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• understand the nature and role of psychology in understanding mindand behaviour,

• state the growth of the discipline,• know the different fields of psychology, its relationship with other

disciplines, and professions, and• appreciate the value of psychology in daily life to help you understand

yourself and others better.

After reading this chapter, you would be able to

IntroductionWhat is Psychology?

Psychology as a DisciplinePsychology as a Natural SciencePsychology as a Social Science

Understanding Mind and BehaviourPopular Notions about the Discipline of PsychologyEvolution of Psychology

Some Interesting Landmarks in the Evolution ofModern Psychology (Box 1.1)

Development of Psychology in IndiaBranches of PsychologyThemes of Research and ApplicationsPsychology and Other DisciplinesPsychologists at WorkPsychology in Everyday Life

Key TermsSummaryReview QuestionsProject Ideas

Contents

The growth of the human mindis still high adventure,

in many ways the highestadventure on earth.

– Norman Cousins

Psychology2

psychology was a study of the soul or mind.But since then it has moved away considerablyfrom this focus and established itself as ascientific discipline which deals with processesunderlying human experience and behaviour.The range of phenomena it studies, some ofwhich we mentioned above, are spread overseveral levels, viz. individual, dyadic (twoperson) group, and organisational. They alsohave biological as well as social bases.Naturally, therefore, the methods required to

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Any knowledge discipline is hard to define.Firstly, because it evolves continuously.Secondly, because the range of phenomena itstudies cannot be captured by any onedefinition. This is even more true of psychology.Long time back, students like yourself were toldthat the term psychology is derived from twoGreek words psyche meaning soul and logosmeaning science or study of a subject. Thus,

You were, perhaps, asked by your teacher in the first class why you opted forpsychology over other subjects. What do you hope to learn? If you were asked thisquestion, what was your response? Generally, the range of responses which surfacein class to this question are truly bewildering. Most students give inane responses,like they want to know what others are thinking. But then one also comes acrosssuch responses as knowing oneself, knowing others or more specific responses likeknowing why people dream, why people go out of their way to help others or beateach other up. All ancient traditions have engaged themselves with questions abouthuman nature. The Indian philosophical traditions, in particular, deal with questionsrelating to why people behave in the manner in which they do. Why are peoplegenerally unhappy? What changes should they bring about in themselves if theydesire happiness in their lives. Like all knowledge, psychological knowledge too isintended to contribute to human well-being. If the world is full of misery, it is largelydue to humans themselves. Perhaps, you have asked why a 9/11 or war in Iraqhappened. Why innocent people in Delhi, Mumbai, Srinagar or in the North-Easthave to face bombs and bullets? Psychologists ask what is in the experiences ofyoung men which turn them into terrorists seeking revenge. But there is anotherside to human nature. You may have heard the name of Major HPS Ahluwalia,paralysed waist down because of an injury he suffered in a war with Pakistan,who climbed the Mt. Everest. What moved him to climb such heights? These are notonly questions about human nature which psychology addresses as a humanscience. You will be surprised to learn that modern psychology also deals withsomewhat nebulous micro-level phenomenon like consciousness, focusing attentionin the face of noise, or supporters trying to burn down a shopping complex aftertheir team had scored victory in a football game over its traditional rival. Psychologycannot claim that answers have been found to these complex questions. But itsurely has improved upon our understanding and how we make sense of thesephenomena. The most striking aspect of the discipline, unlike other sciences, lies inthe study of psychological processes which are largely internal and available tohumans for observation within themselves.

Introduction

Chapter 1 • What is Psychology? 3

study them also vary greatly depending on thephenomenon one wants to study. A disciplineis defined both in terms of what it studies andhow it studies. In fact, more in terms of how ormethod/s it uses. Keeping this in view,psychology is defined formally as a sciencewhich studies mental processes, experiencesand behaviour in different contexts. In doingso, it uses methods of biological and socialsciences to obtain data systematically. It makessense of these data so that they can beorganised as knowledge. Let us try tounderstand the three terms used in thedefinition, namely, mental processes,experience, and behaviour.

When we say experiences are internal tothe experiencing person, we refer to states ofconsciousness or awareness or mentalprocesses. We use our mental processes whenwe think or try to solve a problem, to know orremember something. One level at which thesemental processes are reflected is the brainactivity. As we think or solve a mathematicalproblem, our brain activities can be observedusing different techniques of brain imaging.However, we cannot say that brain activitiesand mental processes are the same, althoughthey are interdependent. Mental activities andneural activities are mutually overlappingprocesses but, they are not identical. Unlikethe brain, the mind does not have a physicalstructure or has a location. Mind emerges andevolves as our interactions and experiencesin this world get dynamically organised in theform of a system which is responsible for theoccurrence of various mental processes.Brain activities provide important clues tohow our mind functions. But theconsciousness of our own experiences andmental processes are much more than theneural or brain activities. Even when we areasleep some mental activities go on. Wedream, and receive some information suchas a knock on the door while we are asleep.Some psychologists have shown that we alsolearn and remember in our sleep. Mentalprocesses, such as remembering, learning,knowing, perceiving, feeling are of interest topsychologists. They study these processes

trying to understand how the mind works andto help us improve the uses and applicationsof these mental capacities.

Psychologists also study experiences ofpeople. Experiences are subjective in nature.We cannot directly observe or know someoneelse’s experience. Only the experiencing personcan be aware or be conscious of her or hisexperiences. Thus, experiences are embeddedin our awareness or consciousness.Psychologists have focused on experiences ofpain being undergone by terminally ill patientsor of psychological pain felt in bereavement,besides experiences which lead to positivefeelings, such as in romantic encounters.There are some esoteric experiences also whichattract attention of psychologists, such aswhen a Yogi meditates to enter a different levelof consciousness and creates a new kind ofexperience or when a drug addict takes aparticular kind of drug to get a high, eventhough such drugs are extremely harmful.Experiences are influenced by internal and theexternal conditions of the experiencer. If youare travelling in a crowded bus during a hotsummer day, you may not experience theusual discomfort if you are going for a picnicwith some close friends. Thus, the nature ofexperience can only be understood byanalysing a complex set of internal andexternal conditions.

Behaviours are responses or reactions wemake or activities we engage in. Whensomething is hurled at you, your eyes blink ina simple reflex action. You are taking anexamination and can feel your heart pounding.You decide to go for a particular movie with afriend. Behaviours may be simple or complex,short or enduring. Some behaviours are overt.They can be outwardly seen or sensed by anobserver. Some are internal or covert. Whenyou are in a difficult situation while playing agame of chess you almost feel your handmuscles twitching, trying to experiment witha move. All behaviours, covert or overt, areassociated with or triggered by some stimulusin the environment or changes that happeninternally. You may see a tiger and run or thinkthat there is a tiger and decide to flee. Some

Psychology4

psychologists study behaviour as anassociation between stimulus (S) and response(R). Both stimulus and response can beinternal or external.

