stacks.stanford.educc373xj9423/cc373... · 2015-10-24 · subjs. index.i6 4-feb-81 20:12 i 3...
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<CSD.HANDBOOK>SUBJS. INDEX. I6 4-Feb-81 20:12
«A>blation studies, of HARPY, 335Abstraction space, in ABSTRIPS, 136ABSTRIPS, 22, 28, 134, 1355-139, 169Acoustics, 343Acquisition of knowledge. <+See> Knowledge acquisition.ACT, 195Active structural network, 185. <+Soe also> Semantic network.Ad hoc knowledge representation, 227Ad hoc parsers, 287Adaptive production system, 195Add list
in ABSTRIPS, 135in STRIPS, 1283-134
Admissibil ityof A*, 65of ordered search, 80, 83of shortfall density strategy, 341, 356
Admissibility condition, 65, 67, 73Agenda, 33t , 356, 360. <+See also Control strategy.Agreement, in natural language, 263AI programming languages, 10, 172, 175. <+See also> Knowledge representation la**nguages .
CONNIVER, 175, 176INTERLISP, 320IPL-V, 2813-282LISP, 15, 173, 237, 283, 295, 303list processing, 227, 2813-287MICRO-PLANNER, 2953-297PLANNER, 151, 155, 171, 1753-178, 2955-297POPLER, 176
QA3,
129, 168, 169
QA4,
176
QLISP,
176SLIP, 286
ALGOL, 237A* algorithm, 643-73, 80Allophone, in speech understanding, 333, 337, 349Alpha-beta pruning of game trees, 883-93, 94, 101AM, 157, 1953-197Ambiguity
in natural language,
208$-211
in speech, 3255-327Analogical knowledge representation. <+See> Direct (analogical) knowledge repre**sentation .Analogical reasoning, 146Anaphoric reference, in natural language, 293, 358AND/OR graph, 26, 38$-40, 43, 74, 113, 119, 124. <+See also Network representa**tion; Problem representation.
generalized, 82search
of,
545-57, 745-83AND/OR tree, 39, 56, 94, 268. <+See also Network representation.
context tree, 197degree of, 91
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S^s
game tree, 25, 435-45, 84solution tree, 40, 75, 775-79transition tree, 3165-317
Application language, in LIFER, 316Applications of AI. <+See also> Games;
Puzzles,
chemistry, 168document retrieval, 328, 351education, 186expert systems, 9geometry, 119$-122,
201$-202
information
retrieval, 22, 282, 283, 292, 316,
318
Average branching factor. <+See> Branching factorAxiomatic system, 165
machine translation, 2073-213, 225, 226, 2335-238, 273, 274, 279, 281, 288$-29mathematics, 195medicine, 195, 220paraphrasing, 149, 211, 226, 255, 274, 302, 304, 320question answering, 168, 169, 173, 185, 186, 211, 226, 281, 288, 295, 302, 328scientific, 221space planning, 202story understanding, 231, 300, 306symbolic integration, 21, 22, 24, 118, 1235-127travel budget manager, 353voice chess, 328, 334, 344
RPA speech understanding research, 327, 353ugmented transition network (ATN), 186, 230, 261, 2635-267. <+See also Gramma*r; Parsing,in GSP, 268, 271in LIFER, 316in LUNAR, 2925-294in MARGIE, 303, 304in speech understanding systems, 350, 355in text generation systems, 2775-279
utomatic programming, 9
«B>ABEL, 278Backed-up values, in game trees, 87Backgammon, 103Backtracking control strategy, 23, 138, 203, 258, 266, 271, 298, 339, 341, 351 *XBackward-chaining control strategy, 195, 198Backward reasoning, 235-25, 36, 51, 56, 74, 110, 111Bandwidth condition, 69Bandwidth search, 60, 695-71Bare template, in preference semantics, 288, 290BASEBALL, 227, 237, 282Beam search, 337, 341, 350, 356Beam width, 341Best-first search, 59, 60, 102, 360Bidirectional search, 24, 51$-53, 725-73, 74Blackboard, 197, 257, 271, 331, 336, 337, 343, 353. <+See also> Control strateg**y; Knowledge source.
levels of abstraction, 3433-346Blind search, 21, 293-30, 465-57
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<CSD.HANDBOOK>SUBJS. INDEX. I6 4-Feb-81 20:12
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bidirectional , 72and heuristic search, 58and ordered search, 61$-62in Logic Theorist, 111
Blocks world, 276Bottom-up processing. <+See also> Control strategy; Data-driven processing**ward reasoning.
