chapter 17 creating sustainable cities, suburbs, and towns...

19
The Endangered Global Commons The Effects of Climate and Topography on Air Pollution The Effects of Air Pollution Air Pollution Control: Toward a Sustainable Strategy Noise: The Forgotten Pollutant Indoor Air Pollution Spotlight on Sustainable Development 20-1: Germany's Sustainable Approach Pays Huge Dividends 20.1 20.1 20.1 20.1 20.1 20.1 20.1 CHAPTER OUTLINE CHAPTER 17 T his book presents a systems approach to environmental protection. One of its goals is to show how principles of sustainability derived from the study of ecology and other areas can be used to restruc- ture human systems such as energy, transportation, waste manage- ment, and housing to protect the natural systems that support our Creating Sustainable Cities, Suburbs, and Towns: Sustainable Community Development and Environmental Protection Cities and Towns as Networks of Systems Land-Use Planning and Sustainability Shifting to a Sustainable Transportation System Spotlight on Sustainable Development 17-1: Cohousing: Building a Community Spotlight on Sustainable Development 17-2: Curitiba, Brazil—A City with a Sustainable Vision Spotlight on Sustainable Development 17-3: Car Sharing: On the Road— Cheaper and Greener Spotlight on Sustainable Development 17-4: Masdar City: A Solar Oasis 17.3 17.2 17.1 The optimist proclaims that we live in the best of all possible worlds, and the pessimist fears this is true. —J.B. Cabell 365

Upload: others

Post on 21-Oct-2020

1 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

TRANSCRIPT

  • The Endangered GlobalCommonsThe Effects of Climate and Topography on AirPollutionThe Effects of AirPollutionAir Pollution Control:Toward a SustainableStrategyNoise: The ForgottenPollutantIndoor Air PollutionSpotlight on SustainableDevelopment 20-1:Germany's SustainableApproach Pays HugeDividends

    20.1

    20.1

    20.1

    20.1

    20.1

    20.1

    20.1

    CHAPTER OUTLINE

    CHAPTER 17

    T his book presents a systems approach to environmental protection.One of its goals is to show how principles of sustainability derivedfrom the study of ecology and other areas can be used to restruc-ture human systems such as energy, transportation, waste manage-ment, and housing to protect the natural systems that support our

    Creating SustainableCities, Suburbs, andTowns: SustainableCommunity Developmentand EnvironmentalProtection

    Cities and Towns asNetworks of SystemsLand-Use Planning andSustainabilityShifting to a SustainableTransportation System

    Spotlight on SustainableDevelopment 17-1:Cohousing: Building aCommunitySpotlight on SustainableDevelopment 17-2:Curitiba, Brazil—A Citywith a Sustainable VisionSpotlight on SustainableDevelopment 17-3: CarSharing: On the Road—Cheaper and GreenerSpotlight on SustainableDevelopment 17-4: MasdarCity: A Solar Oasis

    17.3

    17.2

    17.1

    The optimist proclaims that we live in the best of all possibleworlds, and the pessimist fears this is true.

    —J.B. Cabell

    365

  • CRITICAL THINKING

    ExerciseIn a speech to a group of business executives,one opponent of the U.S. Clean Air Act notedthat natural sources of air pollution such asvolcanoes often exceed human sources. Be-cause of this he argued that air pollution con-trol legislation was misguided. He went on tosay that he supported efforts in the U.S. Con-gress to weaken air pollution legislation be-cause it was not only unnecessary but alsohurt the economy. Regulations, he claimed,cost jobs and reduced the nation's productiv-ity. Analyze this premise, using your criticalthinking skills and your knowledge of air pollution.

    366 PART IV. Resource Issues: Solutions for a Sustainable Society

    CRITICAL THINKING

    ExerciseHydrogen is a fuel that receives a lot of atten-tion from the media these days, and many peo-ple, including politicians, are touting hydrogenas a potential fuel source for automobiles,trucks, and busses. They point out that hydro-gen is made from an abundant and renewableresource, water, by simply running electricitythrough water. This causes the water moleculesto split. Hydrogen can then be burned or intro-duced into a fuel cell that uses the hydrogen togenerate electricity. When this occurs, the hy-drogen combines with oxygen in the air toform water once again. The process producesno pollution, say proponents.

    Analyze hydrogen as a fuel, and presentyour thoughts on the wisdom of pursuing hy-drogen as a transportation fuel. You may wantto do some research on hydrogen to learnmore about it. How much energy does it taketo make it? Would it be more efficient to usethe electricity needed to split water mole-cules directly to power cars?

    lives and to ensure a long, prosperous human pres-ence. Chapter 2 made the case for this new ap-proach to environmental protection. (If you haven’tread them, you may want to do so now.)

    This book also presents many ideas on waysto create nature-compatible designs to permithumans to thrive within the limits of the natu-ral world. These new designs could allow humancivilization to prosper without disrupting nutrientcycles, climate, wildlife, and natural environments.In fact, they could even enhance the environ-ment, our life support system, and the source ofall human wealth.

    Table 17-1 lists the humansystems that were discussedin Chapter 2. In Part IV, thechapters reviewed natural re-source issues and solutions,highlighting ways to restruc-ture systems such as energy,water supply, and agricultureto resolve resource issues based

    on the operating principles of sustainability. Al-though restructuring human systems and the globaleconomy are essential to protect the environmentand build a sustainable future, the task will not beeasy, inexpensive, or quickly executed. The chap-ter you are about to read presents some additionalideas on sustainable systems. It addresses land useand transportation.

    Cities and Towns as Networksof Systems

    Think of the city or town you live in. It consists of people andthe built environment—streets, shopping centers, officebuildings, and schools. Look a little harder, though, and youwill see the city or town as a network of interdependent hu-man systems. There’s a transportation system, consisting ofroads and highways, gas stations, automobiles, buses, trucks,and airports. There’s an energy system, consisting of gas sta-tions, power plants, underground pipes that carry natural gas,and power lines that transmit electricity. There’s most likelyan elaborate system of water supply, consisting of deep wellsor dams and reservoirs, water treatment plants, and an ex-tensive set of pipes under the streets to transport water tohomes, factories, businesses, schools, government offices, carwashes, and parks. There’s a waste management system aswell. It consists of thousands of generators of waste—homes,factories, office buildings, and copy shops that produce mil-lions of tons of waste each year. It also consists of ways to dealwith waste, such as recycling centers, waste-to-energy plantsthat burn garbage, landfills in which waste is buried, sewagetreatment plants, and hazardous waste facilities.

    These networks of systems are designed to meet ourneeds for raw materials, finished goods, and services. Theyalso get rid of the mountains of waste produced by humansociety. Some futurists believe that making cities sustain-able will require a restructuring of these systems. Virtuallyevery aspect of city or town life will need to be rethought andredesigned, although not everyone agrees that this is neces-sary or, if they do, about how this should be accomplished.

    KEY CONCEPTS

    The Invisibility of Human SystemsAlthough there has been a lot of progress in the last fourdecades in environmental protection, many problems areworsening. As pointed out earlier, the vast majority of thetrends are leading us away from a sustainable existence. Itmay be hard for people to accept the assertion that human

    Cities and towns consist of numerous systems, such as energy,housing, and transportation, that many experts think are largelyunsustainable. Making our living environment sustainable willrequire us to redesign human systems to protect natural systemsthat support us.

    17.1

    Table 17-1Human Systems

    EnergyTransportationWaste managementWaterIndustryAgriculture

  • CHAPTER 17: Creating Sustainable Cities, Suburbs, and Towns 367

    FIGURE 17-1 The kitchen is more than a place to cook.The kitchen is an integral part of several key systems. Canyou name them? How do natural systems support the hu-man systems?

    society and the systems it depends on are unsus-tainable. Throughout this book you have seen manystatistics that support this conclusion. As has beenpointed out in previous chapters, pollution, speciesextinction, global warming, and a host of other en-vironmental problems aren’t mere surface woundsthat can be fixed with Band-Aids; they’re symptomsof deeper problems, most notably overpopulationand unsustainable human systems.

    Why is it hard to grasp the problem with hu-man systems? For much of the past 60 years, en-vironmentalists, policymakers, teachers, andresearchers have focused most of their attentionon solutions that address the symptoms of the en-vironmental crisis. Very little attention has been fo-cused on human systems and their fundamentalunsustainability. The basicassumption has been that ifwe solve the immediate prob-lems, we’ll be all right. A lit-tle change here and there willcut pollution and reduce thenegative effects on peopleand other living creatures.

    Another important fac-tor is that for most peoplesystems are invisible. That is, they were designed to oper-ate with minimal bother to us (FIGURE 17-1). The fact thatwe don’t think about systems very much is a tribute to theengineers who designed them. In fact, it’s generally onlywhen a system breaks down that we notice it exists.

    We turn on a light switch, and electricity surges throughthe wires. We turn on the faucet, and out comes drinkablewater. We go to the grocery store, and the shelves are packedwith food. We pull up to the gas station, and there’s plentyof fuel. We’re aware of light switches, faucets, and gas pumps,but we’re fairly ignorant about the rest of the systems. If webarely recognize their existence, how can we be concernedabout them?