Psychology as a Discipline

As we have discussed above, psychologystudies behaviour, experience and mentalprocesses. It seeks to understand and explainhow the mind works and how different mentalprocesses result in different behaviours. Whenwe observe others as lay or common persons,our own points of view or our ways ofunderstanding the world influence ourinterpretations of their behaviours andexperiences. Psychologists try to minimisesuch biases in their explanations of behaviourand experience in various ways. Some do soby seeking to make their analysis scientificand objective. Others seek to explainbehaviour from the point of view of theexperiencing persons because they think thatsubjectivity is a necessary aspect of humanexperience. In the Indian tradition, self-reflection and analysis of our consciousexperiences, is held to be a major source ofpsychological understanding. Many westernpsychologists have also begun to emphasisethe role of self-reflection and self-knowledgein understanding human behaviour andexperience. Regardless of the differences in theway psychologists go about the study ofbehaviour, mental processes and experiences,they seek to understand and explain them ina systematic and verifiable manner.

Psychology, though it is a very oldknowledge discipline, is a young science, if onewere to take the year of the founding of thefirst laboratory of psychology in 1879 inLeipzig. However, what kind of science ispsychology, still remains a matter of debate,particularly because of the new interfaces ofit that have emerged in recent times.Psychology is generally categorised as a socialscience. But it should not come to you as asurprise that, not only in other countries, butalso in India, it is also a subject of study offeredin the faculty of science, both at theundergraduate and post-graduate levels. Many

students go on to earn a B.Sc. or M.Sc. degreein universities. In fact, two of the most soughtafter emerging disciplines which continuouslyborrow from psychology are Neuroscience andComputer Science. Some of us would be awareof the fast developing brain imaging techniqueslike fMRI, EEG, etc. which make it possible tostudy brain processes in real time, i.e. whenthey are actually taking place. Similarly, in ITareas, both human-computer interaction andartificial intelligence cannot possibly growwithout psychological knowledge in cognitiveprocesses. Thus, psychology as a disciplinetoday has two parallel streams. One whichmakes use of the method in physical andbiological sciences and the other which makesuse of the method of social and culturalsciences in studying various psychological andsocial phenomena. These streams sometimesconverge only to drift apart and go theirseparate ways. In the first case, psychologyconsiders itself as a discipline, which focuseslargely on biological principles to explainhuman behaviour. It assumes that allbehavioural phenomena have causes which canbe discovered if we can collect datasystematically under controlled conditions.Here the aim of the researcher is to know causeand effect relationship so that a prediction ofthe behavioural phenomenon can be made andbehaviour can be controlled if need be. On theother hand, psychology as a social sciencefocuses on how behavioural phenomena canbe explained in terms of the interaction thattakes place between the person and the socio-cultural context of which s/he is a part. Eachbehavioural phenomenon is assumed to havemultiple causes. Let us now discuss these twostreams separately.

Psychology as a Natural Science

It has been mentioned earlier that psychologyhas its roots in philosophy. However, modernpsychology has developed because of theapplication of the scientific method to studypsychological phenomenon. Science places agreat deal of emphasis on objectivity whichcan be obtained if there is consensus on thedefinition of a concept and how it can be


measured. Psychology influenced by Descartesand later on by the developments in physicshas grown by following what is called ahypothetico-deductive model. The modelsuggests that scientific advancement can takeplace if you have a theory to explain aphenomenon. For example, physicists havewhat is called a Big-bang theory to explainhow the universe came to be formed. Theoryis nothing else but a set of statements abouthow a certain complex phenomenon can beexplained with the help of propositions whichare interrelated. Based on a theory, scientistsdeduce or propose a hypothesis, that offers atentative explanation of how a certainphenomenon takes place. The hypothesis thenis tested and proved true or false based onempirical data that one has gathered. Thetheory is revised if data gathered point in adifferent direction than the one suggested bythe hypothesis. Using the above approachpsychologists have developed theories oflearning, memory, attention, perception,motivation and emotion, etc. and have madesignificant progress. Till date, most of theresearch in psychology follows this approach.Apart from this, psychologists have also beenconsiderably influenced by the evolutionaryapproach which is dominant in biologicalsciences. This approach has also been usedto explain diverse kinds of psychologicalphenomenon such as attachment andaggression to mention just a few.

Psychology as a Social Science

We mentioned above that psychology isrecognised more as a social science becauseit studies the behaviour of human beings intheir socio-cultural contexts. Humans are notonly influenced by their socio-culturalcontexts, they also create them. Psychologyas a social science discipline focuses onhumans as social beings. Consider thefollowing story of Ranjita and Shabnam.

Ranjita and Shabnam were in the sameclass. Although, they were in the same class,they were just acquainted with each other andtheir lives were quite different. Ranjita came

from a farmer’s family. Her grandparents,parents and elder brother worked on their farm.They lived together in their house in the village.Ranjita was a good athlete and was the bestlong distance runner in the school. She lovedmeeting people and making friends.

Unlike her, Shabnam lived with her motherin the same village. Her father worked in anoffice in a town nearby and came home duringholidays. Shabnam was a good artist and lovedstaying home and taking care of her youngerbrother. She was shy and avoided meetingpeople.

Last year there was very heavy rain andthe river nearby overflowed into the village.Many houses in the low lying areas wereflooded. The villagers got together andorganised help and gave shelter to people indistress. Shabnam’s house was also floodedand she came to live in Ranjita’s house withher mother and brother. Ranjita was happyhelping the family and making them feelcomfortable in her house. When the flood waterreceded, Ranjita’s mother and grandmotherhelped Shabnam’s mother to set-up their house.The two families became very close. Ranjitaand Shabnam also became very good friends.

In this case of Ranjita and Shabnam, bothare very different persons. They grew up indifferent families under complex social andcultural conditions. You can see someregularity in the relationship of their nature,experience and mental processes with theirsocial and physical environment. But at thesame time, there are variations in theirbehaviours and experiences which would bedif ficult to predict using the knownpsychological principles. One can understandwhy and how individuals in communitiesbecome quite helpful and self-sacrificing incrisis as was the case with the people in thevillage of Ranjita and Shabnam. But, even inthat case, not every villager was equally helpfuland also under similar circumstances notevery community is so forthcoming; in fact,sometimes, the opposite is true – peoplebecome antisocial under similarcircumstances indulging in looting and

Psychology6

exploitation when some crisis occurs. Thisshows that psychology deals with humanbehaviour and experience in the context oftheir society and culture. Thus, psychology isa social science with focus on the individualsand communities in relation to their socio-cultural and physical environment.

UNDERSTANDING MIND AND BEHAVIOUR

You will recall that psychology was oncedefined as a science of the mind. For manydecades, the mind remained a taboo inpsychology because it could not be defined inconcrete behavioural terms or its locationcould not be indicated. If the term “mind” hasreturned to psychology, we should thankneuroscientists like Sperry and physicists likePenrose, who have given it the respect whichit deserved and now has. There are scientistsin various disciplines including psychology,who think that a unified theory of the mind isa possibility, although it still is far away.