For
definition of, 235-24in production systems, 198in natural -l anguage parsing, 259, 270in speech understanding, 326, 334, 338, 358
Branch-and-bound , 64Branching factor
average, in speech system grammars, 3285-329of a search tree, 91, 98
Breadth-first
search,
475-48, 565-57,
61, 68, 73,
111
«C>APS, 106, 196Case ambiguity, 291Case
frame, 182, 186, 231,
253Case grammar, 229, 249, 2525-255, 277Causal chain, 301Chart, 260, 2685-271, 354Checkers, 26, 43, 44, 95, 97Chemistry, applications of AI in, 168Chess, 6, 22, 23, 26,
43,
945-108, 205,
334,
351Co-routining, 271. <+See also> Control strategy; Parallel processingCombinatorial explosion, 27, 28, 58, 98, 99, 154, 155, 168, 260, 339, yP356Competence vs. performance, 245Compiled knowledge, 3365-337, 349Completeness, of a knowledge representation, 178Computational linguistics, 226, 229, 233, 304Computer-assisted instruction, 186Conceptual analyzer, in MARGIE, 303Conceptual dependency theory (CD)
definition of, in MARGIE, 300$-303in SAM and PAM, 306and semantic primitives, 211$-215, 231and text generation, 2785-279
Conceptualization, 213Concordance, 226Conflict resolution, in production systems, 192, 197Conjunctive subgoals, 111, 119Connected-speech understanding. <+See> Speech understanding.CONNIVER, 1755-176Consistency assumption, in search algorithms, 66, 69, 73Consistency, of a knowledge representation, 178Constraining knowledge, 344Constraint-structured planning, 203Construction, in geometry, 121Context
in production systems, 190, 197in speech understanding, 333
■"
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tree, in MYCIN, 197Context-free grammar. <+See also Phrase-structure grammar
definition of, 2425-243in parsing, 260, 263in text-generation, 2735-274in transformational grammar, 247
Context-sensitive grammar, 2413-242. <+See also> Phrase-structure grammar.Control strategy. <+See also Problem solving; Reasoning; Search algorithms
agenda, 338, 356, 360backtracking, 23, 138, 203, 258, 266, 271, 298, 339, 341, 351backward chaining, 195, 198
blackboard, 197, 257, 271, 331, 336, 337, 343,
353- bottom-up, 235-24, 198, 220, 259, 270
co-routining, 271conflict resolution, 192, 197
326, 334, 338, 358
'"—data- or event-driven, 24, 198, 220definition of, 22demons, 303— direction
of,
235-24, 198, 220 1* 'event queue, 356
' expectation- or goal-driven, 183, 198,focus of attention, 190, 197, 338, 340,forward chaining, 198hybrid, 340, 356hypothesis posting, 336, 338, 354island driving, 259, 337, 339, 346, 356matching, 159, 187parallel processing, 258, 265, 298in parsing, 230, 2585-259in PLANNER, 179procedural attachment, 156, 158, 179, 2
2165-218, 232, 326, 334, 336, 344
347, 356,
360
361
218$-221and procedural knowledge representation, 174in production systems, 194, 1975-198in speech systems, 3365-342, 347, 3505-351, 3555-357, 3595-360scheduler, 347, 356
~-
top-down, 183, 198, 2165-218, 232, 259, 326, 334, 336, 338, 344, 355, 358, 359CONVERSE, 228Cost, in search algorithms, 755-77Critical node, in a game tree, 91Criticality value, in ABSTRIPS, 136CRYSALIS, 336Cybernetics, 4, 233
«D>ata-dri ven processing, 235-24, 198"""Control strategy; Forward reasoning.
220. <+See also> Bottom-up processing;
Database, 22, 328. <+See also> Information retrieval.DEACON, 228Dead position, in a game, 87, 99Declarative knowledge representation, 230
vs. procedural knowledge representation, 151, 172, 219Deduction, 146, 205. <+See also Inference; Reasoning.Deep structure, in language, 247, 266Default reasoning, 1765-177
<CSD. HANDBOOK>SUBJS . INDEX . I6 4-Feb-81 20:12
Direct (analogical) knowledge representation, 158, 177,
200$-206
and parallel processing, 204vs. propositional knowledge representation, 200
Directedness of reasoning, 151, 1745-177, 185, 188, 193, 219Direction of reasoning, 235-24, 198, 220Discourse, 339, 358
dialogue, 220
extended,
279pragmatics, 249, 327, 332, 334, 359
Discovery, by AM, 196Discrimination
network, 158, 278,
304Distributed processing, 336. <+See also Parallel processing.
Document retrieval
task,
328, 351Domain-specific knowledge, 151, 176, 220. <+See also Heuristic.
DRAGON,
3285-329, 337Dynamic ordering, 102Dynamic programming, 351Dynamic weighting, 69
«E>arly natural language programs, 2275-229, 237, 257, 260,
281$
Education, applications of AI in, 186287
8-puzzle, 32, 51, 62, 67, 68Elimination rule, in logic, 163, 164, 169ELIZA, 227, 257, 260, 2855-287Ellipsis, in natural language, 320, 358Embedding, in natural language, 263
Document retrieval
task,
328, 351Di vide-and-conquer . <+See> Problem reduction.
