cellulose signaling

39
Cellulose synthase-like (CSL) family of genes

Post on 14-Sep-2014

839 views

Category:

Education


4 download

DESCRIPTION

 

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: cellulose signaling

Cellulose synthase-like (CSL)family of genes

Page 2: cellulose signaling

Glycosyltransferases

• Cell-wall polysaccharides are synthesized by glycosyltransferases(GTs).

• GTs are grouped into families (>90 known) based on sequence similarities, particular motifs etc (Carbohydrate Active enZymes (CAZy database).

• Arabidopsis has 455 genes in 41 families that encode GTs

• Catalyse transfer of glycosyl (sugar) residues from nucleotide sugars to acceptors

• Some transfer only a single glycosyl residue.

• Others “processive” or “polymerizing” transferases use the product of one addition as the acceptor for the next, producing a chain (polysaccharide synthases)

• Specificity is in the enzyme – no template; highly specific for polymer and bond formed

Page 3: cellulose signaling

• From genome sequence of Arabidopsis, Somerville identified a family of genes of unknown function with sequence similarity to cellulose synthase (Cutler & Somerville 1997; Richmond & Somerville 2000): cellulose synthase-like (CSL) genes (30 CSL + 10 CESA genes in Arabidopsis)

• Six CSL gene subfamilies identified in Arabidopsis

• CSL gene subfamilies identified by a letter code: A, B, C etc.

• CSL gene subfamilies also identified in the genome sequence of rice (Ozya sativa) (Hazen et al. 2002), but differences.

• Unlike Arabidopsis rice has no subfamily B or G

• Unlike Arabidopsis rice has two additional subfamilies: F and H

Page 4: cellulose signaling

Subfamily Arabidopsis Rice

A 9 9

B 6 -

C 5 6

D 6 5

E 1 3

F - 8

G 3 -

H - 2

Nine subfamilies of CSL genes

Subfamily J also present in some Poaceae genomes, but not rice (Fincher 2009)

Page 5: cellulose signaling

Cellulose synthase/cellulose synthase-like superfamily

Fincher, G. B. (2009).

Plant Physiology, 149, 27-37.

Page 6: cellulose signaling

CSL genes and proteins

Hordeum vulgare CSLF3

• Cellulose synthase/cellulose synthase-like superfamily genes encode family GT2 proteins.

• Type III integral membrane proteins with 3-6 predicted multiple transmembrane spanning domains towards the COOH teminus and 1-2 (usually) towards the NH2 terminus

• All have a D, D, D, QxxRW motif found in all processivefamily GT2 proteins

Burton et al 2008 Plant

Physiology 146, 1821-1833

Page 7: cellulose signaling

Richmond & Somerville 2000 Plant Physiology 124, 495-498

Page 8: cellulose signaling

• When CSL genes first discovered, all known GT2 glycosyltransferases (cellulose synthases, chitin synthases etc) synthesized polysaccharides with repeating β-glycosyl residues (processive β-glycosyltransferases)

Cutler & Somerville (1997) Current Biology 7: R108-R111

• Postulated that the different CSL subfamilies function in the synthesis of plant cell-wall polysaccharides with backbones of repeating β-glycosyl residues:– heteromannans

– xyloglucans

– (13),(14)--glucans (present only in Poaceae & related families)

– callose [(1→3)--glucan]

– heteroxylans

– (1→4)--galactans

Page 9: cellulose signaling

Using seeds to discover the functions of CSLgene products

• Identifying the genes encoding enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of -glycans in cell walls has been done using particular seeds.

• The cotyledons or endosperms of many seeds have thick, non-lignified secondary walls.

• These walls usually contain one polysaccharide that functions as a reserve and is metabolised during germination

• These polysaccharides include galactomannans, xyloglucans and (13),(14)--glucans

Page 10: cellulose signaling

CSLA subfamilyDhugga et al. 2004 [Science 303, 363-366]

• Used seeds of guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) (family Fabaceae) to investigate the genes encoding the synthesis of the backbone of galactomannans

• The seeds of this and related plants in the Fabaceae have thick cell walls containing galactomannans which are used as additives (thickeners, stabilizers, emulsifiers and gelling agents) in the food industry.

