Chapter 2

Gender in Relationships

Chapter Outline

• Terminology of Gender Roles• Theories of Gender Role Development• Agents of Socialization• Gender Roles in Other Societies• Consequences of Traditional Gender Role

Socialization• Changing Gender Roles

True or False?

• One’s biological sex may be described as being on a continuum rather than being dichotomously described as being female or male.

Answer: True

• One’s biological sex may be described as being on a continuum rather than being dichotomously described as being female or male.

True or False?

• Up until age 6 or 7 years, children think they can change their gender and become the opposite sex.

Answer: True

• Up until age 6 or 7 years, children think that they can change their gender and become the opposite sex.

True or False?

• How undergraduate women view themselves is very similar to the way undergraduate men view them.

Answer: False

• What undergraduate men think about women is very different from what undergraduate women think about themselves.

Terminology of Gender Roles

• Sex• Gender • Gender identity • Gender roles• Gender role ideology

• Gender dysphoria• Transgenderism• Transgendered• Cross-dresser• Transsexuals

The Gender Role of Hunter

• Men were originally responsible for hunting and bringing meat back to the social unit for food. Women, who were nursing/caring for your children, were less mobile.

• Pg. 43

Sex

• Biological distinction between females and males.• Factors used to determine biological sex:

– Chromosomes: XX for female; XY for male– Gonads: Ovaries for female; testes for male– Hormones– Internal sex organs– External genitals

Transgender Categories

Category Biological SexSexual

Orientation

Cross-dresser Either Either

Transvestite Male Gay

Transsexual Either Either

Cross-dressing

• This heterosexual, married father of two children enjoys dressing as a woman.

• Pg. 44

Insert Video

• David Reimer: Raised as a Girl (Run Time 13:26)

Gender Differences in Beliefs About Women

Unmarried women aged 30 years:

% Men Believing

% Women Believing

Are unhappy/depressed 16.3% 6.2%

Women assume men are mind–readers

55.4% 40.8%

Women are controlling 58.2% 36.4%

Red-haired women are fiery and saucy

23.7% 9.2%

Gender Differences in Beliefs About Women

Unmarried women aged 30 years:

% Men Believing

% Women Believing

Women want marriage, not cohabitation

84.0% 68.2%

Women love money 16.7% 3.5%

Women are possessive 52.1% 32.9%

Women are manipulative 58.3% 33.3%

Question

• Which of the following refers to the biological distinction between females and males?

A. role characterization

B. sex

C. gender

D. Sexology

Answer: B

• Sex refers to the biological distinction between females and males.

Theories of Gender Role Development

• Sociobiology• Social Learning• Identification• Cognitive-Developmental Theory

Theories of Gender Role Development

• Sociobiology (Biosocial) – Emphasizes that social behavior and

gender roles have a biological basis in terms of being functional in human evolution.

Theories of Gender Role Development

• Social Learning– Derived from the school of behavioral

psychology.– Emphasizes the roles of reward and

punishment in explaining how a child learns gender role behavior.

Theories of Gender Role Development

• Identification – Children acquire the characteristics and

behaviors of their same-sex parent through a process of identification.

Theories of Gender Role Development

• Cognitive-Developmental Theory – Reflects a blend of biological and social

learning views. – The biological readiness, in terms of

cognitive development, of the child influences how the child responds to gender cues in the environment.

Question

• Which theory emphasizes the role of reward and punishment in explaining how a child learns gender role behavior?

A. gender role transcendence

B. identification

C. cognitive-developmental theory

D. social learning theory

Answer: D

• Social learning theory emphasizes the role of reward and punishment in explaining how a child learns gender role behavior.

Agents of Socialization

• Sources influencing gender socialization:– Family– Race/Ethnicity– Peers– Religion– Education– Economy– Mass Media

Gender Roles: Women in Afghanistan under the Taliban

• Afghan women go uneducated, become child brides, produce children, and rarely expect their daughters’ lives to be different.

Gender Roles: Chinese-Americans

• As a result of immigration, industrialization, and urbanization, gender roles of Chinese-Americans have become more egalitarian.

• Both women and men are now breadwinners, which has resulted in the “downward shift of the husband’s occupational status” with more sharing of housework.

Gender Roles: Punjab, Pakistan

• Pakistani women reported that they had limited control over their lives, as evidenced by the expectation of early marriage, quick conception, and limited access to contraceptives.