efault values, 183, 2165-220egree of a tree, 91elete listin
ABSTRIPS,
135in
STRIPS,
128emon, 303. <+See also> Control strategy.IENDRAL, 60, 157 198denotative knowledge representation, 200lependency grammar, 274lepth bound, 49, 57, 99, 115lepth-first search, 495-51, 57, 60, 61, 101, 113, 138, 203'epth of a node, 49erivation tree, 229, 242, 246, 256, 266, 273, 281, 293, 296, 30(iagram, reasoning
from,
201'ialogue. <+See> Discourse.ictionary, for machine translation, 234ifferencein GPS, 113in means-ends anaylsis, 24in STRIPS, 129
r«i'i , uo, isu
pistemology, 151, 153, 170valuation function, 60, 613-62, 64, 673-73, 77, 78, 80, 83, 9vent-driven processing. <+See> Data-driven processing.vent queue, 356xpansion of a node, 46, 55
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Expectation-driven processing, 183, 198, 2165-218, 232, 326, 334, 336, 344. <+Scc also> Backward reasoning; Control strategy; Top-down processing.Expert system, 9
knowledge-based system, 227, 229knowledge engineering, 9, 198
Expertise, interactive transfer of, 199Explanation, by expert systems, 9, 195, 198$-199Explicit vs. implicit knowledge representation, 150, 172Extended discourse, 279Extended grammar, 2455-255Extended grammar parsers, 260Extended inference, 176
15-puzzle, 68, 73Finite-state grammar, 337. <+See alsoFinite-state transition diagram (FSTD),First-order logic, 165
Regular grammar.2635-264
Fixed ordering of nodes, in search, 90, 101Focus of attention, control strategy, 190,
FOL, 169, 171,
205
197, 338, 340, 347, 356,
360
Formal grammar, 2395-244Formal language, 2395-244, 263Formal reasoning, 146Formula, in preference semantics, 288$-289Forward-chaining control strategy, 198Forward pruning, of game trees, 104Forward reasoning, 235-25, 51, 56, 74, 198Frame knowledge representation, 149, 156,**lso Script knowledge representation.
158$-159, 2165-222, 3345-335. <+See a
and case frames, 183, 254matching in, 159and preference semantics, 208, 229, 231and semantic networks, 183, 186, 189
Frame problem, 177, 201Propositional knowledge representation
Full-width search, 103Functions, in logic, 165
«G>ame tree, 25, 435-45, 84random, 92totally dependent, 92uniform, 91$-93
Game-tree search, 84$-108. <+See also>alpha-beta, 88$-93, 94, 101backed-up values, 87dead position, 87, 99forward, 104horizon
effect,
99killer heuristic, 102live position, 87method of analogies, 104minimax, 84$-87, 88, 90, 91, 94, 98
Search algorithms; AND/OR tree.
Fregean knowledge representation. <+See>FRL-0, 221
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negmax formalism, 86$-87, 89plausible-move generation, 104quiescence, 995-100, 103refutation move, 102secondary search, 100static evaluation function, 87tapered forward, 104
965-97, 100
Games, 153. <+See also>
Puzzles,
backgammon, 103checkers, 26, 43, 44, 95, 97chess, 6, 22, 23, 26, 43, 945-108go, 103tic-tac-toe, 43, 94voice chess, 328, 334, 344
205, 334,
351
General Problem Solver (GPS), 113$**nds analysis.
118, 129, 135, 169,
196. <+See also> Means
General Space Planner, 2025-203General Syntactic Processor (GSP),Generality .s. power, 335
2685-272
Generalized AND/OR graph, 82Generate-and-test, 30Generative grammar, 229, 245, 247Generative semantics, 248Geometry Theorem Prover, 119$-122, 201$-202Go, 103Goal, 22, 36, 105, 114, 306, 308
■■"■» Goal -directed reasoning. <+See>3103-311
Top-down reasoning; Expectation-driven processi**ng; Control strategy.Goal states, 33GOLUX, 171, 175GPS. <+See> General Problem Solver.Graceful degradation, 336Grain size of a knowledge representation, 147Grammar. <+See also Natural language understanding; Parsing.