What is mind? Is it the same as brain? Itis true that mind cannot exist without brain,but mind is a separate entity. This can beappreciated on account of several interestingcases that have been documented. Somepatients whose occipital lobes, which areresponsible for vision, were surgically removedhave been found to be responding correctly tolocation and configuration of visual cues.Similarly, an amateur athlete lost his arm ina motorcycle accident but continued to feelan “arm” and also continued to feel itsmovements. When of fered cof fee, his“phantom arm” reached out to the coffee cupand when someone pulled it away, heprotested. There are other similar casesdocumented by neuroscientists. A young manwho suffered brain injury in an accident, afterhe returned home from the hospital, claimedthat his parents had been replaced by their“duplicates”. They were imposters. In each ofthese cases, the person had suffered fromdamage of some part of the brain but his“mind” had remained intact. It was earlierbelieved by scientists that there is no

relationship between the mind and the bodyand that they were parallel to each other.Recent studies in affective neuroscience haveclearly shown that there is a relationshipbetween mind and behaviour. It has beenshown that using positive visualisationtechniques and feeling positive emotions, onecan bring about significant changes in bodilyprocesses. Ornish has shown this in a numberof studies with his patients. In these studies aperson with blocked arteries was made tovisualise that blood was flowing through her/his blocked arteries. After practicing this overa period of time, significant relief was obtainedby these patients as the degree of blockagebecame significantly less. Use of mentalimagery, i.e. images generated by a person inher/his mind, have been used to cure variouskinds of phobias (irrational fears of objects andsituations). A new discipline calledPsychoneuroimmunology has emerged whichemphasises the role played by the mind instrengthening the immune system.

Imagine and visualise yourself in the followingsituations. Mention three psychological processesinvolved in each situation.

1. You are writing an essay for a competition.2. You are chatting with a friend on an

interesting topic.3. You are playing football.4. You are watching a soap opera on TV.5. Your best friend has hurt you.6. You are appearing in an examination.7. You are expecting an important visitor.8. You are preparing a speech to deliver in your

school.9. You are playing chess.

10. You are trying to figure out the answer of adifficult mathematics problem.Discuss your answers with the teacher and

classmates.

ActivityActivityActivityActivityActivity 1.1

POPULAR NOTIONS ABOUT THE DISCIPLINE

OF PSYCHOLOGY

We mentioned above that everyday, almosteveryone of us acts like a psychologist. We


try to understand why someone behaved inthe manner in which s/he did and come upwith ready explanations. Not only this, mostof us have developed our own theory ofhuman behaviour. If we want some workerto perform better than s/he has in the past,we know that we will need to push her/him.Maybe even use a stick because people arebasically lazy. Such popular theories ofhuman behaviour based on common sensemay or may not be true if investigatedscientifically. In fact, you will find thatcommon sensical explanations of humanbehaviour are based on hindsight and explainvery little. For example, if a friend you lovegoes away to a distant place, what willhappen to your attraction for her/him? Thereare two sayings which you may recall toanswer this question. One of them is “Out ofsight, out of mind”. The second one is“Distance makes the heart grow fonder”. Bothof them make opposite statements, so whichone is true. The explanation you choose willdepend on what happens in your life afteryour friend leaves. Suppose you are able tofind a new friend, the saying “Out of sight,out of mind” will be used by you or others toexplain your behaviour. If you are unable tofind a new friend, you will keep rememberingyour friend fondly. In this case, the saying“Distance makes the heart grow fonder” willexplain your behaviour. Notice that in bothcases the explanation follows the occurrenceof behaviour. Common sense is based onhindsight. Psychology as a science looks forpatterns of behaviour which can be predictedand not explained after the behaviour occurs.

Scientific knowledge generated bypsychology often runs against common sense.One such example is a study performed byDweck (1975). She was concerned withchildren who gave up too easily when facedwith a difficult problem or failure. Shewondered how they could be helped. Commonsense tells us to give them easy problems inorder to increase their success rate so thattheir confidence goes up. Only later shouldwe give them difficult problems which theywill be able to solve because of their new-found

confidence. Dweck’s study tested this. Shetook two groups of students who were trainedfor 25 days in solving math problems. The firstgroup was given easy problems which they werealways able to solve. The second group had amix of easy and difficult problems. Obviously,in case of difficult problems, they failed.Whenever this happened Dweck told them thattheir failure was because they had not triedhard enough and persuaded them not to giveup and keep trying. After the training periodwas over, a new set of math problems weregiven to the two groups. What Dweck foundgoes against common belief. Those who hadalways succeeded because they were giveneasy problems, gave up much faster when theyfaced failure than those who had experienceof both success and failure and were taughtto attribute failure to their lack of effort.

There are many other common sensenotions which you may not find to be true.Not too long ago it was believed in somecultures that men are more intelligent thanwomen or women cause more accidents thanmen. Empirical studies have shown that bothof these are untrue. Common sense also tellsus that one is not able to give one’s best if youare asked to perform before a large audience.Psychological studies have shown that if youhave practiced well, you may actually performbetter because the presence of others helpsyour performance.

It is hoped that as you go through thistextbook you will discover that many of yourbeliefs and understanding of human behaviourwill change. You will also gather thatpsychologists are different from astrologers,tantriks and palm readers because theysystematically examine propositions based ondata to develop principles about humanbehaviour and other psychological phenomena.

Ask a cross-section of students about what theythink psychology is? Draw a comparison betweenwhat they say and what the textbook tells you.What conclusion can you draw?


Psychology8

EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology as a modern discipline, which isinfluenced to a large extent by Westerndevelopments, has a short history. It grew outof ancient philosophy concerned withquestions of psychological significance. Wementioned earlier that the formal beginningof modern psychology is traced back to 1879when the first experimental laboratory wasestablished in Leipzig, Germany by WilhelmWundt. Wundt was interested in the study ofconscious experience and wanted to analysethe constituents or the building blocks of themind. Psychologists during Wundt’s timeanalysed the structure of the mind throughintrospection and therefore were calledstructuralists. Introspection was a procedurein which individuals or subjects inpsychological experiments were asked todescribe in detail, their own mental processesor experiences. However, introspection as amethod did not satisfy many otherpsychologists. It was considered less scientificbecause the introspective reports could notbe verified by outside observers. This led tothe development of new perspectives inpsychology.

An American psychologist, William James,who had set up a psychological laboratory inCambridge, Massachusetts soon after thesetting up of the Leipzig laboratory, developedwhat was called a functionalist approach tothe study of the human mind. William Jamesbelieved that instead of focusing on thestructure of the mind, psychology shouldinstead study what the mind does and howbehaviour functions in making people dealwith their environment. For example,functionalists focused on how behaviourenabled people to satisfy their needs.According to William James, consciousnessas an ongoing stream of mental processinteracting with the environment formed thecore of psychology. A very influentialeducational thinker of the time, John Dewey,used functionalism to argue that humanbeings seek to function effectively by adaptingto their environment.

In the early 20th century, a new perspectivecalled Gestalt psychology emerged inGermany as a reaction to the structuralism ofWundt. It focused on the organisation ofperceptual experiences. Instead of looking atthe components of the mind, the Gestaltpsychologists argued that when we look at theworld our perceptual experience is more thanthe sum of the components of the perception.In other words, what we experience is morethan the inputs received from our environment.When, for example, light from a series offlashing bulbs falls on our retina, we actuallyexperience movement of light. When we see amovie, we actually have a series of rapidlymoving images of still pictures falling on ourretina. Thus, our perceptual experience is morethan the elements. Experience is holistic; it isa Gestalt. We will learn more about the Gestaltpsychology when we discuss about the natureof perception in Chapter 5.

