CHAPTER 4COMPREHENSION INSTRUCTION

“Teaching Content Reading & Writing” by : Martha Rappp RuddellPresented by:Justin Balli, Anayeli Hernandez, Amanda Casas, Chelsi Borjas, and Angela J. Haley-Aguilera

The Comprehension Process and Comprehension Instruction

The common academic goal of reading is text comprehension.

Reading has three additional goals: Subject Matter Learning: Students read to

understand text but to extend their knowledge in subject areas as well.

Increasing Reading Skills: During each grade level, students are expected to become better readers and read increasingly difficult text.

Knowledge Application: Through middle and secondary grades, students are expected to apply knowledge from the reading of the subject text.

Centerpiece Lesson Plan

This lesson plan is constructed of the Directed Reading-Thinking Activity (DR-TA) and the Group Mapping Activity (GMA).

The following elements can be applied: Identification of the lesson being taught, course and grade level

the plan is for, and materials needed for the lesson. Identification of the lesson objectives, that state the students are

to know and be able to do at the end of the lesson Identification of content standards associated with each lesson

objective. Statement of lesson procedures that is written in such a way that

a substitute can comprehend and teach it the way the teacher intended.

Identification of lesson assessments that directly reflect students mastery of the objectives.

Provisions that guide students before, during, and after the learning event.

Example of Center Piece Lesson Plan for Mathematics

Turn to page 92. First set includes: The lesson, the

course/grade, and the materials required.

Lesson Objectives (with Content Standards)

Lesson Procedures: Before, During, and After motif.

Lesson Assessments: That includes the Observational Assessment and the Homework Assessment.

The Comprehension Process

The amount of redundancy present in text, controls to some extent the rate of progress and focus of reader energy and attention. The more or less skilled of the reader determines the pace of the learner.

Elements of thoughtful readers includes: Constantly search for connections between what they know and what

they encounter as new information in the text. Constantly monitor the adequacy of the models of text meaning they

build. Steps taken to repair faulty comprehension upon realization of failure. Distinguishing between important and less important in the text they

read from the text. Adept at synthesizing information within and across texts and across

reading experiences. Making inferences of the reading to achieve a full integrated

understanding of the text. Promoting self-made questions about the author, the texts, and

themselves.

-Continued; What Processes Mature Readers Use to Flexibly and Selectively Read

Being aware of their purposes for reading. Over viewing text before reading. Reading selectively. Making associations between new ideas and prior knowledge Evaluating and revising predictions as reading progresses Revising prior knowledge that is inconsistent with ideas in the

text. Figuring out meanings of new words. Underlining, rereading, and making notes. Interpreting text through imaginary conversations with the

author Evaluating the quality of the text Reviewing after reading Thinking about how to use/apply the information in the text

-Continued

Strategic Reading: Reading in which the reader not only knows what to do, but how to do it and when to do it.

Students are sometimes labeled as: Declarative: Knowing what to do. Procedural: Knowing how to do it. Conditional: Knowing when to do it.

Emphasis on skilled readers knowing the task at hand.

Guided Comprehension

Important goal for all students is that they become thoughtful, mature, and strategic readers of content texts.

Ways to help students to achieve this, is to teach in such a way that develops their characteristics of thoughtful, mature, strategic readers.

Goals of the instructional strategies in this chapter are focused on guiding comprehension.

Instructional practices assist students in learning and applying content knowledge as well.

The Directed Reading-Thinking Activity (DR-TA)

Introduced by Russell Stauffer in 1969 to develop higher level thinking while reading.

Key element of DR-TA is prediction. Teachers structure DR-TA lesson in such a way

that students: Make predictions about what they are going to read Read to see if predictions were accurate/useful Reconcile their predictions with what they read Revise or add predictions Read againTurn to page 97-99, to view textbook DR-TA excerpt

for physics.

STEPS IN THE DR-TA FOR ENGLISH

Step 1: Identifying Purposes for READING

Begins with students setting individual and group purposes for reading as they create intertextual links by combining prior knowledge with information in text to predict what the text is going to be about.