ATN, 186,
230,
261,
2635-267, 268, 271, 2775-279, 2925-294, 303, 304, 316average branching factor of, 328case, 229, 249, 2525-255, 277context-free, 2425-243, 245, 247context-sensitive, 2415-242, 245definition of, 225, 229
329
260, 263, 273,
274
dependency, 274extended, 2605-261finite-state, 337formal , 2395-244generative, 229, 245, 247habitability of, 328mood system of,' 249obligatory and optional transformations in, 247and parsing, 256, 2605-262performance, 261, 335, 355, 359phrase-structure, 2405-246, 260, 262regular, 243, 245, 263
semantic, 229, 261, 318, 320, 335, 355,
359
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Human memory. <+See> Memory, models of.Human problem solving, 6s-7, 14, 285HWIM, 267, 292, 328, 337, 339, 3535-357Hybrid control strategy, in HWIM, 340, 356Hypothesis posting, 336, 338, 354. <+See also Control strategy.Hypothesis scoring, 340, 346, 347, 351, 355, 356
shortfall density strategy, in HWIM, 341, 356uniform scoring policy, 340
Hypothesize-and-test . <+See> Generate-and-testHypothetical worlds, 360
R
Information-processing psychology. <+See> Psychology.Informedness of an algorithm, 65
in speech systems, 326, 332, 349story, 306systemic, 229, 2495-251, 297transformational, 229, 233, 237, 2455-248, 249, 251, 252transition tree, in LIFER, 3165-317transitivity system of, 249
irammarless pars, rs, 261iraph Traverser, 67iround space, in ABSTRIPS, 135ISP. <+See> General Syntactic Processor.iUS, 220, 231
:<H>abitabil i ty of a language, 328IAM, 185lARPY, 328, 329, 335, 337, 339, 344, 346, 3495-352, 356lAWKEYE, 318lEARSAY, 1965-197, 336, 338, 3433-348
HEARSAYS-I,
328, 334, 335, 343
HEARSAYS-11,
328, 345leuristic, 21, 64, 66, 74, 78, 94, 119, 151, 168, 174, 177, 188, 201, 220, 228*258, 277, 282, 284, 293, 296, 298, 299, 335. <+See also Heuristic search.definitions of, 283-30, 58, 109killer, in game playing, 102
euristic Path Algorithm, 67leuristic search, 28, 293-30, 46, 58$-83, 945-108, 117, 350, 356ierarchical planning, 135ierarchical search, 135ierarchy. <+See>
Inheritance,
omomorphic knowledge representation, 200orizon effect, in game-tree search, 99iuman engineering, 319
<<I>deational function of language, 249Incremental simulation, in HWIM, 341Indeterminacy of knowledge representations, 148Inexact reasoning, 195Inference, 146, 188, 213, 228, 231, 2363-237, 255, 276, 3033-304. <+See also**easoning .
extended, 176rules of, 146, 154, 155, 160, 1625-165
Information retrieval, 22, 145, 2825-283, 292, 316, 318
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Inheritancehierarchy, 156, 181, 218of properties, 156, 181$-184, 216, 218
Initial states, 33Instance, in semantic networks, 182Integration. <+See> Symbolic integrationIntelligence, 33-11Intelligent technology, 3Interactive transfer of expertise, 199Interdependent subproblems, 56, 81$-83Interlingua, 2343-235, 237, 288, 300, 303, 304INTERLISP, 320Intermediate OR
node, 39, 56,
57Interpersonal function, of language, 249Interpreter, of a production system, 190$-192Interpretive semantics, 248Intonation, in speech signal, 333Introduction rule, in logic, 163, 164, 169IPL-V, 281$-282Island-driving control strategy, 259, 337, 339, 346, 356, 361Isolated-word recognition of speech, 325, 333, 349Iterative deepening search algorithm, 100$-101
«J>uncture rules, in speech understanding, 330, 350, 354
«K>iller heuristic, 102Kinship relations, 281KLONE, 221Knowledge, 144. <+See also> Heuristic,
compiled, 336, 337, 349compiler, 349constraining, 344domain-specific, 151, 176, 220explicit vs. implicit, 150, 172world, 226, 230
Knowledge acquisition, 145, 194, 195, 198. <+See al so> LearningKnowledge-based system, 227, 229. <+See also> Expert system.Knowledge engineering, 9, 198. <+See also> Expert system.Knowledge representation, 1433-222, 226, 2293-232. <+See also>**entation languages.
Knowledge repres
ad hoc, 227completeness
of,
178consistency
of,
178
declarative,
230declarative vs. procedural, 151, 172, 219, 230denotative, 200direct (analogical), 158, 177,
200$-206
homomorphic, 200indeterminacy
of,
148issues in, 1455-152modularity of, 149, 157, 170, 178, 193, 198, 336, 343organization of, 336procedural, 1725-179, 295-297
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procedural-decl arative controversy, 151, 230propositional (Fregean), 200
Limited-logic natural language systems, 228Linguistics, computational. <+See> Computational linguistics
LISP, 15, 173, 237, 283, 295,
303List processing, 227, 281$-287Live position in a game, 87Logic, 4, 8, 146, 148, 151, 1545-155, 160$-171, 172, 174
completeness and consistency
of,
178first-order, 165functions in, 165natural deduction in, 163, 164, 169, 175predicate calculus, 128, 163, 200, 292, 297, 299predicates in, 163, 182propositional calculus, 109, 116, 118, 1603-163quantification in, 151, 360resolution method in, 168, 175
Logic Theorist (LT), 24, 109$-112, 113, 116, 119LUNAR, 230, 267, 2925-294, 353
«M>achine translationcurrent status of, 2375-238early AI work in, 226, 2335-237and semantic primitives, 2075-213and text generation, 2735-274Wilks's system, 2883-291
Manageability, of production systems
193,
198
Machinese. <+See> Interlingua.Macro-operators, 28MACROP, 133
propositional vs. direct, 200scope of, 147semantic interpretation
function,
200knowledge representation languages. <+See also> AI programming languages.