Yet another reaction to structuralism camein the form of behaviourism. Around 1910,John Watson rejected the ideas of mind andconsciousness as subject matters ofpsychology. He was greatly influenced by thework of physiologists like Ivan Pavlov onclassical conditioning. For Watson, mind is notobservable and introspection is subjectivebecause it cannot be verified by anotherobserver. According to him, scientificpsychology must focus on what is observableand verifiable. He defined psychology as a studyof behaviour or responses (to stimuli) whichcan be measured and studied objectively.Behaviourism of Watson was further developedby many influential psychologists who areknown as behaviourists. Most prominentamong them was Skinner who appliedbehaviourism to a wide range of situations andpopularised the approach. We will discussSkinner’s work later in this textbook.

Although behaviourists dominated the fieldof psychology for several decades after Watson,a number of other approaches and views aboutpsychology and its subject matter weredeveloping around the same time. One personwho shook the world with his radical view ofhuman nature was Sigmund Freud. Freud


viewed human behaviour as a dynamicmanifestation of unconscious desires andconflicts. He founded psychoanalysis as asystem to understand and cure psychologicaldisorders. While Freudian psychoanalysisviewed human beings as motivated byunconscious desire for gratification of pleasureseeking (and often, sexual) desires, thehumanistic perspective in psychology tooka more positive view of human nature.Humanists, such as Carl Rogers and AbrahamMaslow, emphasised the free will of humanbeings and their natural striving to grow and

unfold their inner potential. They argued thatbehaviourism with its emphasis on behaviouras determined by environmental conditionsundermines human freedom and dignity andtakes a mechanistic view of human nature.

These different approaches filled thehistory of modern psychology and providedmultiple perspectives to its development. Eachof these perspectives has its own focus anddraws our attention to the complexity ofpsychological processes. There are strengthsas well as weaknesses in each approach. Someof these approaches have led to further

1879 Wilhelm Wundt establishes the firstpsychology laboratory in Leipzig,Germany.

1890 William James publishes Principles ofPsychology.

1895 Functionalism is formulated as a systemof psychology.

1900 Sigmund Freud develops Psychoanalysis.1904 Ivan Pavlov wins the Nobel Prize for his

work on digestive system that led tounderstanding of principles ofdevelopment of responses.

1905 Intelligence test developed by Binet andSimon.

1916 First Psychology Department at CalcuttaUniversity is established.

1920 Gestalt psychology is born in Germany.1922 Psychology is included in Indian Science

Congress Association.1924 Indian Psychological Association is

founded.1924 John B. Watson publishes ‘Behaviourism’,

a book that led to the foundation ofbehaviourism.

1928 N.N. Sengupta and Radhakamal Mukerjeepublish the first textbook on SocialPsychology (London : Allen & Unwin).

1949 Psychological Research Wing of theDefence Science Organisation of India isestablished.

1951 Humanistic psychologist Carl Rogerspublishes Client-Centred Therapy.

1953 B.F. Skinner publishes ‘Science andHuman Behaviour’, strengthening

BoxBoxBoxBoxBox 1.1 Some Interesting Landmarks in the ESome Interesting Landmarks in the ESome Interesting Landmarks in the ESome Interesting Landmarks in the ESome Interesting Landmarks in the Evolution of Modern Pvolution of Modern Pvolution of Modern Pvolution of Modern Pvolution of Modern Psychologysychologysychologysychologysychology

behaviourism as a major approach topsychology.

1954 Humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslowpublishes ‘Motivation and Personality’.

1954 Bureau of Psychology is established atAllahabad.

1955 National Institute of Mental Health andNeurosciences (NIMHANS) is established atBangalore.

1962 Hospital for Mental Diseases in Ranchi isestablished.

1973 Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen win theNobel Prize for their work on built-in species-specific animal behaviour patterns thatemerge without any prior experience/learning.

1978 Herbert Simon wins the Nobel Prize for workon decision-making.

1981 David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel win the NobelPrize for their research on vision cells in thebrain.

1981 Roger Sperry wins the Nobel Prize for split-brain research.

1989 National Academy of Psychology (NAOP) Indiawas founded.

1997 National Brain Research Centre (NBRC) isestablished at Gurgaon, Haryana.

2002 Daniel Kahneman wins the Nobel Prize forresearch on human judgment and decision-making under uncertainty.

2005 Thomas Schelling wins the Nobel Prize for hiswork in applying Game Theory tounderstanding of conflict and cooperation ineconomic behaviour.

Psychology10

developments in the discipline. Aspects ofGestalt approach and structuralism werecombined and led to the development of thecognitive perspective which focuses on howwe know about the world. Cognition is theprocess of knowing. It involves thinking,understanding, perceiving, memorising,problem solving and a host of other mentalprocesses by which our knowledge of the worlddevelops, making us able to deal with theenvironment in specific ways. Some cognitivepsychologists view the human mind as aninformation processing system like thecomputer. Mind, according to this view is likea computer and it receives, processes,transforms, stores and retrieves information.Modern cognitive psychology views humanbeings as actively constructing their mindsthrough their exploration into the physical andthe social world. This view is sometimes calledconstructivism. Piaget’s view of childdevelopment which will be discussed later isconsidered a constructivist theory ofdevelopment of the mind. Another Russianpsychologist Vygotsky went even further tosuggest that the human mind developsthrough social and cultural processes in whichthe mind is viewed as culturally constructedthrough joint interaction between adults andchildren. In other words, while for Piagetchildren actively construct their own minds,Vygotsky took a view that mind is a jointcultural construction and emerges as a resultof interaction between children and adults.

DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA

The Indian philosophical tradition is rich inits focus on mental processes and reflectionson human consciousness, self, mind-bodyrelations, and a variety of mental functionssuch as cognition, perception, illusion,attention and reasoning, etc. Unfortunately,philosophical roots in the Indian tradition havenot influenced the development of modernpsychology in India. The development of thediscipline in India continues to be dominatedby western psychology, although someattempts have been made to find points of

departure both within the country and abroad.These attempts have tried to establish thetruth value of various assertions in Indianphilosophical traditions through scientificstudies.

The modern era of Indian psychologybegan in the Department of Philosophy atCalcutta University where the first syllabusof experimental psychology was introducedand the first psychology laboratory wasestablished in 1915. Calcutta Universitystarted the first Department of Psychology inthe year 1916 and another Department ofApplied Psychology in 1938. The beginning ofmodern experimental psychology at CalcuttaUniversity was greatly influenced by the Indianpsychologist Dr. N.N. Sengupta who wastrained in USA in the experimental traditionof Wundt. Professor G. Bose was trained inFreudian psychoanalysis, another area whichinfluenced the early development ofpsychology in India. Professor Boseestablished Indian PsychoanalyticalAssociation in 1922. Departments ofPsychology in the Universities of Mysore andPatna were other early centres of teaching andresearch in psychology. From these modestbeginnings, modern psychology has grown asa strong discipline in India with a large numberof centres of teaching, research andapplications. There are two centers ofexcellence in psychology supported by theUGC at Utkal University, Bhubaneswar andat the University of Allahabad. About 70universities offer courses in psychology.