In discussion, new links occur, and students therefore return to text repeatedly with a purpose for reading; to get answers to questions arising fro their predictions or to see whether new information will cause theses predictions to be revise. In the first prediction, the reader had very little

information to go on; the last prediction, however, was focused and informed by prior knowledge.

DR-TA with Narrative and Extended Expository Text

Teachers’ role during discussion is to accept student predictions, making no judgment about how “correct” the predictions are, and to concentrate on follow-up probe questions after reading that assist students in making linkages between what they predicted and what they found and in articulating the reasons, logic and evidence for the predictions that were made.

Teacher’s role involves much more listening than talking Good DR-TA teachers quite often find themselves stating in

form of a class calling on students, nodding, and saying, “why?” , “ What makes you say that?”, “um-hmmm”, “Really”, etc.

One of the greatest values of a DR-TA is the sharing of diverse individual experiences and perceptions but this does not mean that DR-TA lessons compromise the integrity or precision of what is to be learned

Understanding of the subject matter infmormation is the final outcome.

First, because the text itself is different

DR-TA with other texts Different

First, because the text itself is different Example: mathematics texts generally have much less

extended exposition and often combine exposition with other signs systems.

Second, information is usually very densely packed in these texts, so it requires more discussion in fewer pages Example: in the algebra DR-TA discussion steps 4-8

covered only 1 ½ pages of the algebra text, whereas the full text of “Splendid Outcast” is 15 pages

Similar In each, student acquisition is of new information

informs and strengthens their predictions ad they progress through text

The Teacher’s Role

It is important for teachers to listen to what students say during DR-TA discussion They can learn a great deal about their prior

knowledge base and how they are creating textual links between what they know and what they are learning

The value here, then, is the sharing of personal background and reasoning, different as these may be, to increase everyone’s fund of knowledge, hone thinking skills and provide immediate purpose for reading.

Step 2: Adjusting Rate to Purpose and Material

Rate adjustment occurs in two dimensions 1. Rate and Flow of information (teacher determine) 2.Reading rate (student determine)

The teacher determines the amount of text to be revealed between stop and points and the length of discussion time at each.

Rate and flow information The first stop-point should occur immediately following a tile or

opening line. Students are invited to speculate about all the possible contexts into which the title(or line) might fit.

The second stop point may be after one or two paragraphs in some texts where introductory information provides clues as to the central ideas of the text, or it may be with other texts after the stated goals/aims/objectives of a chapter in which such information also resides.

From this point forward, the nature of the text determines the amount of text between stop-points.

A good rule is to have no more than four or five stops in one lesson.

The amount of time allowed determines how long students will have to think and draw conclusions or make decisions about what they are reading. It depends in part, on the amount of information available and the degree of student participation

Rate Adjustment The second of rate adjustment occurs spontaneously

as students alter their reading rates to meet both their own needs and the needs of discussion

The degree and amount of rate adjustment vary considerably from individual t individual

The importance here is that, for all students, situational demand requires the application of a reading skill that increases their efficiency and effectiveness as readers

Step 3: Observing the Reading The Round Robin Oral reading really does not belong

in the classroom because it simply leaves students on their own to sink or swim and the other because it promotes dependency by removing all responsibility for reading from them.

For instruction to be effective, a certain amount of guided silent reading needs to be done in school; it is not wasted time. Whether in a small groups or with an entire class, the

teacher can quickly learn which students are faster readers and which are slower, which are actually reading and which are not, which students exhibit signs of serious reading problems , what strategies they use to get meaning from text or figure out word , and many other details.

Oral reading can and should take place, either spontaneously when a student reads from text to support an opinion, or focused by teacher direction.

Teachers observations of both silen and oral reading yields information about individuals and groups that is useful for: Conducting the lesson at hand Planning subsequent lessons Selecting materials that are appropriate and

useful with this class Determining the amount and kind of guidance

needed for future instruction Making recommendations for students to be

screened for special programs

Step 4:Developing Comprehension It occurs as students combine prior knowledge and new

information to make predictions, read confirm or adjust their predictions, and then draw conclusions and speculate during class discussion. It also occurs during the periodic discussions as students compare their knowledge base with others’, review and revise their own logic, and add others’ ideas and viewpoints to their thinking.