    KEY CONCEPTS

    Performance Versus Sustainability:Understanding a Crucial DifferenceAnother obstacle in the way of understanding the premisethat human systems are unsustainable has to do with thedistinction between performance and endurance. For most

    Most efforts to solve environmental problems have focused ontreating symptoms rather than on rethinking and revampingthe systems that are at the root of the problems. Most peopleare unaware of the systems that support our lives until theybreak down.

    of us, the systems work well. The important distinction hereis that just because a system is supplying us with the serviceswe need doesn’t mean that it is sustainable. For example,just because the world’s fishing fleet is producing over 90 mil-lion tons of fish each year does not mean that this amountis a sustainable harvest level. In fact, this level of fish catchis severely depleting key fisheries, and we are headed formajor shortages in the near future. The same is true withvirtually all human systems.

    KEY CONCEPTS

    Why Are Human SystemsUnsustainable?Although it is difficult to determine the carrying capacityof the planet—that is, how many people it can support—itis easy to find evidence that we are exceeding it. Globalwarming, species extinction, land devastation, soil erosion,desertification, food shortages, and other problems are signsthat we are exceeding the capacity of the Earth to support hu-man life—and other life-forms as well.

    These problems are partly a result of the massive size ofthe world population, but also a result of the design of thesystems that support our lives. A system of energy based onefficiency and clean, renewable sources, for example, wouldhave a fraction of the environmental impact of the presentsystem (Chapters 14 and 15). A system of agriculture basedon minimum tillage, crop rotation, soil conservationmeasures, and natural pesticides would be able to feed the

    Just because a system such as energy or manufacturing ap-pears to be functioning well does not mean it is sustainable inthe long run.

    GO GREEN

    One way to reduce your impacton the environment is to growyour food—or some of it—af-ter you graduate or right now.You can even help your familystart a vegetable garden.

  • 368 PART IV. Resource Issues: Solutions for a Sustainable Society

    world’s people with muchless impact on water, wildlife,and soils. Both could endurefor many centuries, too.

    The present systems areunsustainable because theyproduce waste and pollutionin excess of the Earth’s capacity to absorb them. They end uppoisoning us and other species. They change the climate.They adversely change the chemistry of rainfall. They’vecontributed to the present depletion of the ozone layer. Theydeplete both renewable and nonrenewable resources uponwhich our future depend.

    Why do they do all of these things? As noted in Chap-ter 3, most systems are inefficient. They do not recycle or userecycled materials. They depend primarily on nonrenew-able energy. They destroy but do not restore.

    KEY CONCEPTS

    The Challenge of Creating SustainableCities and TownsCities and towns are a lot like the bird colonies that dot therocky coastlines of many continents (FIGURE 17-2). Birdcolonies are nesting and resting sites where large num-bers of birds of the same species aggregate. They are alsosites of enormous waste production and enormous foodconsumption—just like cities. But food for the colony andthe city does not come from the immediate vicinity. Itcomes from neighboring ecosystems.

    To be sustainable, cities and towns must have a lastingsupply of resources. Proper resource management is there-fore essential to the survival and sustainability of this patternof habitation. Many changes can also be made in cities to en-sure their sustainability. These changes are all designed tolessen resource demand and waste production while ensur-ing we meet our needs.

    The challenge facing humankind is twofold. First, wemust revamp existing infrastructure. Second, we must buildnew infrastructure in a sustainable fashion. Consider thetask of revamping existing infrastructure first—the so-calledredevelopment strategy.

    One of the first steps in reducing resource demandand pollution is to make all buildings much more efficientin their use of energy—electricity, fuel oil, and natural gas(Chapter 15). We can make buildings much more effi-cient by sealing air leaks in the walls, adding insulation,and by replacing worn-out heating systems with newermore efficient ones. We can also find ways to increase theirdependence on renewable energy. For example, we can addphotovoltaic systems to generate electricity or add solar

    Human systems are unsustainable because they exceed the carrying capacity of the Earth. They produce pollution in excessof the planet’s ability to absorb it, use renewable resourcesfaster than they can be replenished, and deplete nonrenew-able resources.

    hot water panels for domes-tic hot water and space heat-ing (FIGURE 17-3). We canadd low-flush toilets andwater-efficient showerheads,faucets, and appliances toreduce resource demand. We can use recycled paint orlow-toxicity paints. The list goes on.

    Similar actions must be taken in transportation, hous-ing, agriculture, waste management, and other systems—and are detailed in this book. Especially important are effortsto reduce urban sprawl, the continual expansion of humancommunities into farmlands and wildlands that provide vi-tal resources required for our long-term economic health

    FIGURE 17-2 Colonies and cities. (a) Bird colony. (b) City.Cities resemble bird colonies in many ways. They are areas of in-tense activity where resources from outlying areas are consumed.They are also areas of concentrated waste production.

    (a)

    (b)

    GO GREEN

    Recycling saves energy and re-sources. Recycle everything youcan. Buy recycled goods, likerecycled paper, too.

    GO GREEN

    To save water and energy andreduce pollution, take shortershowers.

  • and survival. This topic is discussed in Spotlight on Sustain-able Development 9-1 and in Chapter 10 on agriculture andChapter 11 on preserving biological diversity.

    Redevelopment is a vital but often overlooked strategyfor sustainable development, in large part because so muchinfrastructure is already in place and because billions and bil-lions of dollars have been invested in it. It is imperative thatwe make this infrastructure as sustainable as possible. Tensof millions of single-family homes and apartment buildingsand millions of businesses are currently in use and are primetargets for sustainable redevelopment.

    The second challenge—designing and building new in-frastructure to be as sustainable as possible—takes placewhen systems need replacement or require expansion. Toexpand a transportation system in an urban environment, forexample, cities can install light rail systems rather thanadding new lanes to existing highways. New housing couldbe constructed from recycled products and would beequipped with a host of resource-saving devices so that newhouses use only a quarter of the raw materials of existinghouses. Rather than adding a landfill, a city could expand itsrecycling facilities to handle waste.

    Specifics of these two prescribed actions are outlinedin chapters on energy, waste, water, forestry, mining, and airpollution. The reader should refer to those chapters forspecifics. In this chapter, we look primarily at land-use plan-ning and transportation, which are not covered elsewhere.

    KEY CONCEPTSTwo challenges face existing communities: revamping existinginfrastructure and building new infrastructure in as sustainablea manner as possible.

    Land-Use Planning and Sustainability

    A city or town is home to many different activities, somethat conflict with one another: for example, housing andfactories. For many years, cities and towns the world overhave engaged in land-use planning to ensure that incompat-ible activities are kept apart. Land-use plans, for example, setup industrial zones and residential zones. Besides determin-ing where people can live and do business, land-use plans es-tablish sites for water pipes, electrical lines, roads, andshopping malls. In some countries, land-use planning hasbeen fashioned in a way to prevent or reduce sprawl.

    KEY CONCEPTS

    Sustainable Land-Use Planning: Ending SprawlSustainable land-use planning seeks to accomplish the samegoals as land-use planning, notably separating humans fromunsightly, noisy, and potentially dangerous activities. But italso attempts to achieve more efficient use of the land—inother words, to create patterns of land use that minimize theconversion of farmland and wildlands to asphalt, concrete,and lawn. That is, it strives to prevent or control sprawl. Thishelps to preserve farmland, recreational areas, wetlands, sce-nic views, watersheds, aquifer recharge zones, and wildlifehabitat—retaining aesthetic values and ecological services. Therationale for saving these lands has been discussed in Chap-ters 9 through 11.

    Sustainable land-use planning also entails efforts to co-ordinate key uses such as housing, business, and transporta-tion development. Ultimately, land-use planning seeks thebest for people, the economy, and the environment. It can infact improve economies by reducing the loss of productivefarmlands, by reducing air pollution and costly health prob-lems, and by making the provision of government servicessuch as police and fire protection more efficient. It can, there-fore, create more efficient government.

    FIGURE 17-4 shows four major types of development:dispersed, compact, satellite, and corridor. Let’s examineeach one very briefly and assess its potential for promotingsustainable development.

    KEY CONCEPTS

    Dispersed Development Dispersed development occursin many cities and is commonly referred to as urban sprawl.

    Sustainable land-use planning and development seek to optimizeland use and minimize the loss of economically and ecologicallyimportant lands. They offer other benefits as well, including moreefficient mass transit, reduced air pollution, and reductions inthe cost of providing water, sewage, and other services.

    Land-use planning helps cities establish the locations of vari-ous structures and activities and keep incompatible uses apart.As conceived and practiced in most places, it doesn’t do muchfor sustainability.

    17.2

    FIGURE 17-3 A sustainable home. This solar home utilizesthree solar technologies: solar electric panels on the roofs of thegarage and house to generate electricity; solar hot water panelson the roof of the garage (left) to provide domestic hot water;and passive solar, south-facing windows that transmit sunlightfrom the low-angled winter sun for interior space heat.

    CHAPTER 17: Creating Sustainable Cities, Suburbs, and Towns 369

  • 370 PART IV. Resource Issues: Solutions for a Sustainable Society

    FIGURE 17-4 Four development patterns.These maps of the Denver metropolitanarea show four different developmentpaths: (a) dispersed development, or urbansprawl; (b) compact development, the mostsustainable alternative; (c) satellite devel-opment; and (d) corridor development.Each one has its benefits and its costs.