Durganand Sinha in his book Psychologyin a Third World Country: The IndianExperience published in 1986 traces thehistory of modern psychology as a socialscience in India in four phases. According tohim, the first phase till independence was aphase with emphasis on experimental,psychoanalytic and psychological testingresearch, which primarily reflected thedevelopment of the discipline in westerncountries. The second phase till the 1960s wasa phase of expansion of psychology in Indiainto different branches of psychology. Duringthis phase Indian psychologists showed a


desire to have an Indian identity by seekingto link western psychology to the Indiancontext. They did this by using western ideasto understand the Indian situation. However,psychology in India sought to become relevantfor Indian society in the post 1960s phase ofproblem-oriented research. Psychologistsbecame more focused on addressing theproblems of the Indian society. Further, thelimitations of excessive dependence onwestern psychology for our social context werealso realised. Leading psychologistsemphasised the significance of research, whichis of relevance to our situation. The search fora new identity of psychology in India led tothe phase of indigenisation, which startedduring the late 1970s. Besides rejecting thewestern framework, Indian psychologistsstressed the need for developing anunderstanding based on a framework, whichwas culturally and socially relevant. This trendwas also reflected in some attempts to developpsychological approaches based on traditionalIndian psychology, which came from ourancient texts and scriptures. Thus, this phaseis characterised by development in indigenouspsychology, which originated from the Indiancultural context and was relevant for societyand Indian psychology based on the Indiantraditional knowledge system. While thesedevelopments continue, psychology in Indiais making significant contributions to the fieldof psychology in the world. It has become morecontextual emphasising the need fordeveloping psychological principles, which arerooted in our own social and cultural context.Alongside, we also find that new researchstudies involving interfaces with neuro-biological and health sciences are being carriedout.

Psychology in India is now being appliedin diverse professional areas. Not only havepsychologists been working with childrenhaving special problems, they are employedin hospitals as clinical psychologists, incorporate organisations in the HRD andadvertising departments, in sportsdirectorates, in the development sector andin IT industry.

BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

Various fields of specialisation in psychologyhave emerged over the years. Some of theseare discussed in this section.

Cognitive Psychology investigates mentalprocesses involved in acquisition, storage,manipulation, and transformation ofinformation received from the environmentalong with its use and communication. Themajor cognitive processes are attention,perception, memory, reasoning, problemsolving, decision-making and language. Youwill be studying these topics later in thistextbook. In order to study these cognitiveprocesses, psychologists conduct experimentsin laboratory settings. Some of them also followan ecological approach, i.e. an approach whichfocuses on the environmental factors, to studycognitive processes in a natural setting.Cognitive psychologists often collaborate withneuroscientists and computer scientists.

Biological Psychology focuses on therelationship between behaviour and thephysical system, including the brain and therest of the nervous system, the immunesystem, and genetics. Biological psychologistsoften collaborate with neuroscientists,zoologists, and anthropologists.Neuropsychology has emerged as a field ofresearch where psychologists andneuroscientists are working together.Researchers are studying the role ofneurotransmitters or chemical substanceswhich are responsible for neuralcommunication in different areas of the brainand therefore in associated mental functions.They do their research on people with normalfunctioning brain as well as on people withdamaged brain by following advancedtechnologies like EEG, PET and fMRI, etc.about which you will study later.

Developmental Psychology studies thephysical, social and psychological changesthat occur at different ages and stages over alife-span, from conception to old age. Theprimary concern of developmental

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psychologists is how we become what we are.For many years the major emphasis was onchild and adolescent development. Howevertoday an increasing number of developmentalpsychologists show strong interest in adultdevelopment and ageing. They focus on thebiological, socio-cultural and environmentalfactors that influence psychologicalcharacteristics such as intelligence, cognition,emotion, temperament, morality, and socialrelationship. Developmental psychologistscollaborate with anthropologists,educationists, neurologists, social workers,counsellors and almost every branch ofknowledge where there is a concern for growthand development of a human being.

Social Psychology explores how people areaffected by their social environments, howpeople think about and influence others.Social psychologists are interested in suchtopics as attitudes, conformity and obedienceto authority, interpersonal attraction, helpfulbehaviour, prejudice, aggression, socialmotivation, inter-group relations and so on.

Cross-cultural and Cultural Psychologyexamines the role of culture in understandingbehaviour, thought, and emotion. It assumesthat human behaviour is not only a reflectionof human-biological potential but also aproduct of culture. Therefore behaviour shouldbe studied in its socio-cultural context. As youwill be studying in different chapters of thisbook, culture influences human behaviour inmany ways and in varying degrees.

Environmental Psychology studies theinteraction of physical factors such astemperature, humidity, pollution, and naturaldisasters on human behaviour. The influenceof physical arrangement of the workplace onhealth, the emotional state, and interpersonalrelations are also investigated. Current topicsof research in this field are the extent to which,disposal of waste, population explosion,conservation of energy, efficient use ofcommunity resources are associated with andare functions of human behaviour.

Health Psychology focuses on the role ofpsychological factors (for example, stress,anxiety) in the development, prevention andtreatment of illness. Areas of interest for ahealth psychologist are stress and coping, therelationship between psychological factors andhealth, patient-doctor relationship and waysof promoting health enhancing factors.

Clinical and Counselling Psychology dealswith causes, treatment and prevention ofdifferent types of psychological disorders suchas anxiety, depression, eating disorders andchronic substance abuse. A related area iscounselling, which aims to improve everydayfunctioning by helping people solve problemsin daily living and cope more effectively withchallenging situations. The work of clinicalpsychologists does not differ from that ofcounselling psychologists although acounselling psychologist sometimes deals withpeople who have less serious problems. Inmany instances, counselling psychologistswork with students, advising them aboutpersonal problems and career planning. Likeclinical psychologists, psychiatrists also studythe causes, treatment, and prevention ofpsychological disorders. How are clinicalpsychologists and psychiatrists different? Aclinical psychologist has a degree inpsychology, which includes intensive trainingin treating people with psychological disorders.In contrast, a psychiatrist has a medical degreewith years of specialised training in thetreatment of psychological disorders. Oneimportant distinction is that psychiatrists canprescribe medications and give electroshocktreatments whereas clinical psychologistcannot.

Industrial/Organisational Psychology dealswith workplace behaviour, focusing on both theworkers and the organisations that employthem. Industrial/organisational psychologistsare concerned with training employees,improving work conditions, and developingcriteria for selecting employees. For example,an organisational psychologist mightrecommend that a company may adopt a newmanagement structure that would increase


communication between managers and staff.The background of industrial andorganisational psychologists often includestraining in cognitive and social psychology.

Educational Psychology studies how peopleof all ages learn. Educational psychologistsprimarily help develop instructional methodsand materials used to train people in botheducational and work settings. They are alsoconcerned with research on issues of relevancefor education, counselling and learningproblems. A related field, school psychology,focuses on designing programmes thatpromote intellectual, social, and emotionaldevelopment of children, including those withspecial needs. They try to apply knowledge ofpsychology in a school setting.