Also critical to developing comprehension in the DR-TA are questioning strategies that teacher use to initiate and extend discussion.

The standard DR-TA has essentially two types of questions Questions that require speculation, prediction, and critical

analysis (can be seen in page 108-109) Questions that require drawing conclusions and/or providing

support (can be seen in page 108-109)

In the DR-TA, questions other than those that require making and supporting predictions and drawing conclusions are generally probes to assist students in articulating t their thinking.

The open-ended questions of the DR-TA focus attention on the larger issues, and thus literal meaning remains in rightful perspective. It is only when students response to the open-ended question indicates misunderstanding that literal questions are asked. Literal questions are asked immediately to clarify and remove the misunderstanding; as soon as that is accomplished, teacher questions should return to the types described earlier.

Step 5:Developing Fundamental skills and Assessment

When the reading is completed, the teacher directs the class in developing skills that are appropriate to student needs and instructional goals

Activities should extend student response to the text in some important way and may include solving problems, writing experiment logs, vocabulary study, various activities to organize ad combine information, or any of numerous writing activities.

The importance here is that 1. follow-up activities are thoughtful, meaningful additions to

the reading experience 2. assessments that accompany these activities reflect what

students were taught and the lesson objectives and content standards identified for the lesson

Turn to page 99-101, to view textbook DR-TA LESSON DEMONSTRATION for English.

Creating Strategic Readers-Becoming a strategic reader is essential for higher learning.

-One must use introspective and metacognitive thought.

-You can help students become strategic readers by using the DR-TA’s.

-By asking the students introspective questions you are helping them place themselves in predictive thought.

HOW TO MAKE A DR-TA

1. Select the reading assignment2. Determine stop-points. 3. Prepare questions to be asked at

stop points, and have students predict out comes.

4. Obtain/ prepare cover sheets for students. (If needed)

5. Determine and prepare assessments needed for the lesson.

CRITICAL LITERACY AND GUIDED COMPREHENSION

-To be literate is to go beyond simple literal construction of meaning to engage in critical examination of the world with respect to issues of power, politics, economics, voice, and available Discourses, and one’s position in relationship to all.

-Bakhtin (1981) calls this “independent discriminate thinking”.

-Different theorists have different approaches to critical literacy pg. 114

- Allen Luke-Tom Bean and Karen Moni-Colin Harrison

THE GMA

GMA- Group Mapping Activity-Introduced by Jane Davidson (1982)- Used to help students organize information after

reading.- it may have shapes, lines, figures, words, anything

you want.- GMA should follow a DR-TA lesson because it helps

organize and retain information.-ex. Story train

- allows students to respond to the text from their own knowledge base and preferred means of representation.Transmeditation – translation of content from one sign system to another.Map Sharing – after mapping, student can explain to their peers what they understood from the text, come to conclusions, generalizations, and abstractions.

How to do a GMA

1. Prepare “dummy map”

2. After reading, instruct students to map their perceptions of the reading

3. Have students display maps

4. Allow students to tell about their maps, to a partner or to entire class.

5. Encourage, and model, questions that allow students sharing their maps to clarify and extend their thinking

6. Determine and plan assessment procedures.

117.1. IMPLEMENTATION OF TEXAS ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS FOR FINE ARTS, ELEMENTARY

(1)  Four basic strands--perception, creative expression/performance, historical and cultural heritage, and critical evaluation--provide broad, unifying structures for organizing the knowledge and skills students are expected to acquire. Students rely on their perceptions of the environment, developed through increasing visual awareness and sensitivity to surroundings, memory, imagination, and life experiences, as a source for creating artworks. They express their thoughts and ideas creatively, while challenging their imagination, fostering reflective thinking, and developing disciplined effort and problem-solving skills.