Page 11: cellulose signaling

• Membrane preparations from developing guar seeds showed mannan synthase (ManS) activity which used GDP-mannose as the substrate

• Made 3 cDNA libraries at different stages of development

• Found 15 ESTs that were similar to CESA (i.e. CSL)

• Abundance of these ESTs in different libraries mirrored pattern of ManS activity

Page 12: cellulose signaling

• A full-length cDNA was assembled from 12 over-lapping sequence tags

• Phylogenetic analysis showed that the gene grouped with the CSLA subfamily of Arabidopsis and rice

• To determine the function of the putative CtManS (CSLA) gene, they transformed it into embryogenic soybean suspension-culture cells under the control of a seed-specific promoter (heterologous expression)

• The cells were allowed to develop into mature somatic embryos and membrane preparations from these showed ManS enzymic activity (normally did not) and the CtManS(CSLA) gene was expressed (Northern blots)

Page 13: cellulose signaling

• Enzyme specifically used GDP-mannose and the product was hydrolysed by an endo--mannanase but not by a cellulose; acid hydrolysis of the product yielded only mannose. Indicated a (1→4)--mannan was formed.

• During guar seed development, another membrane-bound enzyme, α-galactosyltransferase (a family GT34 enzyme), which uses UDP-galactose, adds α-galactosyl residues to the mannan backbone

Page 14: cellulose signaling

Liepman et al. (2005) PNAS 102, 2221-2226

• Heterologously expressed Arabidopsis CSLA genes (AtCSLA2, 7, and 9) in Drosophila Schneider 2 (S2) cells

• Isolated microsomal membranes from S2 cells and incubated these with GDP-mannose, which gave (1→4)--mannan

• Also incubated with a mixture of GDP-mannnose and GDP-glucose and a glucomannan was produced

• Glucomannans occur in lignified, secondary walls of eudicots(hard woods) and galactoglucomannans occur (in large proportions in lignified, secondary walls of coniferous gymnosperms (softwoods)

Glucomannnan

Galactoglucomannan

Page 15: cellulose signaling

• Also heterogenously expressed AtCSLE1 and OsCSLH1

Plenty of recombinant protein was obtained but was not active in the enzyme assay.

Liepman et al. (2007) Plant Phyiology 143, 1881-183

• In the same way, heterogenously expressed:

From the grass Oryza sativa OsCSLA1

From the gymnosperm Pinus taeda PtCSLA1

From the moss Physcomitrella patens PpCSLA1

• Isolated microsomal membranes and incubated with GDP-mannose and formed (1→4)--mannans; incubated with both GDP-mannose and GDP-glucose and formed glucomannans

Page 16: cellulose signaling

CSLC subfamily

Cocuron et al. (2007) PNAS 104, 8550-8555

• Used a similar approach to identify the gene encoding the enzyme that synthesizes the (1→4)-β-glucan backbone of xyloglucans.

• Used developing nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus, family Tropaeolaceae) seeds, which at maturity have cotyledons with thick cell walls that contain reserve xyloglucans.

Page 17: cellulose signaling

Reserve xyloglucans in seed walls lack the fucosyl residues found in xyloglucans in the primary walls of vegetative organs of the same plant.

Seed xyloglucan

Primary wall xyloglucan

Page 18: cellulose signaling

• mRNA was isolated from developing seeds at the stage of maximum deposition of the xyloglucans.

• A cDNA library was made and partial sequences of 10,000 cDNA clones determined.

• A single CSLC gene was overrepresented in the cDNA library.

• Heterologously expressed this gene in the yeast Pichiapastoris and analysed the polysaccharides.

• P. pastoris usually has large amounts of (1→3)-β-glucan in its cell walls, but only insignificant amounts of (1→4)-β-glucan.

• However, transgenic P. pastoris contained (1→4)-β-glucan.