    Urban sprawl is the steady outward ex-pansion of urban/suburban areas thatoccurs as new housing subdivisions,highways, shopping malls, and otherforms of development spring up on theperimeter of existing cities and towns,taking over farmland, forest, and grass-land (Figure 17-4a).

    In many cities, land is already zonedfor this type of development. Disperseddevelopment, however, ranks low onthe sustainability scale. In fact, it is theleast desirable of all of the alternativesbecause it consumes lots of land. Farm-land, forests, wetlands, and grasslandsare all victims of sprawl. Because citiesare often located near prime farmland,sprawl decreases a nation’s long-termability to produce food (Chapter 10)and displaces wildlife (Chapter 11). Lossof natural habitat and replacement withpaved surfaces often increases flooding(Chapter 12). Furthermore, sprawl results in a rather hap-hazard pattern of settlement, with poor aesthetic appeal.

    Because housing spreadsout inefficiently on the land-scape, dispersed develop-ment increases vehicle travel,adding to commuting timeand increasing energy con-sumption and air pollution.Each of these has a cost. Increased commuting time meansmore time away from families and friends and less free time.Increased energy consumption, caused by the need to travelfarther to work each day, costs more in gas and wear andtear on the automobile. Air pollution takes its toll on peo-ple and the environment.

    Sprawl has other costs. Providing highways, mass tran-sit, sewers, water, and other forms of infrastructure gener-

    ally costs more than the alternative forms of development because more miles of water and sewer lines, telephone lines,and power lines must be run to supply homes and busi-nesses strewn out inefficiently across the landscape. Policeand fire protection in a sprawling urban environment is often more costly.

    KEY CONCEPTS

    Compact Development Figure 17-4b shows an alterna-tive development pattern, compact development. Rankinghighest on the sustainability scale, compact development isa denser or more compact form of development. It requires

    Dispersed development or urban sprawl is the most environmen-tally and economically unsustainable form of urban/suburbandevelopment.

    0 6

    Miles

    2 12N

    EvergreenLakewood

    Littleton

    Parker

    Aurora

    Denver

    Thornton

    Longmont

    Boulder

    I-70I-70

    I-76

    I-25

    I-25

    I-25

    US-36

    C-470

    I-70I-70

    I-76

    I-25

    US-36

    US 85

    C-470

    I-25

    I-70

    I-70

    I-76

    I-25

    US-36

    US 85

    C-470

    I-25

    I-70I-70

    I-76

    I-25

    US-36

    US 85

    C-470

    CastleRock

    (a) Dispersed development (b) Compact development

    (c) Satellite development

    Commuter railtransit

    Light railtransit

    HOV orbus lane

    Urban center 1990 Urban area 2020 Urban area

    Major highwaysand freeways

    (d) Corridor development

    GO GREEN

    To save energy and reduce pol-lution, live close to where yougo to school and work. Walk orride a bike to work, if you can.

  • the least amount of land to accommodate people and theservices they require. Because of this, it helps to preserveopen space, farmland, forests, and other ecologically andeconomically important lands surrounding a city.

    Many measures can be implemented to ensure compactdevelopment: smaller lots, more efficient placement of housesin subdivisions, an increase in the number of multifamilydwellings such as apartments and condominiums, and morecompact placement of services (shops and the like). Smallerlots mean that more houses can be located in an area.

    Some people argue that compact development meanscrowding and unpleasant living conditions, but others notethat this doesn’t have to be so. For example, in a suburb,placing houses closer to the street so that there is less frontlawn and more back lawn gives people more usable outdoorspace. Backyards can open into a common area that servesmany homes: Community swing sets and community gar-dens could be added to create a sense of community andsave resources. Narrowing the streets and using the savedspace to create larger parks can provide playgrounds andball diamonds for neighborhood children. Existing zoninglaws could be changed to allow homeowners to add smallapartments in the tradition of the carriage house to existinghomes or to convert unused space into apartments for renters.Condominiums and townhouses can accommodate far morepeople per hectare of land than single-dwelling units. Theseare ideal for singles and married couples without children orwith small families. Paying attention to soundproofing,views, privacy, access to lawns/playspace to make suchdwellings more livable can help make them a desirable op-tion for people.

    One promising development, which began in Denmarkin the 1970s, is cohousing, a residential living arrangementthat strives to create a community. Cohousing developmentsare small neighborhoods that offer many social and eco-nomic benefits, described in Spotlight on Sustainable Development 17-1.

    In many cities and towns, businesses are strewn alonghighways in highly dispersed fashion. Aggregating servicesclose to residences can cut down on driving time and makethem accessible by foot or bicycle.

    Compact development not only minimizes land use, italso reduces vehicle miles traveled and can substantially reduceenergy consumption and air pollution. Perhaps more impor-tant, dense settlement patterns are much more amenable tomass transit systems, which, as discussed in the next section,are far easier and more efficient to implement if people livecloser together. Mass transit systems use much less energy andrequire much less space to move people than automobiles do.

    Compact development is also more efficient from aneconomic perspective. First and foremost, it is much cheaperto provide people living in a more compactly designed citywith services such as fire protection, water, sewers, and otheramenities than it is to provide them if homes and businessesare dispersed over a wider area.

    Compact development, very common in Europe, creates a clear line between city and suburb and the out-lying lands. In many U.S. cities, making compact develop-

    ment occur will require changes in existing zoning andother tools such as urban growth boundaries, describedshortly.

    KEY CONCEPTS

    Corridor and Satellite Development The last two optionsare satellite development and corridor development. Satel-lite development, shown in Figure 17-4c, involves the de-velopment of outlying communities connected to themetropolitan area (the city and the surrounding suburbs) byhighways and rail lines. Although this permits people to liveoutside the city and suburbs in small towns—and can cre-ate a very desirable quality of life—it is not as advantageousfrom many perspectives as compact development. It resultsin the conversion of a fair amount of open space and farm-land. Although satellite development does not require asmuch land as dispersed development, it increases commut-ing time, energy consumption, and air pollution. Of the fouroptions, it ranks number two in sustainability.

    Corridor development, concentrating housing and busi-ness growth along major transportation corridors, is even lessdesirable (Figure 17-4d). It requires much more vehicle useto get to work and to services. It uses more energy and pro-duces more pollution than compact development. It is, how-ever, amenable to mass transit.

    Clearly, of all of the options described in this section,compact development offers the best benefits and is the mostsustainable form. When properly executed, land-use plan-ning can help us achieve a more sustainable relationshipwith the Earth. Land-use plans can protect the foundationof tomorrow’s civilization: renewable resources such as farm-land, pastures, forests, fisheries, and wild species.

    KEY CONCEPTS

    Land-Use Planning and BuildingProper land-use planning can also be carried out on asmaller scale—for example, the development of a sub-division. When applied to specific sites, land-use planstake into account the slope of the land, soil quality, waterdrainage, location of wildlife habitat, and many other fea-tures. This permits planners and developers to design withnature, rather than redesigning nature. In The Woodlands,Texas, for example, a developer placed the homes outsidethe natural drainage areas, saving millions of dollars thatwould otherwise have been required to construct stormsewers. This also left an attractive open space rich in wildlifethat local residents enjoy. Protecting natural drainage,

    Corridor and satellite development, concentrating developmentalong major traffic routes or in distant communities connectedto the metropolitan area, are more desirable than urban sprawlbut less sustainable than compact development.

    Compact development is a denser settlement pattern that offersmany environmental benefits, such as reduced land use and airpollution and increased efficiency of mass transit.

    CHAPTER 17: Creating Sustainable Cities, Suburbs, and Towns 371

  • 372 PART IV. Resource Issues: Solutions for a Sustainable Society

    wildlife areas, aquifer recharge zones, and other importantland features can reduce development costs, increase thequality of life, and help protect valuable ecological services.For more on this, see Spotlight on Sustainable Develop-ment 13-2.

    KEY CONCEPTSMany steps can be taken when building homes to protect valu-able ecological assets. These can save developers money and reduce cost.

    Statewide and Nationwide SustainableLand-Use PlanningThe Japanese provide a model that many countries couldadopt to protect their land. In 1968, the entire country wasplaced under a nationwide land-use planning program. Landswere divided into urban, agricultural, and “other” classes. Sev-eral years later, the zoning classifications were expanded toinclude forests, natural parks, and nature reserves. The suc-cess of the Japanese plan lies in protecting land from the

    SPOTLIGHT ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

    17-1 Cohousing: Building a Community

    In the past, many people lived in villages or in tightly kniturban neighborhoods. Families were familiar with people’spast histories, their talents, and weaknesses. There was asense of community that is often lacking in modern neigh-borhoods. Community provided a sense of belonging, asense of security. It was a more practical way to live, too.People helped each other, sharing the burden of everydaylife.