Sports Psychology applies psychologicalprinciples to improve sports performance byenhancing their motivation. Sports psychologyis a relatively new field but is gainingacceptance worldwide.

Other Emerging Branches of Psychology :The interdisciplinary focus on research andapplication of psychology has led to theemergence of varied areas like aviationpsychology, space psychology, military

psychology, forensic psychology, ruralpsychology, engineering psychology,managerial psychology, communitypsychology, psychology of women, andpolitical psychology, to name a few. Try theActivity 1.3 to reflect upon your interest areasin psychology.

THEMES OF RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS

In the previous section, you got some idea ofthe various branches of psychology. If youwere to ask a simple question about “whatpsychologists do?”, the usual answer will bethat they do several things while working in avariety of settings. However, if you try toanalyse their work, you will notice that theybasically engage in two kinds of activities. Oneis research in psychology; the other isapplication of psychology.

What are some of the themes whichprovide direction to research and applicationof psychology? There are several such themes.We will focus on some of them.

Theme 1 : Psychology like other sciencesattempts to develop principles of behaviour andmental processes.

In research, the main concern is with theunderstanding and explanation of behaviourand mental events and processes.Psychologists, who choose to engage inresearch, function more like other scientists.Like them, they draw conclusions which aresupported by data. They design and conductexperiments or studies under controlledconditions on a wide range of psychologicalphenomena. The purpose is to develop generalprinciples about behaviour and mentalprocesses. The conclusions drawn on the basisof such studies apply to everybody and are,therefore, universal. Experimental,comparative, physiological, developmental,social, differential and abnormal psychologyare generally regarded as domainsrepresenting “basic psychology”.

The themes of research in these fields differfrom each other. For example, experimental

Think about the areas of psychology that you haveread in the text. Go through the list given belowand rank them from 1 (most interesting) to 11 (leastinteresting).

Cognitive psychologyBiological psychologyDevelopmental psychologySocial psychologyCross-cultural and cultural psychologyEnvironmental psychologyHealth psychologyClinical and counselling psychologyIndustrial/Organisational psychologyEducational psychologySports psychology

After going through this textbook and completingthe course you may like to return to this activityand mark the changes in your ranking.


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psychologists study the processes ofperception, learning, memory, thinking, andmotivation, etc., using experiment as theirmethod of enquiry, whereas physiologicalpsychologists attempt to examinephysiological bases of these behaviours.Developmental psychologists study qualitativeand quantitative changes in behaviour fromthe beginning of human life to its end, whereassocial psychologists focus on the study ofexperience and behaviour of individuals asthey take place in social contexts.

Theme 2 : Human behaviour is a function ofthe attributes of persons and environment.

Kurt Lewin first proposed the famousequation B = f(P,E) – which suggests thatbehaviour is the product of a person and her/his environment. What this equation simplytells us is that the variations we find in humanbehaviour are largely due to the fact thatpersons differ with respect to their variousattributes because of their geneticendowments and diverse experiences and sodo the environments they are placed in. Herethe environment is conceptualised as it isperceived or made sense of by the person.Psychologists have for a long time consideredthat no two individuals are the same, if oneconsiders their psychological attributes. Theyvary with respect to their intelligence,interests, values, aptitudes and various otherpersonality characteristics. In fact,psychological tests came to be constructed tomeasure such differences. A disciplinecalled, differential psychology, which focusedon individual differences emerged andflourished in the late nineteenth and earlytwentieth century. Most of it still remains inthe form of personality psychology.Psychologists believe that although, corepsychological processes are universal, they aresusceptible to individual dispositions. Besidesindividual differences, psychologists alsobelieve that there are variations in behaviourwhich occur due to environmental factors.This is a view which psychologists have takenfrom anthropologists, evolutionary theorists

and biologists. Psychologists look forexplanations of various psychologicalphenomena based on individual-environmentinteractions. Although it is difficult,psychologists do seek out the relativeimportance of heredity and environment inexplaining human behaviour.

Theme 3 : Human behaviour is caused.Most psychologists believe that all human

behaviour can be explained in terms of causeswhich are internal (to the organism) or externalhaving location in the outside environment.Causal explanations are central to all sciencesbecause without understanding them noprediction will be possible. Although,psychologists look for causal explanations ofbehaviour, they also realise that simple linearexplanations, such as X Causing Y do not holdtrue. There is no one cause of behaviour.Human behaviour has multiple causes.Psychologists, therefore, look for causalmodels where a set of interdependent variablesare used to explain a behaviour. When it issaid that behaviour has multiple causes, itmeans that it is difficult to pinpoint one causeof a behaviour because it may itself be causedby another variable, which in turn may becaused by some other.

Theme 4 : Understanding of human behaviouris culturally constructed.

This is a theme which has recentlysurfaced. There are psychologists who believethat most psychological theories and modelsare Euro-American in nature and therefore,do not help us in understanding behavioursin other cultural settings. Psychologists fromAsia, Africa and Latin America have beencritical of Euro-American approaches whichare propagated as universal. A similar critiqueis made by feminists who argue thatpsychology offers a male perspective andignores the perspective of women. They arguein favour of a dialectical approach which willaccommodate both male and femaleperspectives in understanding humanbehaviour.


Theme 5 : Human behaviour can be controlledand modified through the application ofpsychological principles.

Why do scientists like to know how certainevents can be controlled, be they physical orpsychological? Their concern arises from theirdesire to develop techniques or methods thatwill improve the quality of human life.Psychologists also seek the same whileapplying knowledge generated by them.

This often requires removal of certaindif ficulties or adverse conditions thatindividuals experience in different phases oftheir life. Consequently, psychologists makecertain interventions into the lives of needypeople. This applied role of psychologists has,on the one hand, brought the subject closerto the life of people in general than other socialscience subjects and in knowing the limits ofthe applicability of its principles. On the otherhand, this role has also been very helpful inpopularising psychology as a subject in itself.Thus, several independent branches ofpsychology have emerged that try to usepsychological theories, principles and facts todiagnose and resolve problems related toindustrial and organisational settings, clinicalservices, education, environment, health,community development and so on. Industrialpsychology, organisational psychology, clinicalpsychology, educational psychology,engineering psychology and sports psychologyrepresent some of the areas in whichpsychologists are engaged in deliveringservices to individuals, groups or institutions.

Basic vs Applied Psychology

It may be noted at this point that various areasput under the rubrics of “basic” and “applied”psychology are identified only on the basis oftheir emphasis on the study of certain subjectmatters and broader concerns. There is nosharp cleavage between research andapplication of psychology. For example, basicpsychology provides us with theories andprinciples that form the basis of applicationof psychology and applied psychology providesus with different contexts in which the theories

and principles derived from research can bemeaningfully applied. On the other hand,research is an integral part of even those fieldsof psychology that are mainly characterisedby or subsumed under the category ofapplication. Due to ever increasing demandsof psychology in different settings, many fieldsthat were regarded as primarily “research-oriented” in previous decades, have alsogradually turned into “application-oriented”.Newly emerging disciplines like appliedexperimental psychology, applied socialpsychology, and applied developmentalpsychology indicate that in fact all psychologyhas the potential of application and is basicallyapplied in nature.