• Similar results were obtained with the Arabidopsis CSLC4 gene (AtCSL4), the gene with the highest sequence similarity to the TmCSLC

Page 19: cellulose signaling

CSLF, H & J subfamilies• Genes encode enzymes involved in the synthesis of

(13),(14)--glucans (-glucans)

• In flowering plants, (13),(14)--glucans occur only in cell walls of Poaceae and related families

• Barley grains ~4-7% (13),(14)--glucans

Oat grains ~3-6%

Wheat grains ~0.5-1.0%

• These glucans occur particularly in cell walls of starchy endosperm and aleurone of cereal grains

• Walls of starchy endosperm and aleurone in barley contain 75% and 26%, respectively

Barley (Hordeum vulgare)

Page 20: cellulose signaling

Diagram of the barley grain, showing the different organs, tissues and cell types.

Reproduced from Briggs (1978) with permission.

From: Harris, P.J., and Fincher, G.B. (2009). In: Bacic, A., Fincher, G.B., and Stone, B.A. eds, Chemistry, biochemistry, and biology

of (1→3)-β-glucans and related polysaccharides. San Diego, USA: Academic Press, Elsevier Inc. 621-654.

Page 21: cellulose signaling

From: Esau K (1953) Plant anatomy. John Wiley, New York, p 583.

The caryopsis (C) of wheat and its pericarp (A, B).

Page 22: cellulose signaling

• Linear polysaccharides with (13)-links (~30%) & (14)-links (~70%)

• These two different linkages are not randomly distributed but occur as:

cellotriosyl units:

and cellotetraosyl units:

• These units are joined by (13)-links

Page 23: cellulose signaling

• In the grains of barley and oats, a high proportion of the (13),(14)--glucans are water soluble

• Form viscous solutions:• Cause filtration problems in brewing

• Contribute to haze formation in beer

• Reduce growth rate of monogastric animals (anti-nutritive effect)

• But lower serum cholesterol and reduce glycaemic index

• In the grains of wheat <3% water soluble

Page 24: cellulose signaling

CLSF subfamily

Burton et al. (2006) Science 311: 1940-1942

• Quantitative trait loci (QTL) for (13),(14)--glucan content of grain have been identified for barley

• One QTL with a large effect on (13),(14)--glucan content is on barley chromosome 2H

• Genetic mapping has shown genome structures of common cereals are similar (synteny)

• Used comparative genomics to identify a corresponding region in the rice genome; contains a group of 6CSLF genes (CSLF1,2,3,4,8,&9)

• Possible role of CSLF genes in (13),(14)--glucan synthesis tested by expressing them in Arabidopsis (heterologousexpression)

Page 25: cellulose signaling

• Expressed OsCSLF2 and 4 and examined transgenic Arabidopsis by immunogold microscopy using a monoclonal antibody that specifically recognizes (13),(14)--glucans

Epidermal walls of wild type and transgenic plants

• Found formation of (13),(14)--glucans in low concentrations

Page 26: cellulose signaling

Burton et al. (2008) Plant Physiology 146: 1821-1833

• Mapped CSLF genes in barley and found 4 of the 7 in the QTL locus originally identified on chromosome 2H

• Spatial and temporal transcription patterns in developing grains determined; transcripts of HvCSLF6 and HvCSLF9 were predominant

Page 27: cellulose signaling

CLSH subfamily

• Only found so far in Poaceae, so is another candidate for encoding enzymes involved in (13),(14)--glucansynthesis

• Barley has only one gene in this subfamily

Doblin et al. (2009) PNAS 106: 5996-6001

• Expressed the HvCSLH1 in Arabidopsis and detected (13),(14)--glucans in the transgenic plants using immunogold microscroscopy

• Examined expression of HvCSLH1 in barley: only weakly transcribed in developing grain endosperm; it was most highly transcribed in leaf tips

Page 28: cellulose signaling

CLSJ subfamily• Been found in some members of Poaceae, including barley,

maize, sorghum and wheat, but not in Brachypodium or rice.

• “Preliminary association mapping data suggest that the HvCSLJ genes could also be involved in (13),(14)--glucansynthesis” (Fincher 2009).