FRL-0, 221KLONE, 221KRL, 158, 221, 231UNITS, 221
;nowledge source, 257, 298, 326, 336, 3435-348, 353. <+See also
Blackboard,
ablation studies of, 335response frame of, 345, 347stimulus frame
of,
345RL, 158, 221, 231
:<L>ADDER, 318anguage definition system, 316, 359anguage, i jrmal, 2393-244, 263anguage understanding. <+See> Natural language understanding.earning, 9, 97, 128, 145, 157, 193, 195. <+See also> Knowledge acquisition.egal-move generator, 153, 334, 344ength-first search, 138exicon, 247, 333, 346, 354IFER, 231, 232, 261, 3163-321, 360
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MARGIE, 149, 211, 231, 278, 3003-305, 306, 334Matching. <+See also Control strategy, Pattern matching
of frames, 159of semantic network fragments, 187
Mathematics, applications of AI in, 195Max cost. <+See> Cost, in search algorithms.Means-ends anal: -.is, 24, 59, 113, 117, 126, 129, 135, 169. <+See also> General""Problem Solver.Mechanical translation. <+See> Machine translation.Medicine, applications of AI in, 195, 220MEMOD, 215Memory, models of. <+See also Psychology; Semantic network knowledge represent**ation.
ACT, 195associative, 230EPAM, 158, 196HAM, 185imagery, 201MEMOD, 215Quillian's spreading activationsemantic
network,
180system, 185, 187
Meta-knowledge, 144, 147Method of analogies, in game-treeMICRO-PLANNER, 2955-297
search,
104
Middle-out search strategy. <+See> Island driving control strategyMIND, 268, 272Minimax search in game trees, 84$-87, 88, 90, 91, 94, 98Model, semantic, in FOL, 205Modularity of a knowledge representation, 149, 157, 170, 178, 193, 198
336,
343Modus ponens, 162Mood system, of a grammar, 249Morphemics
in speech understanding, 3325-333in transformational grammar, 246
Multiple sources of knowledge. <+See> Knowledge source.Mutilated chessboard problem, 27
MYCIN, 151, 157,
1955-199
«N>amed plan, in PAM, 313Natural deduction, in logic, 1635-164, 169, 175Natural language features, problematic
agreement, 263ambiguity, 208$-211anaphoric reference, 293, 358case ambiguity, 291ellipsis, 320, 358embedding, 263habitabil ity, 328speech acts, 280
Natural language understanding, 3, 8, 2255-321, 3585-359. <+See also Speech un**derstanding.
competence vs. performance in, 245early research, 2275-229, 237, 257, 260, 281$-287
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and semantic primitives, 149, 2075-214Natural language understanding, applications
information retrieval, 22, 145, 282, 283, 292, 316, 318machine translation, 2075-213, 225, 226, 2333-238, 273, 274, 279, 281, 2883-291paraphrasing, 149, 211, 226, 255, 274, 302, 304, 320question answering, 168, 169, 173, 185, 186, 211, 226, 281, 288, 295, 302, 328story understanding, 221, 231, 300, 306
Negmax formalism for game-tree search, 86$-87, 89Network representation. <+See also> Semantic network knowledge representation.
ATN, 186, 230, 233, 261, 2635-267, 268, 271, 2775-279, 2925-294, 303, 304, 316discrimination, 158, 278, 304Finite-state transition diagram, 2633-264partitioning, 186pronunciation graphs, 330RTN, 2643-266segmented lattice, 330, 337, 353, 356in speech systems, 330, 337spelling graph, 330, 337, 346transition tree, 3163-317
Nodecritical , 91depth of, 49expansion of, 46, 55intermediate, 39, 56, 57solvable, 40successor, 26, 33, 46terminal , 38, 43tip, 80, 87unsolvable, 40, 55
Noise, in speech signal, 343Nondeterminism. <+See> Parsing.Nonterminal symbols of a grammar, 239NP-complete problems, 68, 69NUDGE, 221
<<o>bl igatory transformation, in a grammar, 247Observation of a semantic model, 205Operator schemata, 33Operators, in problem solving, 22, 32, 36, 74, 110, 113, 119, 123, 128, 135Optimal solution, in search, 28, 62, 74Optimality, of search algorithm, 653-67, 80, 83Optional transformation, in a grammar, 247Ordered depth-first search, 60, 102Ordered
search,
593-62, 64, 72, 773-81, 82, 124Organization of knowledge, 336
«P>AM,
300, 306, 3133-314Parallel processing, 258, 265, 298
Co-routining, 271and direct knowledge representation, 204distributed, 336
Paraphrasing, 149, 211, 226, 255, 274, 302, 304, 320Paraplate, in preference semantics, 279, 291
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PARRY, 257PARSIFAL, 230Parsing, 225, 229, 2395-240, 2565-272. <+See also
Grammar;
Natural**derstanding . language un