• The women also expressed a strong preference for sons, which reflected women’s subordinate position in society.

Gender Roles: Sweden

• The Swedish government is strongly concerned with equality between women and men.

• In 1974 Sweden became the first country in the world to introduce a system that enables mothers and fathers to share parental leave (paid by the government) from their jobs in any way they choose.

Gender Roles: Africa

• Many African women who believe in and desire better lives will not call themselves “feminists” for fear of social censure.

• Change for people whose lives are based on tradition and “fitting in” can be very traumatic.

Question

• The social norms that dictate what is socially regarded as appropriate female and male behaviors make up one's

A. gender roles.

B. gender identity.

C. sex roles.

D. socialization.

Answer: A

• The social norms that dictate what is socially regarded as appropriate female and male behaviors make up one's gender roles.

Consequences of Traditional Gender Role Socialization

Negative• Less education/income• High HIV Infection Risk• Negative self-concept• Value defined by beauty• Less marital

satisfaction; no “wife” at home

Positive• Longer life• Closer mother-child

bond• Greater emotionality• Identity not tied to job• Greater relationship

focus

Women’s and Men’s Median Income with Similar Education

Bachelor’s Master’sDoctoral Degree

Men $50,916 $61,698 $73,853

Women $31,309 $41,334 $53,003

Feminization of Poverty

• Disproportionate percentage of poverty experienced by women living alone or with their children.

• Poverty contributes to teen pregnancy, since teens have limited supervision and few alternatives to parenthood.

• Early childbearing interferes with education and restricts earning capacity.

• Offspring are born into poverty, and the cycle repeats.

Female Genital Mutilation

• Surgical procedures involving partial or total removal of the external genitalia or other injuries to the female genitalia for cultural or other non-therapeutic reasons.

• Parents believe female circumcision makes their daughters marketable for marriage.

• Many daughters view it as a rite of passage.

Consequences of Traditional Male Role Socialization

Negative Consequences Positive Consequences

Identity tied to work role Higher income and job status

Limited emotionality More positive self-concept

Fear of intimacy Less job discrimination

Disadvantaged in getting custody

Freedom of movement, more partners to select from

Shorter life Happier marriage

Gender Role Socialization and Relationship Choices for Women

• A woman who is not socialized to pursue an education may feel pressure to stay in an unhappy relationship.

• Women who are socialized to not initiate relationships are limiting interactions that could develop into valued relationships.

• Women who are socialized to accept that they are less valuable than men are less likely to achieve egalitarian relationships.

Gender Role Socialization and Relationship Choices for Women

• Women who view their worth in terms of age and appearance are likely to feel bad about themselves as they age.

• Women who are socialized to accept that they are solely responsible for taking care of their parents, children, and husband are likely to experience role overload.

• Women who are socialized to emphasize the importance of relationships will seek relationships that are emotionally satisfying.

Gender Role Socialization and Relationship Choices for Men

• Men who are socialized to define themselves in terms of their income leave their self-esteem vulnerable should they become unemployed.

• Men who are socialized to restrict their expression of emotions are denied the opportunity interpersonal sharing.

• Men who are socialized to believe it is not their role to participate in domestic activities will not be competent in these life skills.

Gender Role Socialization and Relationship Choices for Men

• Heterosexual men who focus on cultural definitions of female beauty overlook potential partners.

• Men who are socialized to view women who initiate relationships negatively are restricted in their relationship opportunities.

• Men who are socialized to be in control of relationship encounters may alienate their partners, who may desire equal influence in relationships.

Androgyny

• A blend of traits stereotypically associated with masculinity and femininity.– Physiological androgyny refers to

intersexed individuals.– Behavioral androgyny refers to the

blending or reversal of traditional male and female behavior, so a biological male may be gentle, and nurturing and a biological female may be assertive and selfish.

Androgyny

• This androgynous person has physical features of both a woman and a man.

• Pg. 65

Positive Androgyny

• Devoid of the negative traits of masculinity:– aggression, hard-heartedness,

indifference, selfishness, showing off, vindictiveness

• Devoid of the negative traits of femininity:– being passive, submissive, temperamental,

fragile

INSERT VIDEO

• 5. Asexuality? (Run time: 4:34)

Question

• Which term refers to a blend of traits that is associated with masculinity and femininity?

A. gender orientation

B. hermaphroditism

C. transgendered

D. androgyny

Answer: D

• Androgyny refers to a blend of traits associated with masculinity and femininity.