Thus, there is seemingly no fundamentaldifference between research and applicationof psychology. These activities are highlyinterrelated and mutually reinforcing. Theirmutual interactions and pervasive influenceson each other have become so specific thatseveral offshoots have emerged in recent yearswith very specific emphasis on their subjectmatters. Thus, ecological psychology,environmental psychology, cross-culturalpsychology, biological psychology, spacepsychology, and cognitive psychology, tomention a few, have come up as new andfrontier areas of research and application thatpreviously formed part of other fields ofpsychology. These newer developmentsrequire highly specialised research skills andtraining on the part of researchers than everbefore.

PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER DISCIPLINES

Any discipline, which deals with people, woulddefinitely recognise the relevance of theknowledge of psychology. Similarlypsychologists also acknowledge the relevanceof other disciplines in understanding humanbehaviour. This trend has led to the emergenceof interdisciplinary approach in the field ofpsychology. Researchers and scholars inscience, social science and humanities havefelt the significance of psychology as adiscipline. Figure 1.1 clearly shows the

Psychology16

relationship of psychology with otherdisciplines. In studying brain and behaviour,psychology shares its knowledge withneurology, physiology, biology, medicine andcomputer science. In studying humanbehaviour (its meaning, growth anddevelopment) in a socio-cultural context,psychology shares its knowledge withanthropology, sociology, social work, politicalscience and economics. In studying mentalactivities involved in creation of literary texts,music and drama, psychology shares itsknowledge with literature, art and music.Some of the major disciplines linked to thefield of psychology are discussed below:

Philosophy : Until the end of the 19th century,certain concerns that are now part ofcontemporary psychology like, what is thenature of the mind or how do humans cometo know their motivations and emotions werethe concerns of philosophers. In the later partof the 19th century, Wundt and otherpsychologists adopted an experimentalapproach to these questions andcontemporary psychology emerged. Despitethe emergence of psychology as a science, itgreatly draws from philosophy, particularlywith respect to methods of knowing, andvarious domains of human nature.

Medicine : Doctors have realised that themaxim, healthy body requires a healthy mind,is actually true. A large number of hospitalsnow employ psychologists. The role ofpsychologists in preventing people fromengaging in health hazardous behaviours andin adhering to the prescribed doctors’ regimenare some of the important areas where thetwo disciplines have come together. Whiletreating patients suffering from cancer, AIDS,and the physically challenged, or handlingpatients in the Intensive Care Unit, andpatients during post operative care doctorshave also felt the need for psychologicalcounselling. A successful doctor looks at thepsychological as well as physical well-beingof the patients.

Economics, Political Science andSociology : As sister social science disciplines,these three have drawn considerably frompsychology and have enriched it as well.Psychology has contributed a great deal to thestudy of micro-level economic behaviour,particularly in understanding consumerbehaviour, savings behaviour and in decision-making. American economists have used dataon consumer sentiments to predict economicgrowth. Three scholars who have worked onsuch problems have received the Nobel Prizein Economics, namely H. Simon, D. Kahnemanand T. Schelling. Like economics, politicalscience too draws considerably frompsychology, particularly, in understandingissues related to exercise of power andauthority, nature of political conflicts and theirresolutions, and voting behaviour. Sociologyand psychology come together to explain andunderstand the behaviour of individualswithin different socio-cultural contexts. Issuesrelated to socialisation, group and collectivebehaviour, and intergroup conflicts gain fromboth these disciplines.

Computer Science : From the very beginning,the effort of computer science has been inmimicking the human mind. One can see it interms of how a ‘computer’ is structured, itsmemory organised, sequential andsimultaneous (read parallel) processing ofinformation. Computer scientists andengineers are seeking to make computers notonly more and more intelligent but alsomachines which can sense and feel.Developments in both these disciplines havebrought about significant advancement in thefield of cognitive sciences.

Law and Criminology : A skilled lawyer anda criminologist requires knowledge ofpsychology in answering such questions as:How well a witness remembers an accident, astreet fight, or a murder? How well can s/hereport such facts when taking the witnessstand in the court? What factors influence thedecision which is taken by the jury? What arethe dependable signs of guilt and falsehood?


What factors are held important in holding aculprit responsible for her/his action? Whatdegree of punishment is considered just for a

criminal act? Psychologists seek to answerthese questions. Currently, a number ofpsychologists are involved in research on such

Fig.1.1 : Psychology and Other Disciplines

Architecture and Engineering

Medicine/Psychiatry

Computer Science

Philosophy

Education

Music and Fine Arts

Sociology

Mass Communication

Law/Criminology

Psychology

Political Science Economics

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issues, the answers to which would help thelegal system of the country in the future.

Mass Communication : The print and theelectronic media have entered in our lives in avery big way. They have a major influence onour thinking, attitudes and our emotions. Ifthey have brought us closer together, they havealso reduced cultural diversities. The impactof the media on the formation of attitudes ofchildren and their behaviour is a domainwhere both these disciplines come together.Psychology also helps in developing strategiesfor better and effective communication. Ajournalist in reporting news must know thereader’s interests in the story. Since moststories deal with human events, knowledge oftheir motives and emotions is very important.A story will be more penetrating if based upona background of psychological knowledge andinsight.

Music and Fine Arts : Music and psychologyhave converged in many areas. Scientists havemade use of music in raising workperformance. Music and emotions is anotherarea in which a number of studies have beencarried out. Musicians in India have recentlystarted experimenting with what they call‘Music Therapy’. In this they use different‘Ragas’ for curing certain physical ailments.The efficacy of music therapy still remains tobe proven.

Architecture and Engineering : At first glancethe relationship between psychology andarchitecture and engineering would appearimprobable. But such is actually not the case.Ask any architect, s/he must satisfy her/hisclients by providing mental and physical spacethrough her design and satisfy aesthetically.Engineers must also take into account humanhabits in their plans for safety, for example,on streets and highways. Psychologicalknowledge helps in a big way in designing ofall mechanical devices and displays.

To sum up, psychology is located at theintersection of many fields of knowledgepertaining to human functioning.

PSYCHOLOGISTS AT WORK

Psychologists today work in a variety ofsettings where they can apply psychologicalprinciples for teaching and training people tocope effectively with the problems of their lives.Often referred to as “human service areas” theyinclude clinical counselling, community,school and organisational psychology.

Clinical psychologists specialise inhelping clients with behavioural problems byproviding therapy for various mentaldisorders and in cases of anxiety or fear, orwith stresses at home or at work. They workeither as private practitioners or at hospitals,mental institutions, or with social agencies.They may be involved in conductinginterviews and administering psychologicaltests to diagnose the client’s problems, anduse psychological methods for their treatmentand rehabilitation. Job opportunities inclinical psychology attract quite a few to thisfield of psychology.

Counselling psychologists work withpersons who suffer from motivational andemotional problems. The problems of theirclients are less serious than those of theclinical psychologists. A counsellingpsychologist may be involved in vocationalrehabilitation programmes, or helping personsin making professional choices or in adjustingto new and difficult situations of life.Counselling psychologists work for publicagencies such as mental health centres,hospitals, schools, colleges and universities.