    In modern society, community has withered and died.Designers of modern suburbs where many of us live takespecial care to ensure privacy, rather than promote close-ness. In many neighborhoods, for example, fences line ourback yards, walling us off from contact with neighbors. Infact, few of us see our neighbors any more. If we do, it isusually just to glimpse them coming and going—driving inand out of the garage. At night, many people returningfrom work simply slip into the garage without a trace. Al-though people do socialize, it is often with friends wholive far from their homes. Given the distance that sepa-rates us, many people complain that they have to make ap-pointments to see their friends. No one just drops in to sayhello. Because there isn’t much of a community in the neigh-borhoods we live in, many people begin to feel isolated. Lifebecomes a chore.

    Disenfranchised with the lack of community in modernsociety, people throughout the world are banding togetherto recreate a sense of belonging through cohousing.

    Cohousing usually consists of houses or apartmentsclustered around a common area and a common house. Usu-ally consisting of around 30 homes or apartment dwellings,cohousing is occupied by people who planned their “devel-opment” and now manage the community they’ve devel-oped. Individuals own or rent their homes, but share in theownership of the commons. They also share in some of thework. One person, for example, might lead a committeethat plans social events. Another might organize weekendwork projects. Still another might coordinate day care.

    In cohousing, many resources are shared, too. For ex-ample, in Golden, Colorado, Harmony Village’s 27 families

    share a single lawn mower. The common house also offersa tremendous opportunity to share. In many common houses,there’s a shared laundry facility. Two washers often serve anentire community. A television room and places for kids tohang out, to play without disturbing adults, are features ofmany common houses. The common house also typicallyhas a large kitchen where community meals are prepared,sometimes every night of the week. The preparation of com-munity meals is a shared responsibility. Imagine cominghome from work to have a meal on the table and only be-ing responsible for cooking once or twice a month.

    Because of the sharing of resources, individual units aretypically downsized. Kitchens, for example, tend to be muchsmaller, more like those found in apartments. If you areplanning a big meal for friends, you book the common houseand use the larger kitchen facility.

    The common house may also have a room or two forguests, so you don’t need a spare bedroom for that once-a-year visit by mom and dad. Mechanic shops, greenhouses,gardens, and playgrounds are also shared by residents,greatly cutting down on expenses and reducing personalliving space.

    Common meals and activities help knit a community to-gether. But the initial weaving of the social fabric comes dur-ing the development of the community. In most instances,a core group of people does the planning from day 1 and seesthe project through. This involves numerous meetings anddiscussions to reach consensus. Although this is difficult atfirst, with practice, residents say it becomes much easier.In fact, many people claim that the skills they learned incohousing benefit them in both their home and work lives.

    FIGURE 1 shows the layout of cohousing. As you can see,houses face a central area, a common area, where kids canplay freely. Adults socialize in the commons, too. Cars aretypically relegated to a peripheral position, usually garages,parking lots, or carports along the outside of the commu-nity. Although the car is never more than a block or so awayfrom your home, you generally can’t park next to your home,except perhaps to deliver groceries. The walkways are made

  • market system, which, left on its own, appropriates land ir-respective of its long-term ecological value.

    Many European nations have adopted similar programs.In Belgium, France, the Netherlands, and the former WestGermany, national guidelines for land-use planning wereestablished in the 1960s. Administered by local govern-ments, they protect farmland, prevent urban sprawl, andhelp to establish greenbelts, undeveloped areas in or aroundcities and towns (FIGURE 17-5). The Netherlands has one of

    the best programs of all. Its national planning program alsogoverns water and energy use.

    Land-use planning at the federal level in the United Statesis rudimentary at best. Except for establishing national parks,wilderness areas, national forests, and wildlife preserves, thefederal government has done little to systematically protect itsland. Most zoning occurs on the community level. On the local level, planners concern themselves primarily with restrictions on land use for commercial purposes—housing

    CHAPTER 17: Creating Sustainable Cities, Suburbs, and Towns 373

    for people, not cars. As a result, cohousing is kid and pedes-trian friendly.

    The common house is usually in view of all the units incohousing. It is the heart of the community. Some co-housers have organized day care in the common house sothey can leave for work and not have to transport theirchildren to another location, saving time and money.

    Privacy is designed into all cohousing so that peoplecan satisfy this need too. In many instances, private patiosor gardens are located outside the back door. You’re notforced to socialize if you need alone time.

    Cohousing is found in rural and urban settings. It is agreat place for kids to grow up, and adults, too. It providesa rich social atmosphere.

    Cohousing is not a new idea byany stretch of the imagination. Itbegan in Denmark in the 1970s.The pioneers in cohousing sought tocreate a child-friendly atmosphereand opportunity to share some dailyfunctions. Since that time, hun-dreds of new communities havesprung up in Europe, Canada, andthe United States. Most are organ-ized around the idea of community.However, a growing number of com-munities have been formed to createa more environmentally responsibleway of living. In Nyland Cohousingin Lafayette, Colorado, the homeswere designed and built to conserveenergy and use solar energy for

    heating. Environmentallyfriendly building materials,were used, too. In Denmark,several cohousing develop-ments have incorporatedpassive solar design andwind energy to generateelectricity.

    Cohousing is growing rapidly and is bound to increasein years to come. Being a more compact form of develop-ment, in which some space is often devoted to habitatpreservation, cohousing is not only good for people, it isgood for the planet.

    GO GREEN

    Take a break from your studiesand visit a local cohousingcommunity. You can find onenear you by visiting the co-housing association web site.

    FIGURE 1 An architectural sketch of thelayout of a typical cohousing community.

  • 374 PART IV. Resource Issues: Solutions for a Sustainable Society

    developments and industrial development. Because of theUnited States’ reliance on community-level planning, states are a patchwork quilt of conflicting rules and regulations.Some people believe that statewide land-use planning is needed.

    Statewide land-use planning is an idea that is slow incoming. Oregon passed such a program in the early 1970s,discussed in Spotlight on Sustainable Development 9-1.Noteworthy programs now exist in Maine, New Jersey,Florida, Vermont, Washington, and Hawaii.

    KEY CONCEPTS

    Beyond ZoningThe main tool of land-use planning for years has been zon-ing regulations, which classify land according to use. Zon-ing can protect farmland and other lands from urbandevelopment. In rural Black Hawk County in Iowa, for in-stance, zoning laws prohibit housing developments on primefarmland, but permit them on lands with lower productivity.

    New approaches are also being adopted to protect valu-able land, especially farmland. One public policy tool is thedifferential tax rate. This allows city officials to tax differ-ent lands at different rates. Farmland is taxed at a lower ratethan housing developments, making it more economical tofarm—and encouraging farmers to hold onto their landsrather than sell them to developers.

    Another technique that helps farmers keep their land in-stead of selling it to developers is the purchase of developmentrights. A development right is a fee paid to a farmer to preventthe land from being “developed,” that is, being bulldozed,paved, and built on. To determine the cost of a developmentright, two assessments of the land are made, one of its value asfarmland and one of its value for development. The difference

    Many states and nations have land-use planning that minimizesurban sprawl.

    between the two is the development right. State or local gov-ernments may buy the development rights from the farmerand hold them in perpetuity. From then on, the land must beused for farming, no matter how many times it changes hands.

    Still another way to reduce the spread of human popu-lations onto valuable land is by making growth pay its ownway. This idea calls on developers and new businesses topay the cost of new schools, highways, water lines, sewerlines, police protection, and other forms of infrastructureneeded as communities expand. The rationale is that thecost of new development should be passed on to those whoprofit from it, not to existing residents. A new home thuscomes with a development fee attached, which the newhomeowner pays.

    This not only keeps local taxes from rising to subsidize newdevelopment, it encourages builders to locate new housingprojects closer to existing schools, water lines, and highways.This, in turn, reduces sprawl and reduces the destruction offarmland and other ecologically important sites. Developmentfees might also encourage developers to install water-efficientfixtures and pay for water efficiency measures in existing homesand businesses, thus preventing an increase in demand.

    Open space—fields, forests, and other valuable lands—can also be purchased and set aside for wildlife or designedfor mixed use—that is, as parks in which people and wildlifecan coexist. Open space acquisition is practiced in many ar-eas. In some counties, a small sales tax raises millions ofdollars to purchase land. In others, real estate transfer fees(a tax paid when houses and land are bought and sold) areused to buy open space. Although these methods raise muchmoney, open-space lands often command a premium price.

    KEY CONCEPTS

    Land-Use Planning in the LessDeveloped NationsUrban sprawl is a major problem in the less developed na-tions. In fact, millions of hectares of farmland are destroyedeach year by expanding urban centers. Land-use planning istherefore as essential in the less developed countries as in theindustrial nations.

    In some areas, land reform is badly needed. Wealthylandowners in many Latin American countries, for example,graze their cattle in rich valleys while peasants scratch outa living on the erodible hillsides. Hilly terrain that should beprotected from erosion is being torn up by plows and washedaway by rainfall. Some argue that sensible land use hinges onreform of these outdated landholding systems.

    These are just a handful of ideas that could help reshapegovernment policy to foster sustainability. Combined withmany other ideas given in previous chapters—to promote sus-tainable ethics, revamp economics, and reshape unsustain-able systems—they could form a national framework for

    Many methods can help promote sustainable land-use patterns,including zoning, differential tax rates, purchase of develop-ment rights, making growth pay its own way, and open space ac-quisition.