(2)  By analyzing artistic styles and historical periods students develop respect for the traditions and contributions of diverse cultures. Students respond to and analyze artworks, thus contributing to the development of lifelong skills of making informed judgments and evaluations.

§117.3. Music, Kindergarten.

Knowledge and skills Response/evaluation. The student responds to and evaluates

music and musical performance. The student is expected to: (A)  identify steady beat in musical performances; and (B)  identify higher/lower, louder/softer, faster/slower, and

same/different in musical performances.

PART II: COMPREHENSION LEVELS, TEACHERS QUESTIONS, AND

COMPREHENSION INSTRUCTION

Four goals:

Comprehending Learning subject area

content Increasing reading skills Applying new knowledge

Levels of comprehension

“levels of comprehension”- levels of questioning that guide student’s comprehension

3 LEVELS OF COMPREHENSION

LITERAL COMPREHENSION- “reading the lines”/ text explicit The reader understands the ideas stated directly in

text INTERPRETIVE COMPREHENSION- “reading between the

lines”/text implicit The reader draws conclusions in response to

unstated cause-effect relationships or comparisons APPLIED COMPREHENSION- “beyond the line”/schema

explicit The reader is able to integrate new information with

previous knowledge, from which new relationships emerge

*THE GOAL OF COMPREHENSION INSTRUCTION IS TO TEACH STUDENTS HOW TO ACHIEVE ALL THREE LEVELS*

TEACHER QUESTIONS

Teacher questions and teacher-led discussions have been the subject of much study and concern since the mid-1960’s.

Frank Guszak published research that reported: 74% teachers ask at the literal level, 8% at the interpretive level, and 19% at the applied level.

Majority of instruction time is devoted to students’ supplying literal answers to teachers’ literal questions.

John Goodlad describes this as “frontal learning”

Donna Alvermann and David Moore describe the common scene pg. 124

Often discussions rarely get around to the higher-level questions because teachers simply don’t know how get beyond literal questions.

Teacher questions and guided comprehension

Directed Reading Activity (DRA)- designed originally for the purpose of increasing students’ comprehension of text by removing barriers to comprehension, encouraging guided silent reading of text, and embedding skill development into lessons focusing on conceptual understanding.

5 Steps of DRA1. Preparation for reading

2. Guided silent reading

3. Comprehension development

4. Skill development and application

5. Extension and follow-up activities

Step 1: Preparation for reading

Vocabulary presented in the text Identify words that are critical to comprehension of the passage words in the passage are unfamiliar

Presentations of the vocabulary words must be done in context so that students will have sufficient information to understand each word

CSSD- Context-try to construct the meaning of the word from the

meaning of the surrounding text Structure- look for known words ( prefixes, roots, suffixes) Sound- pronounce the word to see if sounds like any word you

know Dictionary- when all else fails, look it up.

Focus student attention on the subject matter of the text and engage student interest and participation

Step 2: guided silent reading

Guided silent reading begins with a statement of purpose for reading given by the teacher which should shape the reader’s stance in relationship to the text.

The purpose statement should be prepared in advance and should correspond directly to the teacher’s instructional objectives.

Discussion of the reading occurs the next day of class. When text is long it is preferred to use the “sectional

approach”.

Step 3: Comprehension development

The comprehension development begins the moment we initiate the DRA lesson.

It is imperative that you ask the purpose-setting question first and that discussion of it involves students’ prior knowledge as well as new information from text.

Purpose-setting statements that are followed up as opening-discussions questions teach students how to enter text with focused intent and increase the possibility that all students will construct purposeful meaning from the text.

DRA GUIDELINES TAKE THE TIME TO ARTICULATE CLEARLY YOUR INSTRUCTIONAL

OBJECTIVES FOR UNITS OF STUDY AND LESSON PLANS FOCUS YOUR TIME AND ENERGY ON HIGHER-LEVEL QUESTIONS AND

INITIATE DISCUSSION WITH THEM CONSTANTLY SEEK TO CONNECT SUBJECT MATTER CONTENT TO

STUDENTS’ LIVES WRITE AND ASK QUESTIONS THAT YOU FIND INTERESTING,

INTRIGUING, AND PROVACATIVE DON’T BE AFRAID TO LET STUDENTS LEARN FROM ONE ANOTHER

STEP 4: SKILL DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION

Skill development and application should follow logically and reasonably from discussion that has take place and from the lesson objectives.

