chapter 12 additional research approaches. additional approaches in research in hhp methods not as...
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Chapter 12
Additional Research Approaches
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Additional Approaches in Research in HHP
Methods not as prevalent as those previously presented, but may have application in some areas of HHP• Historical• Epidemiological• Single Participant• Creative Activities
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Historical Approach
The researcher attempts to record and understand events of the past in order to better explain present events and suggest possible future directions
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Nature of Historical Research
Involves collection of data Through the eyes of other people who
witnessed an event or wrote about it Why we do certain things today is based
on what has happened to us in the past• Need to understand the past• Discovery of new data/information may lead to
new interpretations
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Sources of Historical Data
Primary sources Secondary sources
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Primary sources
Source is directly connected to the event of interest
Original documents or physical artifacts People that can provide eyewitness
testimony Highest credibility and preferred data
source
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Secondary sources
Secondhand accounts of historical happenings
Hearsay evidence . . . person is not directly tied to event
Textbooks, newspapers, encyclopedias, etc.
Considered less reliable source of data
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Evaluating Historical Data Historical data must be critically evaluated to
determine authenticity and worth External criticism
• Physical or chemical tests of documents• Tests of signature, script, and handwriting• Consistency of language usage
Internal criticism• Assesses the meaning of the content• Author’s motives• Consistency with other reports of same event
Two or more independent sources are needed to verify a historical fact
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Oral History
Oral history research is conducted through taped interviews with individuals in a position to recall various events or movements
Oral history information can be very subjective and opinionated
Strict application of external and internal criticism should be observed
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Biographical Research
Study of the life, career, and contributions of persons of interests . . . often leading scholars, coaches, educators, etc.
Often based on extensive personal interviews of the person of interest supplemented with interviews of others
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Epidemiological Approach
Descriptive epidemiology – • seeking to identify patterns or trends in
disease, injury, or death Analytic epidemiology –
• seeking to determine causation of disease, injury, or death
Common in public health fields
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Research Designs
Cohort studies• a.k.a as prospective studies – a study that
begins with a group of people (a cohort) and follows them over time
Case-control studies • AKA as retrospective studies – a study
comparing a group who already have a condition of interest to a group that does not
Case group – the group with the characteristic of interest (e.g., cancer)
Control group – the group without the characteristic of interest
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Epidemiological Statistics Used to Measure Strength of an
Association
Relative risk (RR) Odds ratio (OR) Attributable risk (AR)
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Relative Risk (RR)
The extent to which it is more (or less) likely that a health problem or condition will occur in an exposed group compared to an unexposed group• RR = 1 no relationship between exposure and condition• RR > 1 positive relationship; means that those exposed
are x times more likely to contract the condition• RR < 1 negative relationship; means that those exposed
are x times less likely to contract the condition
Applicable statistic for cohort studies
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Odds Ratio (OR)
The most common measure of association between exposure and health outcome
An estimate of relative risk• It is the odds of a health problem or condition
occurring in an exposed group (case group) compared to an unexposed group (control group)
• Interpretation is similar to that of RR Applicable statistic for case-control studies
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Attributable Risk (AR)
Index of the percent of cases in the total group (unexposed group) that occur in the group with a risk factor (exposed group)
Difference between the incidence rate for the exposed group minus the incidence rate for the unexposed group divided by the incidence rate of the unexposed group
Applicable statistic for cohort studies
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Single Participant Approach
a.k.a. “single subject research” Research conducted on the individual level
with the performance of each research participant, rather than the group, being analyzed
Behavior or performance of each participant is evaluated across time with each participant serving as their own control
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Collection and Analysis
The basic approach is to obtain a baseline measure on the participant, administer a treatment, then obtain another measure on the participant
Comparisons are made between the baseline score and the treatment score
Applied behavior analysis (ABA)
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Research Designs
Baseline data are collected (A)• To ensure a stable measure at baseline, data
may be collected on multiple occasions• Graphing is useful technique to show data path
Treatment data are collected (B)• A-B design• A-B-A-B design (more common)• Others
Nonparametric statistics
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Creative Activities
Creative research vs. creative activity Involves the creation or development of
some art form that is considered new or unique• Common in dance or fine arts• Artist, painter, dancer, sculptor, musician, etc.
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Evaluation of Creative Activity
Exhibitions or displays Performances or recitals Standards for evaluation
• Judges or critics evaluate• Honors and awards received• Acknowledgments• Receipt of grants