    FIGURE 17-5 The greenbelt. This aerial photograph of Boulder,Colorado shows the greenbelt that surrounds the town, preservingvaluable farms and open space and creating a more aesthetic liv-ing environment.

  • dramatically realigning human systems to steer us onto asustainable course.

    KEY CONCEPTS

    Shifting to a SustainableTransportation System

    In 1950, the global automobile fleet numbered only 50 mil-lion; in 1998, the number was 508 million. In 2010, it hadclimbed to around 750 million. Americans are among the most avid automobile users on the planet. Each year,Americans travel more than 4.16 trillion kilometers (2.6 tril-lion miles) in their automobiles—the equivalent of more than13 round trips to the sun, 149 million kilometers (93 mil-lion miles) away.

    In the United States, over 200 million automobiles arecurrently on the road. This impressive total results from anumber of factors, among them inefficient land-use plan-ning (that results in urban sprawl) and inadequate masstransit systems. Affluence and the expansive nature of thecountry also contribute to America’s having the highest percapita auto ownership on the planet. In the United States,automobile travel accounts for 90% of the motorized passen-ger transport. In Europe, where mass transit is much betterdeveloped and where cities are more compact, the auto stillaccounts for 78% of the passenger transport.

    Air travel is another major component of modern trans-portation. World air travel has grown rapidly in the past fivedecades from 28 billion passenger kilometers per year tonearly 3720 billion today (FIGURE 17-6). Besides carryingpeople, jets also carry huge amounts of freight. Unfortu-nately, the rising demand for air travel comes at an increas-ingly high environmental cost. Aviation consumes at least 5%of the world’s oil each year. It is also the most polluting formof transport per kilometer traveled. According to the World-

    17.3

    Land-use planning and land reform are also essential to creat-ing sustainable land-use patterns in the developing nations.

    watch Institute, a single DC 10 flight from Los Angeles toTokyo emits 266 tons of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide.The Worldwatch Institute points out that aviation currentlyaccounts for 3% of global human carbon dioxide emissionsand 2% of global nitrogen dioxide emissions, but these fig-ures could rise to 11% and 6%, respectively, by the year 2050if global air travel continues to increase as projected.

    Today, more than 30% of the energy Americans consumeis used by the transportation sector, and much of that pow-ers our automobiles and jet aircraft. But are automobiles andjets sustainable forms of transportation?

    Many observers believe that the answer to this ques-tion is no. The planet cannot absorb the pollutants producedby them. As the number of cars and jets expands and as thenumber of miles traveled each year increases, air pollutionis bound to worsen. Oil spills could increase as the amountof oil being shipped increases. Atmospheric carbon dioxidelevels are bound to rise as the combustion of fossil fuels in-creases. Acid deposition and urban pollution, both causedin large part by pollutants in automobile exhaust, could ex-pand and threaten the health of people and ecosystems. Ur-ban congestion, already at headache levels in many cities, isbound to worsen. Declining oil supplies also make the auto-mobile and jet aircraft unsustainable. Road construction andmaintenance are also quite costly. And tens of thousands ofpeople are killed and injured each year in automobile acci-dents just in the United States.

    Clearly, even though they provide us with great joy andmobility and are an important aspect of our economy, auto-mobiles come with a huge price tag. So do jets. What can bedone to shift to a more sustainable transportation system?Will the automobile continue to play a predominant role? Willjet aircraft travel continue to rise? The shift to a sustainablesystem of transportation will very likely occur in phases.

    KEY CONCEPTS

    Phase 1: The Move Toward EfficientVehicles and Alternative FuelsThe first step in the transi-tion to a sustainable trans-portation system will be animprovement in efficiency, achange that has already be-gun. Improving fuel effi-ciency has several benefitsessential to sustainability.First, it helps stretch oil supplies, providing time for the de-velopment of sustainable fuels and sustainable modes oftransportation. Second, it reduces air pollution. The more ef-ficient a vehicle is, the less pollution it produces. Third, it re-duces the need to drill for and transport oil. Important as they

    Automobiles are a major component of the global transportationsystem. Declining oil supplies, congestion in urban areas, regionalair pollution problems, and global climate change are problemsassociated with their use that are likely to help stimulate a shiftto a more sustainable transportation system.

    Bill

    ion

    pass

    enge

    r-ki

    lom

    eter

    s

    0

    3000

    2000

    2500

    3500

    1500

    1000

    500

    1990 20001980197019601950

    FIGURE 17-6 World air travel. More and more people are travel-ing by air these days, one of the most energy-inefficient modes oftransportation.

    GO GREEN

    To promote renewable energyand reduce pollution, considerbuying a car that can run onethanol or biodiesel or straightvegetable oil.

    CHAPTER 17: Creating Sustainable Cities, Suburbs, and Towns 375

  • 376 PART IV. Resource Issues: Solutions for a Sustainable Society

    are, efficiency gains could easily be offset by both the risingnumber of vehicles on the road and the increasing numberof miles people are driving each year.

    What is happening to fuel efficiency in the United States?In 1982, the average new American automobile got about 9 kilometers per liter of gasoline (22 miles per gallon). By1992, the average fleet mileage had edged up to 11.9 kilome-ters per liter (about 28 mpg). But progress stagnated in the1990s and 2000s because of heavy pressure on Congressfrom auto manufacturers interested in selling minivans,trucks, and sport-utility vehicles. Sales of these relativelyinefficient, but highly popular vehicles, are more profitablethan energy-efficient vehicles. Today, minivans, trucks, andsport-utility vehicles account for about two-thirds of all newcar sales in the country. Because of this trend, in 2007, theaverage gas mileage of new vehicles in the United States fellto 19.8 mpg. Efforts to increase fuel economy have reversedthe downward trend. In 2010, the average fuel economy fornew vehicles was set at 27.5 mpg and thanks to the Obamaadministration will rise to 35.5 mpg by 2016.

    Creating More Fuel-EfficientCars and Better HighwaySystems Improvements in gasoline mileage can beachieved by many differenttechniques that can be com-bined to produce safe, light-weight, and extremelyefficient vehicles. Engine re-design, for instance, can improve fuel efficiency. Improve-ments in aerodynamics—how the air flows over a movingvehicle—can also improve efficiency, as can lightweightmaterials such as the new foams and plastics. Space-agematerials and air bags can increase the safety of the smaller,more energy-efficient vehicles. The alleged dangers of smallercars could also be mitigated by tougher drunk-driving laws,enforcement of speed limits, and better driver education.

    California has been a catalyst for many of the changesoccurring in automobile design. In 2004, the California AirResources Board released a proposal for regulations thatwould decrease greenhouse gas emissions from autos by 1%to 2% statewide by 2009. The state was sued by a consortiumof auto manufacturers, but their suit was rejected in courtin 2007. In 2005, California’s Governor Schwarzenegger signedan executive order committing the state to reduce carbondioxide emission by 25% by 2020 and 80% by 2050.

    Some auto manufacturers have responded admirably tothe challenge. In 1998, for example, Honda released a nat-ural gas version of the Civic whose emissions are so clean theydon’t register on emission test equipment. As noted in Chap-ter 15, hybrid cars are now being sold by many auto manu-facturers, domestic and foreign. These vehicles have small gasoline-powered piston engines combined with electricmotors, which are controlled by an on-board computer. Inthe Toyota Prius, the electric motors are used to power thevehicle at slow speeds (FIGURE 17-7). The gas engine is usedfor higher speeds. These new vehicles are getting around

    40 to 50 miles per gallon, but further improvements couldgreatly increase the gasoline mileage.

    Two promising developments are the plug-in hybridand electric car, discussed in Chapter 15. Besides increasingefficiency of vehicles by improving engines and automobileaerodynamics, engineers are studying ways to change theway cars are driven. Imagine climbing into your car, punch-ing your destination into the computer, and then sittingback to read the newspaper. This is the dream of some tech-nologists who are working on cars that drive themselves.The experimental models are either equipped with on-boardcomputers that sense the sides of the road and traffic and keepthe car in its lane or sensors that pick up a signal from a wireembedded in the highway. One of the chief benefits of thisstrategy would be that traffic would move more smoothly andmore efficiently, reducing commuting time and pollution.

    Another innovation is the use of computers to unjamcongestion. Currently, engineers are using computers to un-derstand and eliminate some of the factors that cause traf-fic congestion. These analyses are also helping cities to designhighways to reduce congestion. Better controlled trafficlights and electronic signs that provide information to driv-ers to guide them toward better choices could reduce com-muting time and prevent congestion.

    KEY CONCEPTS

    Creating More Efficient Aircraft Aircraft manufacturershave made significant strides in improving fuel efficiency.Concerns over the impact of aviation and desires to reduce

    More efficient cars are part of the first phase of the transitionto a sustainable energy system. Improvements in engines andautomobile aerodynamics are key elements of this effort. Com-puter systems that operate cars automatically, monitor trafficand signal congestion, and permit designers to create more ef-ficient highways are also key to the success of these efforts.

    FIGURE 17-7 This five-passenger hybrid vehicle boasts outstandinggas mileage and low emissions. It runs on gasoline and electricitybut never needs to be plugged in. Hybrid trucks, sedans, vans, andSUVs are gaining in popularity and could help us bide time to de-velop alternative transportation fuels and modes of transportation.