ad hoc, 287with an ATN, 2635-267, 293, 349, 355with charts, 250, 2683-271, 354control strategies, 230, 2583-259with extended grammars, 260in LIFER, 3163-318by MARGIE'S conceptual analyzer, 3023-303nondeterminism, 265grammarless parsers, 260, 261by SHRDLU's PROGRAMMAR, 2973-298in speech understanding, 327, 359template matching, 260with a transformational grammar, 260
Partial development, in search, 59, 114Partial expansion. <+See> Partial developmentPartial functions, operators viewed as, 33Partitioned semantic
network,
186, 360Pattern matching, 123, 256, 260, 2835-287. <+See also> Matching.Perceptual primitives, in WHISPER, 204Performance evaluation, of speech systems, 329Performance grammar, 261, 335, 349, 355, 359. <+See also> SemanticPHLIQAI, 232
grammar
Phonemicsin speech understanding, 327, 3325-333in transformational grammar, 246
Phonetics, 327,
3323-333, 343Phonological component of a transformational grammar, 248Phrase marker, in a transformational grammar, 246, 273Phrase-structure grammar, 2405-246
compared with trasformation grammar, 245definition of, 243in parsing, 260, 262
Planin problem solving, 107, 128, 131, 137in story understanding, 306, 3093-310
PLANNER,
151, 155, 171, 1753-178, 2955-297Planning, 22, 28, 169. <+See also> Problem solving; Reasoning
constraint-structured, 203hierarchical, in ABSTRIPS, 135generalized, in STRIPS,
131$-134
Plausible-move generation, in gamePlausible reasoning, 177
tree
search,
104
Ply, in game trees, 99POPLER, 176Potential solution, in heuristic search, 775-79, 80, 82Pragmatics, in discourse, 249, 327, 332, 334, 359Preconditions, of an operator
in ABSTRIPS, 136in
STRIPS, 128, 131,
135
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Predicate calculus, 128, 163, 200, 292, 297, 299. <+See also> Logic.Predicate, in logic, 163, 182Preference semantics, 208, 279, 288$-291Primitive problem, 36, 38, 74, 121Primitives
perceptual, in WHISPER, 204semantic, 148? 149, 183, 198, 2075-215, 231, 237, 278, 288$-291, 300$-
Problem reduction, 7, 114, 119, 201303, 306
Problem-reduction representation, 25, 3.65-42, 54, 74, 113Problem representation, 8, 225-28, 325-45
game tree, 25, 435-45, 84AND/OR graph, 26, 38$-40, 43, 74, 113, 119, 124problem-reduction, 25, 365-42, 54, 74, 113state space, 26, 33, 195theorem-proving, 25
Problem solving, 7, 21, 58, 74, 109, 113, 119, 123, 128, 135, 153, 284,**See also Planning; Problem representation; Reasoning; Theorem proving
generate-and-test , 30
human,
285interdependent subproblems, 56,
81$-83
means-ends analysis, 24, 59, 113, 117, 126, 129, 135, 169operators, 22, 32, 36, 74, 110, 113, 119, 123, 128, 135optimal solution, 28, 62, 74primitive problem, 36, 38, 74, 121problem reduction, 7, 114, 119, 201for robots, 22, 128$-139solution, 33state-space search, 30, 35, 465-53, 55, 58$-73, 77, 80, 111, 153, 195
Problem space. <+See> State space.Procedural attachment, 156, 158, 179, 218$-221Procedural -decl arative controversy, 151, 230Procedural knowledge, 193, 198, 219
1723-179 O/^Procedural knowledge representation, 146, 149, 150, 1553-156, 158, 171
**,
2183-221,
230, 289,
2955-297Procedural
semantics,
2293-230Process control . <+See> Control strategyProduction
rule, 157, 190, 239,
303Production system, 157, 1903-199
adaptive, 195conflict resolution in, 192, 197context, 190, 197interpreter, 1903-192manageability of, 193, 198
PROGRAMMAR, 297, 319Programming languages for AI. <+See> AI programming languages.Pronunciation graph, 330Property inheritance. <+See> Inheritance.Propositional calculus, 109, 116, 118, 1603-163. <+See also Logic.Propositional (Fregean) knowledge representation, 200Prosodies, in speech understanding, 327, 3323-334, 359
PROSPECTOR, 157, 181, 196,
198PROTOSYNTHEX, 228Pruning, 59, 60, 121, 129, 201. <+See also> Game-tree search
296. <+
<CSD.HANDBOOK>SUBJS. INDEX. I6 4- Feb-81 20:12
15
Pseudo-language, 233Psychology, 157, 180, 193, 201
human problem solving, 6s-7, 14, 285memory, 180, 187, 201, 230
Puzzles. <+See also Games,blocks world, 276Bs-puzzle, 32, 51, 62, 67, 6815$-puzzle, 68, 73mutilated chessboard, 27Tower of
Hanoi,
363-38,
42, 160,
165traveling-salesman problem, 21, 34, 48, 62, 69, 70$-71
«Q>A3, 129, 168$-169QA4, 176QLISP, 176Quantification, 151, 164, 292, 360Query language, 292
Question
answering, 168, 169, 173, 185, 186, 211, 226, 281, 288, 295
Quiescence
