectonics?  Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from

Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

According to plate tectonic theory, the rigid lithosphere, is divided into different-sized plates.

Fig. 2.16, p. 39

Page 35: CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory. Introduction  Why should you know about plate tectonics?  Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from

Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

The lithosphere overlies the asthenosphere, and some type of heat-transfer system within the asthenosphere, moves the plates.

As the plates move over the asthenosphere, they separate mostly at oceanic ridges, and collide and subduct into Earth’s interior at oceanic trenches.

Page 36: CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory. Introduction  Why should you know about plate tectonics?  Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from

The Three Types of Plate Boundaries

Plate tectonics has operated since at least the Proterozoic. It is important to understand how the plates move and interact with one another.

Types of Plate BoundariesDivergentConvergentTransform

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The Three Types of Plate Boundaries

Divergent Boundaries - Divergent boundaries form when two plates move away from each another. New oceanic lithosphere

forms at the opening rift.

Most divergent boundaries occur along the crests of oceanic ridges

They are also present under continents during the early stages of continental breakup. Fig. 2.17, p. 41

Page 38: CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory. Introduction  Why should you know about plate tectonics?  Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from

Fig. 2-17, p. 41

Stepped Art

Volcanic activity

MagmaContinental crust

Rift valley

Coastal mountainrange

Narrow fault-bounded sea

Continental “seaboard”(coastal mountains gone)

Wide ocean

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The Three Types of Plate Boundaries

Divergent Boundaries Characteristic features of ancient

continental rifting include: faulting, dikes, sills, lava flows, and thick sedimentary sequences within rift valleys.

Pillow lavas and associated deep-sea sediments are evidence of ancient spreading ridges.

Page 40: CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory. Introduction  Why should you know about plate tectonics?  Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from

The Three Types of Plate Boundaries

Divergent Boundaries Modern example: East

Africa

Initial stages of continental breakup

Rift valleys and volcanism

Rift valleys expand and create seas, such as Red Sea

As divergence continues, seas may expand into oceans and continents have passive margins

Fig. 2.18, p.44

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The Three Types of Plate Boundaries

Convergent Boundaries Convergent boundaries: where two

plates collide There are three types of convergent

boundaries. An oceanic-oceanic boundary: two

oceanic plates collide, one ocean plate will subduct beneath the margin of the other plate.

An oceanic-continental boundary: an oceanic plate and a continental plate collide, the oceanic plate will subduct.

A continental-continental boundary: two continents collide, no subduction of continents.

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The Three Types of Plate Boundaries

Convergent Boundaries Oceanic-Oceanic Boundaries

One oceanic plate subducts beneath the other and a volcanic island arc forms on the non-subducted plate

An oceanic trench forms parallel to the volcanic island arc where the subduction occurs.

Volcanoes result from rising magma produced by the partial melting of the subducting plate.

Fig. 2.19a, p. 45

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The Three Types of Plate Boundaries

Convergent Boundaries Oceanic-Continental Boundaries

An oceanic plate and a continental plate converge, with the denser oceanic plate subducting under the continental plate.

Like an oceanic-oceanic boundary, a chain of volcanoes forms on the nonsubducted plate.

Fig. 2.19b, p. 45

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The Three Types of Plate Boundaries

Convergent Boundaries Continental - Continental Boundaries

Two continents converge, the ocean floor separating them subducts, the two continents collide. Neither plate will subduct.

When the two continents collide, they are welded together to form an interior mountain chain.

Fig. 2.19c, p. 45

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The Three Types of Plate Boundaries

Convergent Boundaries Recognizing Ancient Convergent Plate

Boundaries Intensely deformed

rocks, andesite lavas, and ophiolites are all evidence of ancient subduction zones, marking former convergent plate boundaries.

Fig. 2.20, p. 46

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Fig. 2.20, p. 46

Page 47: CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory. Introduction  Why should you know about plate tectonics?  Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from

The Three Types of Plate Boundaries

Transform Boundaries Plates slide laterally past each other along

transform faults

These boundaries change one type of motion between plates into another type of motion.

Fig. 2.21a, p. 49

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The Three Types of Plate Boundaries

Transform Boundaries

These are boundaries along which plates slide laterally past each other along transform faults

Generally, no diagnostic features are left by transform faults.

Example: San Andreas fault

Fig. 2.22, p. 48

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Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes

What are hot spots?

A hot spot is the location on Earth’s surface where a stationary column of magma, originating deep within the earth (possible near the mantle-outer core boundary) has slowly risen to the surface and causes volcanism.

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Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes

Hot spot plumes apparently remain stationary within the mantle while plates move over them

The resulting hot spot leaves a trail of extinct and progressively older volcanoes that record the movement of the plate.

Fig. 2.23, p. 49

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Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes

Determining rate and direction of plate movement

Hot spots may be used to determine the absolute motion of plates. They provide an apparently fixed reference point from which the rate and direction of plate movement can be measured.

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Plate Movement and Motion

Determining rate and direction of plate movement

Fig. 2.24a, p. 49

The average rate of plate movement is most commonly determined by dividing the distance from an oceanic ridge axis to any magnetic anomaly in the crust of the seafloor by the age of that anomaly.

Satellite-laser ranging techniques are also used to determine the current rate of movement and relative motion of one plate with respect to another.

Page 53: CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory. Introduction  Why should you know about plate tectonics?  Plate tectonics affects all of us, whether from

The Driving Mechanism of Plate Tectonics What moves the

plates?

Most geologists agree that some type of convective heat system is the basic process responsible for plate motion.

Radioactive decay in the Earth's interior provides heat for convection.

Additional heat comes from the core.

Fig. 2.25, p. 50

Insert Fig. 2.25, p. 50

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The Driving Mechanism of Plate Tectonics Mantle Convection Cell Model

Spreading ridges: Hot ascending limbs of cells.

Trenches: Cooled part of convention cells descend.

Fig. 2.25, p. 50Insert Fig. 2.25, p. 50

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The Driving Mechanism of Plate Tectonics Gravity driven

plate motion

Besides convection, gravity-driven mechanisms may have a major role. “Slab-pull” involves pulling the plate behind a subducting cold slab of lithosphere.

“Ridge-push” involves gravity pushing the oceanic lithosphere away from the higher spreading ridges and toward the subduction trenches.

Fig. 2.27, p. 51

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Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Natural Resources Petroleum

Plate movements are partly responsible for abundant petroleum in the Middle East.

During the Mesozoic, much of the Middle East was a broad marine shelf near the equator.

Countless microorganisms lived in the warm surface waters, died and accumulated in sediments.

Burial of the organic-rich sediments from subduction created the right amount of heat to produce petroleum.

Plate collisions between Iran and the Arabian Plate folded rocks and created traps for the petroleum to accumulate.

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Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Natural Resources Mineral Deposits

Many metallic mineral deposits are related to igneous and associated hydrothermal activity in convergent and divergent plate boundaries.

Copper, iron, lead , zinc, gold and silver ore deposits are associated with plate boundaries.

Fig. 2.28, p. 53

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Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Life

Plate tectonics affects organic evolution.

Organisms occupy biotic provinces controlled mostly by: Climate Geographic barriers

Plate movements create mountains and continental barriers that influence climate and organic evolution.

Fig. 2.29, p. 54

Insert Fig. 2.29, p. 54

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Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Life

Formation of Panama by plate movements about 5 million years ago isolated Caribbean and Pacific marine organisms promoting separate evolution.

North American land animals migrated to South America, causing extinctions of South American species.

Fig. 2.29, p. 54

Insert Fig. 2.29, p. 54

Plate tectonics and organic evolution in the Americas

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End of Chapter 2