    GO GREEN

    When traveling long distance,consider taking the train or bus.Both options use less energyand produce less pollution perpassenger mile than an auto-mobile.

  • CHAPTER 17: Creating Sustainable Cities, Suburbs, and Towns 377

    costs have led manufacturers such as Boeing/McDonnellDouglas and General Electric to take measures to improveefficiency in jet engines. In large part because of their ef-forts, today’s new jets use about half as much fuel as thosemanufactured in the mid-1970s. Aircraft manufacturers arecontinuing to improve the efficiency of their jets. Even withthese advances, air travel is growing so quickly that othermeans may be needed to reduce environmental impacts.

    KEY CONCEPTS

    Alternative, Clean-Burning Fuels Alternative fuels arealso part of the immediate transition to a more sustainablesystem of transportation. Cars, trucks, and buses can bepowered by a variety of fuels, including hydrogen and ethanol,an alcohol produced from renewable sources such as corn andwood. Besides being renewable, these fuels burn very cleanly.Interestingly, many new cars are now designed to operateon gasoline and a 85% ethanol–gasoline blend (called E-85).Known as flex fuel cars, they’re growing in popularity.

    Mentioned previously, another technology that holdssome promise is the electric vehicle. Electric vehicles aremuch cleaner than standard gasoline-powered engines.

    Another technology for electric cars that some peoplethink holds tremendous promise is the fuel cell, describedin Chapter 15. This device produces electricity used to runelectric motors in cars, home generators, and other applica-tions. Fuel cells are powered by hydrogen that can be derivedfrom renewable resources (such as water) and nonrenew-able fuels (gasoline, natural gas, and methanol). Unfortu-nately, it takes energy to make hydrogen. It is three to fourtimes more efficient to use that energy (electricity) to poweran electric vehicle.

    Yet another fuel that holds great promise is biodiesel. De-rived from vegetable oil, biodiesel burns in conventionaldiesel engines and produces a fraction of the air pollution ofa conventional oil-based diesel. Biodiesel was discussed inChapter 15. Also covered in Chapter 15 is vegetable oil, a fuelthat can be burned in diesel engines with only minor mod-ifications. For more on green cars and green fuels, you maywant to read one of my newest books, Green TransportationBasics, published by New Society Publishers in 2010.

    KEY CONCEPTS

    Phase 2: From Road and Airports to Rails, Buses, and BicyclesThe shift to clean-burning cars is essential, but like improve-ments in efficiency, it may be only a stopgap measure. Bythe year 2010, there were about 500 cities in the world that

    Alternative fuels that burn cleanly and are renewable could alsohelp reduce many problems created by the gasoline-poweredautomobile.

    Aircraft manufacturers have made much more impressive stridesin improving fuel efficiency.

    contained over a million people, and more than 26 of thesehoused over 10 million people. As cities grow, large numbersof commuters will very likely have to shift to mass transit—buses, commuter trains, and light rail (single-car trains)—to reduce highway congestion.

    For a case study on onecity’s successful use of masstransit, see Spotlight on Sus-tainable Development 17-2 .

    Besides reducing high-way congestion by takingcars off the road, mass tran-sit is inherently more efficient than the automobiles. Adiesel bus used to transport people, for instance, only gets 4 miles per gallon, but with 40 people on board thepassenger miles per gallon of fuel increases to 160. Lightrail, commuter trains typically run on electricity, performwell, too.

    Another option is carpooling and vanpooling—encouraging people to ride together. Carpooling is muchmore efficient than driving alone. For instance, the averagenew car on the road today gets only about 27.5 miles pergallon. If there’s one person on board, that’s 27.5 passengermiles per gallon. With two people, it jumps to close to 55 pas-senger miles per gallon (considering the additional weightbeing carried). Although that’s an improvement it is not asefficient as light rail or bus transport. With three on board,it increases to nearly 83 passenger miles per gallon. If thereare four passengers, it jumps to 110 passenger miles, stillhalf that of the bus.

    Given the relative efficiency of mass transit—and givendeclining fuel supplies, congestion, and pollution—many ur-ban residents may within the next few decades give up theirsecond and third automobiles. They will turn to more effi-cient and less polluting forms of transportation, among themcommuter trains, light rail, and buses. Some mass transitusers may even join car-share programs. Participants in com-mercial car-share programs lease cars by the hour for specialtrips but rely on mass transit for most of their daily trips. Tolearn more about car-sharing programs, see Spotlight onSustainable Development 17-3.

    The shift to mass transit is inevitable over the comingdecades, but cities will have to improve their systems, mak-ing them much more rapid and convenient. With decliningautomobile traffic, cities may be able to convert highwaylanes to light rail lines. Median strips could be converted tolight rail systems serving surrounding suburbs. Fast, effi-cient buses could carry commuters from their homes to out-lying rail stations, where people board high-speed trainsthat transport them rapidly to urban centers.

    To be profitable, high-speed rail requires high-partici-pation, high-density population in outlying areas, and a largecentral business district. In order to achieve this, it may benecessary to densify new suburbs—that is, to foster a morecompact form of development, as described in the previoussection.

    Another idea gaining interest is in making new sub-divisions more like small towns—that is, making them more

    GO GREEN

    When commuting to school orwork, take a bus or light rail.Both use much less energy thana single-occupancy vehicle.

  • 378 PART IV. Resource Issues: Solutions for a Sustainable Society

    SPOTLIGHT ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

    17-2 Curitiba, Brazil—A City with a Sustainable Vision

    Most modern cities have grown up around the automobile.City planners have literally shaped their cities around ma-jor transit corridors. Thus, the location of subdivisions, in-dustrial facilities, and services has been largely determinedby roads and highways, access routes primarily traveled bypeople in automobiles.

    Proving that there is an alternative path is a city that’sgaining wide recognition: Curitiba, Brazil. Lying near the eastcoast in the southernmost part of Brazil about 800 kilome-ters (500 miles) south of Rio de Janeiro, Curitiba is a show-case of wise planning and sustainable design principlesthat have served the city and the planet well.

    Since 1950, Curitiba’s population has grown from300,000 to over 2.1 million. For most cities, this rate ofgrowth, combined with poor planning, would have been aprescription for disaster. Poverty, pollution, crime, and high-way congestion would have been the inevitable results—notso in Curitiba.

    The city was blessed with a visionary mayor in the1970s, Jaime Lerner, who adopted proposals first made inthe 1960s to plot a future for the city based on masstransit, ecological design, appropriate technology, andpublic participation—all essential elements of sustainabil-ity. Lerner was an architect and planner of extraordinaryvision.

    As witness to his foresight, consider this: Today, 1.3 mil-lion commuters travel into Curitiba each day to go to work.Three-quarters of these people travel by bus. This remark-able feat is made possible by an extensive, privately oper-ated bus system that transports people in and out of the citywith remarkable speed.

    In most cities, bus systems are notoriously slow. Al-though they move large numbers of people, they bog downin heavy traffic on city streets. In Curitiba, however, busesmove passengers into and out of the city at such rapidspeeds for several reasons. First, the city has constructedfive major roadways that penetrate into the heart of the city.Each of these roadways has two lanes designated for buses.In addition, bus stops are equipped with special devicescalled raised tubes, which allow passengers to pay beforethey get on the bus (FIGURE 1). This greatly speeds up theboarding process that slows down many a bus in the UnitedStates and other countries. Extra-wide doors also contributeto the speed of boarding. Double- and triple-length busesincrease the system’s capacity. Together, these innovationsreduce the transit time by one-third.

    Curitiba has made it possible to move in other direc-tions as well. Many smaller bus routes connect residential

    areas with the main transit corridors so that one can travelabout freely. Commuters can take a bus to the main route,hop on an express bus, and be downtown in record speed.

    This system of transit not only makes good sense froman environmental standpoint—because buses transportpeople with fewer resources and much less pollution thanthe automobile—it also makes sense from an economicstandpoint. It’s much cheaper than a subway system.

    So that the less fortunate, Curitiba’s poor, can gain ac-cess to the system, the city purchased land along majorcorridors, which was developed for low-income families.

    Curitiba has more to boast about than its mass transitsystem. It has established an extensive network of parksalong natural drainages. This not only provides residents withsomeplace to escape from the buildings and roadways, it re-duces damage from flooding. Prior to the establishment ofthis system, developers often built homes and other struc-tures in drainage areas. When floods came, many a home wasdamaged. Today, this system of parks with specially con-structed ponds has nearly eliminated flooding and saved thecity millions of dollars in engineering and constructioncosts. Low-tech solutions work and save money.

    Curitiba promotes participation and cooperation, too.The city recognizes that solutions require the participationof many sectors, including business, government, commu-nity groups, and others. Fortunately, other cities are begin-ning to learn from Curitiba.

    FIGURE 1 Raised tube bus stop in Curitiba.

  • self-contained. Known as new urbanist developments orneotraditional towns, these new communities are being builtso that residents live within walking or biking distance ofshops, stores, and small office buildings—which are often partof the new development itself. At this writing, nearly 100 arein various stages of development in the United States. Theyare also called new urbanist communities.