in game-tree pruning, 993-100, 103Random game tree, 92Random text generation, 233, 273Reasoning, 8, 146
analogical , 146backward, 233-25, 36, 51, 56, 74, 110, 111bottom-up, 24deduction, 146, 205default, 1763-177direction of, 233-24, 198, 220directedness of, 151, 1745-177, 185, 188, 193, 219event-driven, 198, 220expectation-driven, 183, 197, 2165-218, 232, 326, 334, 336, 344extended
inference,
176formal , 146forward, 235-25, 51, 56, 74, 198from a diagram, 201goal -directed , 24inexact, 195inference, 146, 188, 204, 211, 213, 228, 231, 236, 237, 254, 276
**3, 304
282, 291,
30
plausible, 177spreading activation, 185, 187, 189top down, 24top-down vs. bottom up. <+See> Control strategy, direction of.<+See also> Control strategy, Planning, Problem solving
Recursive pattern matcher, 256Recursive transition networks (RTN), 2645-266Refutation move, in game playing, 102Regular grammar, 243, 245, 263Representation of Knowledge. <+See> Knowledge representationResolution method, in logic, 168, 175Response frame, of a knowledge source, 345, 347Rewrite
rules, 239, 261,
316<+See also> Grammars, Productions
302, 328 J^*'
<CSD. HANDBOOK>SUBJS . INDEX . I6 4-Feb-81 20:12
ROBOT, 232Robot problem solving, 22, 128$-139Robotics, 10Rule
of inference, 146, 154, 155, 160, 1625-165production, 157, 190, 239, 303
rewrite, 239, 261,
316Rule base, of a production system, 190Rule-based system. <+See> Production systemSAD3-SAM, 158, 227, 237, 260, 2813-282SAINT, 1233-127SAM, 211, 216, 220, 231, 300, 306, 3113-313, 334Scheduler, 347, 356Schema. <+See> Frame.SCHOLAR, 186Scientific applications of AI, 221Scope of a knowledge representation, 147Scoring. <+See> Hypothesis scoring
309, 311,
334cript, knowledge representation, 2163-222, 231, 300, 3CDC speech system, 337earch, 6, 7, 21, 25, 330, 337, 338, 339, 343, 344
06, a
hierarchical , 135earch algorithms
A* algorithm, 645-73, 80alpha-beta pruning, 88$-93, 94, 101bandwidth search, 60, 695-71beam, 337, 341, 350, 356best-first, 59, 60, 102, 360bidirectional, 24, 51$-53, 725-73, 74blind, 21, 293-30, 465-57, 58, 61$-62, 72, 111breadth-first, 475-48, 563-57, 61, 68, 73, 111depth-first, 493-51, 57, 60, 61, 101, 113, 138, 203fixed ordering, 90, 101full-width, 103generate-and-test , 30AND/OR graph search, 545-57, 743-83heuristic, 21, 28, 295-30, 46, 58$-83, 117, 119, 350Heuristic Path Algorithm, 67iterative deepening, 1003-101length-first, 138minimax, 843-87, 88, 90, 91, 94, 98negmax, 863-87, 89optimal solution, 28, 62, 74optimality, 65, 66, 67, 80, 83ordered, 593-62, 64, 72, 773-81, 82, 124ordered depth-first, 60, 102partial development, 59, 114potential solution, 773-79, 80, 82in speech systems, 3395-340tapered forward pruning, 104uniform-cost, 48$-49, 51, 61, 65, 73<+See also> Game-tree pruning
learch graph, 26
-16-
<CSD.HANDBOOK>SUBJS. INDEX. I6 4-Feb-81 20:12
!
Search space, problem representation, 265-28, 58, 94, 339, 343Secondary search, in game-tree pruning, 100Segmented lattice, 330, 337, 353, 356Semantic analysis, in natural language understanding, 228, 230Semantic component, of a transformatinal grammar, 248Semantic density, in preference semantics, 290Semantic gramma:. 229, 261, 318, 320, 335, 355, 359
<+See also> Performance grammarSemantic interpretation function, in knowledge representation, 200Semantic marker, 297Semantic model, in FOL, 205Semantic network knowledge representation, 156, 172, 1803-189, 193, 197, 208, 21 0 u~Z
**Q oon oQ n oc
A I1
a
n-1-1
ono r»
1
n ice oen
-S**8, 229, 230, 254, 276, 277, 303, 330, 355, 360active structural network, 185fragment matching, 187partitioning, 186, 360spreading activation, 185, 187, 189
lemantic primitives, 148, 149, 183, 198, 2075-215, 231, 237, 254, 278, 288, 300, Q t jV-S* 306 J V
/
iemantics, 184, 186, 189, 225, 235, 287, 316, 326, 327, 332, 334, 344generative, 248interpretive, 248preference, 208procedural , 229, 230
entential connectives, in logic, 161hort-term memory buffer, in production systems. <+See>
Context,
hortfall density strategy, for hypothesis scoring in HWIM, 341, 356HRDLU, 151, 176, 196, 230, 251, 257, 260, 276, 2955-299, 319imulation structure, in FOL, 205IN, 125, 127IR, 158, 173, 185, 228, 237, 260, 2835-284LIP, 286lot, of a frame, 158, 216NIFFER, 188OLDIER, 125
;olution