Community psychologists generallyfocus on problems related to communitymental health. They work for mental healthagencies, private organisations and stategovernments. They help the community andits institutions in addressing physical andmental health problems. In rural areas theymay work to establish a mental health centre.In urban areas they may design a drugrehabilitation programme. Many communitypsychologists also work with specialpopulations such as the elderly or thephysically or mentally challenged. Besides theredirection and evaluation of various


programmes and plans, community basedrehabilitation (CBR) is of major interest tocommunity psychologists.

School psychologists work ineducational systems, and their roles varyaccording to the levels of their training. Forexample, some school psychologists onlyadminister tests, whereas others alsointerpret test results to help students withtheir problems. They also help in theformulation of school policies. They facilitatecommunication between parents, teachersand administrators, and also provide teachersand parents with information about theacademic progress of a student.

Organisational psychologists rendervaluable help in dealing with problems thatthe executives and employees of anorganisation tend to face in their respectiveroles. They provide organisations withconsultancy services and organise skilltraining programmes in order to enhance theiref ficiency and ef fectiveness. Someorganisational psychologists specialise inHuman Resource Development (HRD), whileothers in Organisational Development andChange Management programmes.

PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

The discussion above may have clarified thatpsychology is not only a subject that satisfiessome of the curiosities of our mind abouthuman nature, but it is also a subject thatcan offer solutions to a variety of problems.These may range from purely personal (forexample, a daughter having to face an alcoholicfather or a mother dealing with a problem child)to those that may be rooted within the familyset up (for example, lack of communication andinteraction among family members) or in alarger group or community setting (for example,terrorist groups or socially isolatedcommunities) or may have national orinternational dimensions. Problems related toeducation, health, environment, social justice,women development, intergroup relations, etc.are pervasive. While the solution of theseproblems may involve political, economic and

social reforms, interventions at the individuallevels are also needed in order to change. Manyof these problems are largely of psychologicalnature and they result from our unhealthythinking, negative attitude towards people andself and undesirable patterns of behaviour. Apsychological analysis of these problems helpsboth in having a deeper understanding of theseproblems and also in finding their effectivesolutions.

The potential of psychology in solving theproblems of life is being realised more andmore. Media has played a vital role in thisrespect. You may have seen on televisioncounsellors and therapists suggestingsolutions to a variety of problems related tochildren, adolescents, adults and the elderlypeople. You may also find them analysing vitalsocial problems relating to social change anddevelopment, population, poverty,interpersonal or intergroup violence, andenvironmental degradation. Manypsychologists now play an active role indesigning and executing interventionprogrammes in order to provide people with abetter quality of life. Hence, it is no surprisethat we find psychologists working in diversesettings such as schools, hospitals, industries,prisons, business organisations, militaryestablishments, and in private practice asconsultants helping people solve problems intheir respective settings.

Besides helping you in rendering socialservice to others, the knowledge of psychologyis also personally relevant to you in your day-to-day life. The principles and methods ofpsychology that you will learn in this courseshould be made use of in analysing andunderstanding yourself in relation to others.It is not that we do not think about ourselves.But very often, some of us think very highlyof ourselves and any feedback that contradictsour opinion about ourselves is rejectedbecause we engage in what is called adefensive behaviour. In some other cases,persons come to acquire a habit of runningdown themselves. Both conditions do notpermit us to grow. We need to have a positiveand balanced understanding of ourselves. You

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1. What is behaviour? Give examples of overt and covert behaviour.

2. How can you distinguish scientific psychology from the popular notions about thediscipline of psychology?

3. Give a brief account of the evolution of psychology.

Review QuestionsReview QuestionsReview QuestionsReview QuestionsReview Questions

Key TermsKey Terms

Behaviour, Behaviourism, Cognition, Cognitiveapproach, Consciousness, Constructivism,Developmental psychology, Functionalism,Gestalt, Gestalt psychology, Humanisticapproach, Introspection, Mind,Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology,Psychoanalysis, Sociology, Stimulus,Structuralism

may use psychological principles in a positivemanner to develop good habits of study forimproving your learning and memory, and forsolving your personal and interpersonalproblems by using appropriate decision-making strategies. You will also find it of useto reduce or alleviate the stress ofexamination. Thus, the knowledge ofpsychology is quite useful in our everyday life,and is rewarding from personal as well associal points of view.

Summary• Psychology is a modern discipline aimed at understanding the complexities of mental

processes, experiences and behaviour of individuals in different contexts. It is treated as anatural as well as a social science.

• The major schools of psychological thought are structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism,Gestalt school, psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology and cognitive psychology.

• Contemporary psychology is multivocal as it is characterised by many approaches ordiverse views, which explain behaviour at different levels. These approaches are notmutually exclusive. Each provides valuable insights into the complexities of humanfunctioning. The cognitive approach uses thought processes as central to psychologicalfunctions. The humanistic approach views human functioning as characterised by a desireto grow, be productive and fulfill human potential.

• Today psychologists work in many specialised fields which have their own theories andmethods. They make efforts to develop theories and solve problems in specific domains.Some of the major fields of psychology are: cognitive psychology, biological psychology,health psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, educational and schoolpsychology, clinical and counselling psychology, environmental psychology, industrial/organisational psychology, sports psychology.

• More recently a need is felt to have multi/interdisciplinary initiatives to arrive at a betterunderstanding of reality. This has led to a collaboration across disciplines. Interests ofpsychology overlap with social sciences (e.g., economics, political science, sociology),biosciences (e.g., neurology, physiology, medicine), mass communication, and music andfine arts. Such efforts have led to fruitful research and application.

• Psychology is a discipline not merely contributing to the development of theoreticalknowledge about human behaviour, but contributing to the solution of problems at differentlevels. Psychologists are employed to help in diverse activities in a variety of settingsincluding schools, hospitals, industries, training institutes, military and governmentestablishments. Many of them are doing private practice and are consultants.


1. This chapter tells you about several professionals in the field of psychology. Contact apsychologist who fits into one of the categories and interview the person. Have a list ofquestions prepared beforehand. Possible questions could be: (i) What kind of education isnecessary for your particular job? (ii) Which college/university would you recommend forthe study of this discipline? (iii) Are there many jobs available today in your area of work?(iv) What would a typical day at work be like for you – or is there no such thing as“typical”? (v) What motivated you to enter this line of work?

Write a report of your interview and include your specific reactions.2. Go to the library or some bookstore or surf the internet and obtain names of some books

(fiction/non-fiction or films), which have reference to applications of psychology.Prepare a report giving a brief synopsis.

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4. What are the problems for which collaboration of psychologists with other disciplinescan be fruitful? Take any two problems to explain.

5. Differentiate between (a) a psychologist and a psychiatrist (b) a counsellor and a clinicalpsychologist.

6. Describe some of the areas of everyday life where understanding of psychology can beput to practice.

7. How can knowledge of the field of environmental psychology be used to promoteenvironment friendly behaviour?

8. In terms of helping solve an important social problem such as crime, which branch ofpsychology do you think is most suitable. Identify the field and discuss the concerns ofthe psychologists working in this field.

chapter 1 what is ps what is...

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