    Urban centers can also densify by converting emptyparking lots (produced by the decline in automobile usein cities) into office buildings. This makes mass transit moreefficient and affordable. Unfortunately, the economics ofmass transit is currently skewed by massive subsidies to theautomobile and gasoline industry. According to nationalstatistics, the automobile is subsidized to the tune of about$300 billion a year—or about $1,500 per car. This subsidyincludes expenses for police protection, traffic control,city-paid parking, and other things—expenses that arepaid out of general tax revenues. As you learned in Chap-ter 14, oil is also heavily subsidized. Because of this, sus-tainable strategies such as mass transit generally have a hardtime competing with the automobile. Some critics say thatthe playing field is tilted heavily in favor of the automobile.Removing the hidden subsidies from oil and automobileswould clearly make mass transit compete more favorablywith the automobile.

    Jet travel could shift in the coming decades as well. TheSwiss have, for example, levied an extra tax on aircraft thatdo not meet air pollution standards. In 1997, Denmark in-troduced a $15 fee on all domestic flights that has encour-aged people to travel by train instead. High-speed rail, whichis growing in popularity in Europe and Japan, could helpreduce air travel and shift passengers to a much more effi-cient form of transit.

    KEY CONCEPTS

    The Bicycle For many urban dwellers, the bicycle is not aviable commuting option. Streets are too hilly, or workers livetoo far from work for practical commuting. In other places,cold winter climates prevent commuting except during thespring, summer, and early fall.

    In some cities, however, the bicycle could play a signif-icant role in transporting people. Where climates are mild,streets are not too crowded, and people live relatively closeto work, the bicycle can transport surprisingly large numbersof people. Investments that promote bicycle commuting rep-resent one of the cheapest options available to cities andtowns.

    For decades, the bicycle has been a major means oftransportation in many European and Asian countries. InBeijing and other major Chinese cities, bicycles once outnum-

    Mass transit is much more efficient than automobiles and pro-duces much less pollution per passenger mile traveled. Conges-tion, fuel concerns, and interest in cutting pollution will allstimulate the shift to efficient mass transit in urban areas. Morecompact development patterns will help complement the moveto mass transit.

    bered cars many times over, although bikes are being squeezedout by automobiles as China’s economy improves. In someAsian cities, half of all trips are made by bike. Europe is alsorelatively bicycle friendly. In some cities, bicycles account for20 to 30% of all trips. In the United States, in contrast, bi-cycles account for less than 1% of all trips. In Portland, Ore-gon; Austin, Texas; and other cities, however, bikes arebecoming more popular thanks to a “fleet” of city-ownedbikes that are left on the sidewalk for anyone who wantsthem (FIGURE 17-8). If you need to travel five blocks anddon’t want to walk, you hop on a bike and pedal to yournext meeting or to lunch. Anyone who wants to use the bikeyou leave by the side of the road can have it.

    Following the example set by Europe and Asia, somecities in the United States have laid out extensive bike pathsfor commuters. Davis, California, is a leader in promoting bi-cycle transportation. Today, 30% of all commuter transportwithin the city is by bicycle. Some streets are closed entirelyto automobile transport, and 65 kilometers (40 miles) ofbike lanes and paths have been established.

    Bicycles won’t replace cars, buses, and trains, but theycan augment them—in some places more than others. Un-fortunately, bicycle sales are declining in Asia because of anincreased interest in motorized transport, mostly motor-bikes and cars. In some countries, official policies are discour-aging bicycle transport in an effort to make travel by careasier.

    KEY CONCEPTSIn many cities, bicycles already carry a significant number of com-muters. The bicycle could help supplement the mass transit sys-tems of cities in the future.

    FIGURE 17-8 The yellow bikes of Austin, Texas. These bicyclesare left on the street for anyone who wants to use them. Riderstake them to their destination and leave them for someone elseto use.

    CHAPTER 17: Creating Sustainable Cities, Suburbs, and Towns 379

  • 380 PART IV. Resource Issues: Solutions for a Sustainable Society

    Economic Changes Accompanying a Shift to Mass TransitThe automobile industry is the world’s largest manufactur-ing endeavor and supports a number of other economicallyimportant industries. Manufacturers of rubber, glass, steel,radios, and numerous automobile parts will also feel the im-pacts of the shrinking automobile market. So will the servicesector: gas stations, automobile dealerships, and repair ser-vices. The shift to more efficient forms of transportation islikely to lead to significant shifts in the world’s economy.

    Today, 20 cents of every dollar spent in the United Statesis directly or indirectly connected to the automobile indus-try and its suppliers. Eighteen cents of every tax dollar thefederal government collects comes from automobile manu-facturers and their suppliers.

    Although shifting toward a sustainable transportationsystem could result in a dramatic shift in our economy, ex-perts point out that some of the steel and glass now destinedfor autos will be used for buses and trains. Many automobileworkers will very likely find jobs in plants that producebuses and commuter trains. Many mechanics could shift aswell to service the new fleet of more efficient vehicles. Someworkers, however, may be forced to find employment in newareas. Helping them adjust to the changes is an important task.

    Studies suggest that the employment potential of masstransit, like other sustainable strategies, exceeds that of thecurrent automobile-based economy. A study in Germanyshowed that spending $1 billion on highways yields 24,000to 33,000 (direct and indirect) jobs. The same amount spenton mass transit produces 38,000 to 40,000 jobs.

    SPOTLIGHT ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

    17-3 Car Sharing: On the Road—Cheaper and Greener

    Do you own your car—or does it own you? If you’re like mostpeople, you’ll answer “yes” to both questions. You own a carthat gets you where you want to go, but you’re a slave toit, spending considerable amounts of money (and time)supporting your driving habit.

    According to the American Automobile Association,each month Americans pay an average of $700 to ownand operate a car. Payments for a new car can easily run$300 to $500 per month. Insurance adds from $75 to$150 per month to the cost of car ownership, and thenthere’s gasoline, costing another $100 to $200, and main-tenance expenses.

    Fortunately, if you want the convenience of a car with-out the expense of ownership, there’s an option for you—it’s called car sharing.

    Popular in Europe for almost 3 decades, car sharinghas begun to gain momentum in the United States. Twocompanies ventures—Zipcar and Flexcar, which merged in2007 and now operate as Zipcar—offer car share programsin cities across the country, including Boston, New York,Chicago, Denver, Los Angeles, Seattle, Washington, D.C., andPortland, Oregon. Even universities, including the Univer-sity of North Carolina–Chapel Hill, UCLA, and the Universityof Washington, are jumping on the wagon, saving studentsmoney, and helping curb campus traffic congestion andparking problems.

    Most car share programs require an application andmembership fee, which average about $75. Once you join,vehicles are available for 1 hour to several days. (Specialarrangements can be made to rent cars for long trips.) Busi-nesses, families, and individuals can all participate. Car shareprograms screen applicants using age and traffic violationcriteria to eliminate risky clientele. Qualified members are

    covered by comprehensive and liability insurance when be-hind the wheel.

    Urban car share programs place their cars conve-niently throughout the city, in reserved parking lots orspaces. Members pay a small hourly fee to use the car, typ-ically under $10, and a per-mile charge. Some programsgive members a certain number of free miles before charg-ing for mileage.

    Car share companies use online and phone reservationsystems, which allow you to reserve a car in a few quick key-strokes or with a phone call. A computer tells you where thecar is and its license plate number. You show up at the site,hold your membership card next to the windshield, whereit is read by a scanner, and the doors unlock. The car’s on-board computer sends a signal to company headquarters, in-dicating your rental period has begun, and activating abilling record.

    When you’re done, you return the car to its parkingspace, lock it, and leave. Your credit card is billed monthlyfor usage. The program pays for gas, although members areresponsible for filling the tank when the gauge drops be-low the one-quarter mark—using a company credit card. Andwhat if you have a fender-bender? According to former Flex-car spokesperson John Williams, members pay half of thedeductible ($500) if they caused the accident; otherwise,there’s no penalty. (Policies vary among different organiza-tions; be sure to inquire first.)

    Car sharing programs make it easy to choose a vehicleto meet your needs by offering a wide range of vehicles, fromsmall, efficient commuter cars such as the hybrid-electricHonda Civic or Toyota Prius to larger vehicles for special uses,such as Ford pickups and SUVs. According to Zipcar, morethan half of their members say that they tried the service for

  • CHAPTER 17: Creating Sustainable Cities, Suburbs, and Towns 381

    A sustainable transportation system is possible, but itwill require a significant restructuring of the current, unsus-tainable system. Making that transition will require fore-sight and considerable political will. Many cities are alreadymaking changes needed to effect this transition. Denver,Colorado, for instance, has already installed one successfullight rail system and is building a second one to serve west-ern suburbs.

    Creating sustainable cities and towns is part of the chal-lenge outlined in this text. It will take many years. The tech-nology and knowledge required to make the changes are notbarriers, but the political will and the costs of such endeavorssurely stand in the way of such a massive shift. Incrementally,however, cities, businesses, and citizens are beginning to makethe changes required to create a more sustainable human pres-ence. Automobile manufacturers are making and selling tens

    of thousands of more efficient hybrid cars and trucks. Thehypercar featured in Chapter 15 is currently under develop-ment. Biodiesel is currently sold at 10,000 gas stations in theUnited States, and numerous cities such as Denver are dramat-ically expanding their light-rail systems. Growth manage-ment strategies are popping up in the most unlikely places. Thegreen living tips (Go Green boxes) in this and other chapterslist personal actions that you can take to do your part in cre-ating a more sustainable system of transportation and a bet-ter future.