Page 29: cellulose signaling

CSLD subfamily

• Genes of this subfamily are most similar to CESA genes

• Been suggested it is involved in cellulose synthesis but the evidence is inconclusive

• Expression of CSLD genes is associated with tip-growing cells

• Analysis of CSLD mutants also indicated a role in tip-growing cells

• Recent indications that CSLD proteins may be involved in the synthesis of heteromannans (Yin et al. 2011 Molecular Plant, In Press)

Page 30: cellulose signaling

Other subfamilies

• Arabidopsis, but not rice

CSLB and CSLG functions unknown

• Rice & Arabidopsis

CSLE function unknown

Page 31: cellulose signaling

Evidence for CSL genes involvement in cell-wall polysaccharide synthesis

– Heteromannans YES

– Xyloglucans YES

– (13),(14)--glucans (present only in Poaceae & related families) YES

– callose [(13)--glucan] NO (other genes found)

– Heteroxylans NO (other genes found)

– (14)--galactans NO (but other genes not found so far)

– Also possibly involved (with CESA genes) in cellulose synthesis

Page 32: cellulose signaling

Key papers for discussion

Burton RA, Wilson SM, Hrmova M, Harvey AJ, Shirley NJ, Medhurst A, Stone BA, Newbigin EJ, Bacic A, Fincher GB (2006) Cellulose synthase-like CslF genes mediate the synthesis of cell wall (1,3;1,4)-β-D-glucans. Science 311: 1940-1942

Cocuron J-C, Lerouxel O, Drakakaki G, Alonso AP, Liepman AH, Keegstra K, Raikhel N, Wilkerson CG (2007) A gene from the cellulose synthase-like C family encodes a β-1,4 glucan synthase. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 104: 8550-8555

Doblin MS, Pettolino FA, Wilson SM, Campbell R, Burton RA, Fincher GB, Newbigin E, Antony Bacic A (2009) A barley cellulose synthase-like CSLH gene mediates (1,3;1,4)-β-D-glucan synthesis in transgenic Arabidopsis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 106: 5996-6001

Dhugga KS, Barreiro R, Whitten B, Stecca K, Hazebroek J, Randhawa GS, Dolan M, Kinney AJ, Tomes D, Nichols S, Anderson P (2004) Guar seed β-mannan synthase is a member of the cellulose synthase super gene family. Science 303: 363-366

Liepman AH, Wilkerson CG, Keegstra K (2005) Expression of cellulose synthase-like (Csl) genes in insect cells reveal that CslA family members encode mannan synthases. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 102: 2221-2226

Page 33: cellulose signaling

Papers for seminars

Burton RA, Jobling SA, Harvey AJ, Shirley NJ, Mather DE, Bacic A, Fincher GB (2008) The genetics and transcriptional profiles of the cellulose synthase-like HvCslF gene family in barley. Plant Physiology 146: 1821-1833

Burton RA, Collins HM, Kibble NAJ, Smith JA, Shirley NJ, Jobling SA, Henderson M, Singh RR, Pettolino F, Wilson SM, Bird AR, Topping DL, Bacic A, Fincher GB (2011) Over-expression of specific HvCslF cellulose synthase-like genes in transgenic barley increases the levels of cell wall (1,3;1,4)-β-D-glucans and alters their fine structure. Plant Biotechnology Journal 9: 117-135

Davis J, Brandizzi F, Liepman A, Keegstra K (2010) Arabidopsis mannan synthase CSLA9 and glucan synthase CSLC4 have opposite orientations in the Golgi membrane. Plant Journal 64: 1028-1037

Dwivany FM, Yulia D, Burton RA, Shirley NJ, Wilson SM, Fincher GB, Bacic A, Newbigin E, Doblin MS (2009) The CELLULOSE-SYNTHASE LIKE C (CSLC) family of barley includes members that are integral membrane proteins targeted to the plasma membrane. Molecular Plant 2: 1025-1039

Liepman AH, Nain CJ, Willats WGT, Sorensen I, Roberts AW, Keegstra K (2007) Functional genomic analysis supports conservation of function among cellulose-synthase-like A gene family members and suggests diverse roles of mannans in plants. Plant Phyiology 143: 1881-1893

Page 34: cellulose signaling

Nemeth C, Freeman J, Jones HD, Sparks C, Pellny TK, Wilkinson MD, Dunwell J, Andersson AAM, Åman P, Guillon F, Saulnier L, Mitchell RAC, Shewry PR (2010) Down-regulation of the CSLF6 gene results in decreased (1,3;1,4)-β-D-glucan in endosperm of wheat. Plant Physiology 152: 1209-1218