graph, 40, 55olution, in problem solving, 33iolution tree, 40, 75, 775-79lolvable node, 40iOPHIE, 257, 261 f\Cort, in logic, 163, 166 ,cC^ipace planning task, 202 qC oy^Ipeech acts, 280 'fl\D+'ipeech recognition, 325, 326, 333, 349ipeech signal , 332
acoustics , 343allophone, 333, 337, 349intonation, 333noise, 343stress, 333syllable, 333, 343
ipeech understanding, 158, 186, 226, 231, 257, 259, 267, 292, 325connected speech, 326
-17-
<CSD . HANDBOOK>SUBJS . INDEX . I6 4-Feb-81 20:12
18
evaluation of system performance, 329isolated-word recognition, 325, 333, 349morphemics, 246, 3325-333network representations in, 330, 337phonemics, 246, 327, 3325-333prosodies, 327, 3325-334, 359vs. speech recognition, 326
SPEECHLIS, 328, 353Spelling correction, 320Spelling graph, 330, 337, 346Spreading activation, in semantic networks, 185, 187, 189SRI speech system, 338Start symbol, of a grammar, 240State, 22, 32State space, 26, 33, 195State-space graph, 25, 333-34, 43, 46, 61, 64, 74State-space representation, 24, 325-35, 36, 40$-42, 46, 74, 113,State-space search, 30, 35, 463-53, 55, 583-73, 77, 80, 111, 153,Static evaluation function, in game-tree pruning, 87, 963-97, 100
129195
Stereotypes, in preference semantics, 289Stimulus frame, of a knowledge source, 345Story grammars, 306Story understanding, 231, 300, 306Stress, in speech understanding, 333STRIPS, 22, 28,
42,
82, 128$-134,
135,
138$-139, 169STUDENT, 196, 227, 237, 260, 2845-285Stylistics, in text generation, 279Subgoals, conjunctive, 111, 119Subproblems, interdependent, 56, 813-83
<+See also Problem solving, SubgoalsSuccessor
node, 26, 33,
46Sum cost, 75, 763-77Surface structure, 247, 252, 273, 274, 277
<+See also SyntaxSyllable, in speech understanding, 333, 343Symbolic integration, 21, 22, 24, 118, 1233-127Syntactic analysis, in natural language understanding, 230Syntactic categories, of a grammar, 239Syntactic component, of a transformational grammar, 247Syntactic symmetry, in Geometry Theorem Prover, 120Syntax, 155, 225, 326, 327, 332, 334, 344, 346Systemic grammar, 229, 2493-251, 297Systems architecture, for speech understanding, 3323-342, 353Table of Connections, in GPS, 115Tapered forward pruning, 104Tautology, in logic, 162Taxonomy, 181 (<+See also> InheritanceTeachable Language Comprehender (TLC), 185, 228TEIRESIAS, 145, 1953-199Template
in case grammars, 253in preference semantics, 279,
288$-291
in speech recognition, 333, 337, 340, 349
<CSD.HANDBOOK>SUBJS. INDEX. I6 4-Feb-81 20:12
s'^i3>
S^s
19
Tower of Hanoi puzzle, 363-38, 42, 160, 165Transfer of expertise, 199Transformational grammar, 229, 233, 237, 2455-248, 249, 251, 252Transformational grammar parsers, 260Transformations, obligatory and optional, 2465-247Transition operator. <+See> Legal-move generator.Transition tree grammar, in LIFER, 3163-317Transitivity system, of a grammar, 249Travel budget manager task, 353Traveling-salesman problem, 21, 34, 48, 62, 69, 703-71Triangle table, in STRIPS, 1313-132Trigger. <+See> Procedural attachmentTruth table, in logic, 162Truth values, in logic, 161Turing machine, 241, 266Understandabil ity , of knowledge representations, 150, 1563-157, 174, 193Uniform-cost
search,
483-49,
51,
61, 65, 73Uniform game tree, 913-93Uniform scoring policy, of hypotheses in HWIM, 340UNITS, 221Universal specialization, in logic, 164Unsolvable node, of an AND/OR graph, 40, 55Variable domain array, in General Space Planner, 202Variable, in logic, 164Verb sense, 278
Vision, 10, 330,
334Voice
chess, 328; 334,
344Well-formed formula, in logic, 164WHISPER, 203Word island, in HWIM, 353Word template, 349World knowledge, 226, 230World model , 22, 128, 135
emplate matching, in parsing, 260erminal node, of an AND/OR graph, 38, 43erminal symbols, in a grammar, 239ext-based NL systems, 228ext generation, 225, 254, 267, 268, 272, 2735-280, 289, 291, 304, 360
random, 233, 273extual function, of language, 249heme, in story understanding, 306, 310$-311, 313heorem proving, 22, 23, 26, 62, 74, 109, 116, 118, 119, 129, 151, 155, 168, 171*, 175, 188, 297heorem-proving representation, 25HNOT, in PLANNER, 176ic-tac-toe, 43, 94ip node, of an AND/OR graph, 80, 87op-down processing, 259, 326, 334, 338, 344, 355, 358, 359
<+See also> Backward Reasoning, Control strategy, Expectation-driven processinop-down reasoning, 24op-down vs. bottom-up reasoning, 198ORUS, 186otally dependent game tree, 92