    KEY CONCEPTSA shift away from the automobile will have serious repercussionson the global economy, but much of the slack could be taken upby a shift to the manufacture and maintenance of alternativetransportation modes such as buses.

    the opportunity to get behind the wheel of many differentmakes and models of cars, including hybrid-electric vehicles.

    How much you save depends on your driving habitsand needs. Studies show that customers save $200 to over$400 a year.

    To determine whether a car sharing program makeseconomic sense for you, Zipcar offers an online savings cal-culator. Just click on “Run the Numbers” on their websiteand enter the current or projected costs of your vehicle,including monthly payments, insurance premiums, fuelcosts, parking, and maintenance costs. The program calcu-lates the monthly and annual costs of car ownership andcomputes car sharing savings.

    Beyond your pocketbook, car sharing also offers someenvironmental savings. Personal vehicles produce a large por-tion of the nation’s annual emissions of carbon dioxide andother pollutants, contributing to global warming and local-ized smog. Accommodating the growing fleet of vehicles aswe pave the planet also results in the loss of huge amountsof open space, farmland, and wildlife habitat.

    Before the two companies merged Zipcar company hadbeen responsible for removing more than 10,000 cars fromU.S. city streets and highways. Their survey also showed thatcar share members drive an average of 4,000 fewer miles(6,437 km) each year, compared with their habits beforejoining the program. Most people drive less when they haveto pay a per-hour or per-mile fee, and studies have shownthat car sharing folks are more likely to combine trips, takemass transit, bike, or walk when it’s convenient. Combinedwith cities that have good mass transit systems, car shareprograms are highly effective at reducing congestion and pol-lution in urban settings.

    If car sharing hasn’t come to your town, considersetting up a program yourself. Across the country, groupsof friends, neighbors, and colleagues have establishedtheir own car share programs by using cars already ownedby individual members of the group or by purchasing carstogether.

    To make a community car sharing program run smoothly,members should consider providing convenient locations topark the vehicles, and draft agreements on buying fuel, ac-cessing keys, and servicing and insuring the vehicles. Abooking system should also be established. The Eugene,Oregon BioCarShare program uses Online Resource Sched-uler free software as their scheduling tool. Members log onat the website with their user name and password to reservea car. Set up as a cooperative, BioCarShare requires mem-bers pay a joiner’s fee, which is refundable, and a smallmonthly membership fee. Like most programs, they also re-quire that drivers pay in proportion to their use, per houror per mile. Car clubs such as these usually operate with stan-dard insurance coverage—as long as the group or any of itsmembers makes no profit. In most states, car clubs applyfor insurance in the club’s name and can list four or five peo-ple on a single policy.

    Car sharing is an idea that offers the best of bothworlds. It ensures people access to transportation whilesaving them considerable sums of money, and, it is good forthe environment.

    Adapted with permission from Dan Chiras, EcoKids: RaisingChildren Who Care for the Earth, Gabriola Island, British Columbia: New Society, 2004

  • CRITICAL THINKING

    AnalysisHydrogen is nearly an ideal fuel. It can be made from an abundant resource, water, and is renewable. Itproduces little, if any, pollution when burned or used to power a fuel cell. In your research, however, youmay have discovered that it takes a lot of energy to make hydrogen from water or to strip hydrogen atomsoff other molecules such as methane (in natural gas). In fact, it takes a lot of electrical energy. Wheredoes that energy come from? Burning coal or nuclear fuels. The combustion of coal and the use of nuclearfuels both create serious environmental and health problems.

    Would it be better to use the electricity directly to power a car or truck, rather than use it to split water to make hydrogen to power a fuel cell to make electricity to run a car or truck? Actually, yes.

    You may have found studies showing that using electricity directly—using it to power an electricvehicle—is three to four times more efficient than using electricity to create hydrogen to create electric-ity in a fuel cell to drive an electric motor in a car.

    Bear in mind, too, that there are no sources of free hydrogen we can tap into. So, we’ll always need tomake it from other molecules, a process that takes a lot of energy.

    382 PART IV. Resource Issues: Solutions for a Sustainable Society

    The world of politics is always twenty yearsbehind the world of thought.

    —John Jay Chapman

    SPOTLIGHT ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

    17-4 Masdar City: A Solar Oasis

    In an effort to create a sustainable future, communitiesthroughout the world are looking for ways to reduce theirconsumption of energy, water, land, and other natural re-sources. Entirely new green communities are being built, andsome communities are being rebuilt green in the wake of dis-asters like the city of Greensburg, Kansas, that is buildinggreen after a devastating tornado ripped through their townin May, 2007 (see page 323).

    The latest effort to build a green community from theground up is occurring in a most unlikely place, the PersianGulf. Groundbreaking for the new solar, car-free city tookplace in February, 2008. This nearly self-contained smalldesert city, called Masdar, is designed to be home for 50,000people and is being built in the desert next to Abu Dhabi’sinternational airport. The city will serve as a “hub for aca-demic and corporate research on nonpolluting energy tech-nologies,” according to Andrew Revkin, New York Timesscience writer.

    Revkin continues, “The 2.3-square-mile community,set behind walls to divert hot desert winds and airportnoise, will be car free, according to the design by Foster +Partners, the London firm that has become a leading prac-titioner of energy-saving architecture.”

    Car-free Masdar City will feature narrow pedestrianstreets shaded by canopies made of photovoltaic panels. Thecity will produce all of its electricity from abundant sunlight.

    Water will be supplied by a solar-powered desaliniza-tion plant that extracts salts and other impurities fromabundant seawater. Food will be grown in greenhouses.Waste will be composted and recycled.

    Phase 1 of Masdar City is expected to be completed bythe end of 2015 and include a graduate-level academic re-search center associated with the Massachusetts Instituteof Technology. It will also include extensive commercialand residential buildings. The city will house 7,000 residents.

  • CHAPTER 17: Creating Sustainable Cities, Suburbs, and Towns 383

    Connect to this book's website:http://environment.jbpub.com/9e/The site features eLearning, an online reviewarea that provides quizzes, chapter outlines,and other tools to help you study for yourclass. You can also follow useful links for in-depth information, research the differingviews in the Point/Counterpoints, or keep up on the latest environmental news.

    REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGTo save on paper and allow for updates, additional readingrecommendations and the list of sources for the informationdiscussed in this chapter are available at http://environment.jbpub.com/9e/.

    CRITICAL THINKING AND CONCEPT REVIEW1. List all the human systems you have relied on since you

    woke up this morning.2. Where does the water you drink come from? Where does

    your garbage go? Is it recycled? Is it landfilled? Is itincinerated? Where does the wastewater from yourdomicile go?

    3. Using your critical thinking skills and the knowledgeyou have gained in your coursework and reading, criti-cally analyze the following statement: “We must re-structure human systems to make them compatiblewith natural systems.”

    4. What is meant by the statement “Just because a sys-tem is functioning well doesn’t mean that it is sustain-able”? Give some examples.

    5. List and describe several reasons why most if not allhuman systems are currently unsustainable.

    6. When most people think about creating a sustainablefuture, they think about designing anew—that is, creating new superefficient homes and autos. Is thissufficient?

    7. Critically analyze the following comment: “Our trans-portation system is just fine. My commute hasn’tchanged very much. Air pollution levels are down be-cause of greater efficiency in automobiles and pollu-tion control devices. What’s everyone so concernedabout?”

    8. What are the traditional functions of land-use plan-ning? How is sustainable land-use planning different?

    9. Compare and contrast compact development and dis-persed development patterns according to the followingcriteria: use of land, cost of infrastructure (roads, bridges,and so on), feasibility of mass transit, and air pollution.

    10. Describe corridor and satellite development. What arethe advantages and disadvantages of each?

    11. Imagine that you are a developer. You are about todraw plans to develop a 80-hectare (200-acre) piece ofproperty. Make a list of ways to make the developmentas environmentally sustainable as possible. Try doingthis exercise by addressing one system at a time—forexample, energy, waste, water, and transportation.

    12. How can differential tax rates, the purchase of devel-opment rights, and making growth pay its own way(ending the subsidy for growth) be used to promotemore sustainable land use?

    13. Using your critical thinking skills, analyze the follow-ing assertion: “Land reform in the developing nationswill help create a sustainable future.”

    14. The text outlined a simplified version of a plan to shiftthe developed nations such as the United States to amore sustainable system of transportation. Describethis plan and point out its strengths and weaknesses.How could the weaknesses be eliminated?

    15. Debate the following statement: “A shift to a trans-portation system based in large part on mass transitwill devastate the global economy and put thousandsof people out of work.”

    KEY TERMS cohousingcompact developmentcorridor developmentdevelopment rightdifferential tax rate

    dispersed developmentgreenbeltsland-use planningmaking growth pay its own way

    mass transitsatellite developmenturban sprawlzoning regulations