Tonooka T, Aokil E, Yoshioka T, Taketa S (2009) A novel mutant gene for (1-3, 1-4)-β-D-glucanless grain on barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) chromosome 7H. Breeding Science 59: 47-54

van Erp H, Walton JD (2009) Regulation of the cellulose synthase-like gene family by light in the maize mesocotyl. Planta 229: 885-897

Wang W, Wang L, Chen C, Xiong G, Tan X-Y, Yang K-Z, Wang Z-C, Zhou Y, Ye D, Chen L-Q (2011) Arabidopsis CSLD1 and CSLD4 are required for cellulose deposition and normal growth of pollen tubes. Journal of Experimental Botany (In press) (NB pdf is available from journal website)

Yin L, Verhertbruggen Y, Oikawa A, Manisseri C, Knierim B, Prak L, Jensen JK, Knox JP, Auer M, Willats WGT, Scheller HV (2011) The cooperative activities of CSLD2, CSLD3, and CSLD5 are required for normal Arabidopsis development. Molecular Plant (In press) (NB pdf is available from journal website)

Yin Y, Huang J, Xu Y (2009) The cellulose synthase superfamily in fully sequenced plants and algae. BMC Plant Biology 9: 99

Page 35: cellulose signaling

Reviews

(NB only parts of these reviews are about CSL genes and their products; you need to read selectively)

Carpita NC (2011) Update on mechanisms of plant cell wall biosynthesis: how plants make cellulose and other (1→4)-β-D-glycans. Plant Physiology 155: 171-184

Doblin MS, Pettolino F, Bacic A (2010) Plant cell walls: the skeleton of the plant world. Functional Plant Biology 37: 357-381

Fincher GB (2009) Exploring the evolution of (1,3;1,4)-β-D-glucans in plant cell walls: comparative genomics can help! Current Opinion in Plant Biology 12: 140-147

Fincher GB (2009) Revolutionary times in our understanding of cell wall biosynthesis and remodeling in the grasses. Plant Physiology 149: 27-37

Page 36: cellulose signaling

Other resource papers

Cutler S, Somerville C (1997) Cellulose synthesis: cloning in silico. Current Biology 7: R108-R111

Harris PJ, Fincher GB (2009) Distribution, fine structure and function of (1,3;1,4)-β-glucans in the grasses and other taxa. In: Bacic A, Fincher GB, Stone BA (eds) Chemistry, biochemistry, and biology of (1→3)-β-glucans and related polysaccharides. Academic Press, Elsevier Inc., San Diego, USA, pp 621-654

Hazen SP, Scott-Craig JS, Walton JD (2002) Cellulose synthase-like genes of rice. Plant Phyiology 128: 336-340

Richmond TA, Somerville CR (2000) The cellulose synthase superfamily. Plant Physiology 124: 495-498

Richmond TA, Somerville CR (2001) Integrative approaches to determining Cslfunction. Plant Phyiology 47: 131-143

Page 37: cellulose signaling
Page 38: cellulose signaling

Family Arabidopsis Rice Function

A 9 9 Heteromannan

synthesis

B 6 - ?

C 5 6 Synthesis of xyloglucan

main chain

D 6 5 Cellulose synthesis in tip-

growing cells?

E 1 3 ?

F - 8 Synthesis of

(1→3)(1→4)-β-glucans

G 3 - ?

H - 2 Synthesis of

(1→3)(1→4)-β-glucans

Families of CSL genes

Page 39: cellulose signaling

• From genome sequence of Arabidopsis, Somerville identified a family of genes of unknown function with sequence similarity to cellulose synthase (Cutler & Somerville 1997; Richmond & Somerville 2000): cellulose synthase-like (CSL) genes (30 CSL + 10 CESA genes in Arabidopsis)

• Postulated they encode enzymes that synthesize non-cellulosic polysaccharides.

• Six CSL gene subfamilies identified in Arabidopsis and Somerville speculated each responsible for biosynthesis:

Callose

Xyloglucan

Heteroxylan

Homogalacturonan (HG)

Rhamnogalacturonan I

Rhamnogalacturonan II

Pectic polysaccharides