The intent is to give students the opportunity to practice doing what they’ve just learned to do

Ex. Drills, vocabulary study, expository or narrative writing, group mapping with discussion and analysis, individual or group projects

Step 5: extension and follow-up activities

Extension and follow-up activities allow both closure- bringing a lesson bound-end

Extension- pursuing an exciting idea well beyond immediate lesson boundaries

Ex. Skits, plays, science fairs, paintings, research papers

These activities are a primary basis for assessment of how well students achieved lesson and unit goal.

Recommended activity Three-Minute Write

DRA LESSON PLAN:

EXAMPLE OF A DRA LESSON PLAY SOCIAL STUDIES

Request

The purpose of Request is to use student-to-teacher/ teacher-to-student questioning interactions to engage students in the same type of purposeful reading and rich comprehension processing as is found with DR-TA.

Steps for Using Request

Step #1- The teacher and students silently read a segment of text (the amount of text is predetermined and announced by the teacher). After reading, the teacher closes her/his book, and students are invited to ask as many questions as they wish about the text. They are encouraged to ask “teacher-type” questions. The teacher answers all questions as fully as possible.

Step #2- After students have finished questioning; they close their books and the teacher asks questions, following up on items/ideas students raised, raising new issues, and/or calling students’ attention to other important information. The teacher is responsible for asking good questions and for asking questions at all levels of comprehension.

Step #3- The next segment of text is read, and the reciprocal questioning between students and teacher continues. By the second segment, and continuing throughout the procedure, the teacher’s questions should include those that explicitly integrate information from one reading segment into discussion of another.

Step #4- The procedure continues until students can reasonably predict what is going to happen, what further information they are going to get, and what they need to do to complete activities and/or exercises. At that point, the teacher can engage the students with comprehensional questions.

Step #5- Students write the purpose-setting question and complete the reading/ activity assignment. To initiate discussion, the teacher begins by asking the purpose-setting question and allowing students to answer and evaluate it. A purpose-setting question the class formulated that was not answered by the text (an “imperfect” question) is identified as such at the onset of discussion when the teacher asks it.

7 Categories of Questions for

Request

1. Questions for which there is an immediate reference; questions that can be answered by looking at the text:

“How do you read m<ABC?” “What does vertex mean?”

2. Questions that relate to common knowledge and fro which answers can be reasonably expected:

“If you hadn’t seen the illustration here, how would you expect a right angle to look?

“Why?’

3. Questions for which the teacher does not expect a “correct” response but for which she or he can provide related information:

“Have you ever seen a quilt made from angled pieces?”

“Let me show you one my grandmother made…”

4. Questions fro which neither the teacher nor the selection is likely to supply a “right” answer but that are nonetheless worth pondering or discussion:

/ “I wonder how any of us could use comparison of angles in our daily lives?”

5. Questions of a personalized type that only the students can answer:

/ “What do you find hardest about using a compass or protractor?”

6. Questions that are answerable but are not answered by the selection being read; further reference is needed:

/ I wonder how sophisticated computers and computer programs are in generating and measuring geometric figures these days?”

7. Questions requiring translation- for example, from one level of abstraction to another, from one symbolic form to another, from one verbal form to another:

/ “In your own words, how do we tell an obtuse angle from a right angle? From an acute angle?”

Always Remember:

During Request, it is critical that the teacher listens carefully to the questions students ask, not only to monitor the kinds and quality of those questions, but also because often the students “beat you to the punch” by asking all the questions you’d planned.

In conclusion,

Request is a powerful strategy for increasing students’ comprehension, teaching lesson content and developing students’ reading/ learning skills.

Thank You!!!