Chapter 13: Leadership

PSYC 352

Overview

Leadership vs. management

Major topics in leadership

Theoretical approaches to leadership

Points of convergence among approaches

Cross-cultural leadership issues

Diversity issues in leadership

Concluding comments

Leadership vs. Management

Mintzberg (1973) stated that leadership was merely a form or subset of management.

Figurehead Negotiator Liaison Monitor Disseminator

Minzberg also suggested that managers had the following roles or functions:

Spokesman Entrepreneur Distribution handler Resource allocator

Leadership vs. Management

Other researchers (Bennis & Nanus, 1985) suggest that there are differences between leaders and managers. “To manage means to bring about, to

accomplish, to have charge of or responsibility for, to consider!”

“Leading is influencing, guiding in direction, course, action, opinion.”

Leaders are people who do the right thing.

Major Topics in Leadership

Positional power: higher position = more powerThe leader: characteristics of leadersThe led: characteristics of followersThe influence process: coercion, manipulation, authority, persuasion Types of leader behavior: instrumental, supportive

The situation: characteristics of situationLeader emergence versus leader effectiveness: how do leaders emerge, why are they effective?

Theoretical Approaches to Leadership

1. The trait approach

2. The behavioral approach

3. The power and influence approach

4. The situational approach

5. Transformational leadership

6. Charismatic leadership

7. The implicit leadership theory

8. Substitutes for leadership

1. The Trait Approach

Focuses on: Personal attributes: high energy level,

tolerance for stress, emotional maturity, integrity, self-confidence

Motivation: need for power, achievement, affiliation

Skills: technical, conceptual, interpersonal

Thomas Carlyle (1907) commented that“the history of the world was the biography of great men”

2. The Behavioral Approach

Emphasizes what leaders actually do on the job.

2 lines of research: Classification of leadership behaviors into

categories Identification of behaviors related to leadership

effectiveness

2. The Behavioral ApproachHow to Classify Behavior?

Ohio State researchers (1950) Initiating structure (task-oriented) Consideration (people-oriented)

Yukl, Wall, and Lepsinger (1990) 11 generic categories of leadership behavior

- Networking- Supporting- Managing conflict and team building- Motivating- Recognizing and rewarding

- Planning and organizing- Problem solving- Consulting and delegating- Monitoring- Informing- Clarifying

3. Power and Influence Approach

Emphasizes the use of power and influence exercised by a person within a group

3 major topics Power and leader effectiveness LMX theory Influence tactics

3. Power and Influence:Power and Leader Effectiveness

5 types of power (French & Raven, 1960): Reward Coercive Legitimate

Expert Referent

3 outcomes of power: Commitment Compliance Resistance

Empirical research

3. Power and Influence:Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)

Emphasizes the nature of the relationship between a leader and her/his subordinates

Leaders differentiate subordinates by: Competence and skill Extent to which they can be trusted Motivation to assume greater responsibility

3. Power and Influence:Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)

Leaders develop relationships with each member of their work group (dyads)

High quality relationships: member of “in-group;” greater responsibility, satisfaction

Low quality relationships: member of “out-group;” less responsibility, satisfaction

Psychological bases for exchange: Personal contribution Loyalty

Affect Professional respect

3. Power and Influence:Influence Tactics

9 influencing tactics: Rational persuasion Inspirational appeals Consultation Ingratiation Personal appeals

Exchange Coalition tactics Legitimating tactics Pressure

Empirical research results

4. Situational Approach

Emphasizes situational factors (e.g., nature of work performed, attitudes of subordinates) that promote the occurrence of leadership

Path-goal theory: emphasizes the importance of telling followers what behaviors are needed in order to attain desired outcomes (House, 1971)

4. Situational Approach:Path-Goal Theory

Leader must manifest 4 styles of behavior:ParticipativeAchievement oriented

DirectiveSupportive

Leaders can influence subordinates’ perceptions of jobs by: Removing obstacles from path to desired goal Rewarding goal attainment Helping clarify paths to goals

Conceptual limitations of theory

5. Transformational Leadership

Leadership is the process of inspiring a group to pursue goals and attain results.4 components:

Intellectual stimulationIndividualized consideration

Idealized influenceInspirational motivation

Transformational leadership is strongly related to work unit effectiveness; especially idealized influence (Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996)

6. Charismatic Leadership

Follower perception that a leader possesses a divinely inspired gift (charisma) and is unique and larger than life, which inspires confidence and support (in followers) for the ideas and beliefs of the leaderBehaviors typical of charismatic leaders: Impression management Articulation of appealing vision Communication of high expectations Expression of confidence

Negative charismatics

7. Implicit Leadership Theory

Leadership exists only in the mind of the follower.

Individuals have an idea of what a leader should look like; they evaluate actual leaders based on this idea (Lord, Foti, & Phillips, 1982).

Problems with measurement

8. Substitutes for Leadership

Idea that there are other influences that can act in place of, or substitute for, formal leadershipFour environmental sources that provide structure and direction (Pierce et al., 1984): The job itself Technology Work unit Leader

Points of Convergence among Approaches

Importance of influencing and motivating

Importance of maintaining effective relationships

Importance of making decisions

Cross-Cultural Leadership Issues

Japanese vs. American managers (Graen & Wakabayashi, 1994):

Language differences Japanese perception that Americans have

underdeveloped sense of obligation to company Americans do not understand Japanese tendency to not

use punishment for insubordination Americans see lack of perks as loss of status Americans do not spend entire career in one company

There is not a single conceptualization of leadership

Diversity Issues in Leadership

Most research is based on white menReasons for gender differences in leadership: Cultural Biases

Gender differences in evaluation: Tendency for women to be evaluated lower

More so when when their leadership style was stereotypically masculine

More so when evaluators were women

Women experience more barriers in leadership (Lyness & Thompson, 2000)

Conclusion

New trends in leadership: Managing a diverse workforce Leaders are not only heroes, but “hero makers”