caution in electronic voting

Upload: lindsey-van-wyk

Post on 14-Apr-2018

218 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

TRANSCRIPT

  • 7/30/2019 Caution in Electronic Voting

    1/11

    The Mouse Leaves No Trail: Need for Caution on Electronic VotingAuthor(s): Tony SmithSource: AQ: Australian Quarterly, Vol. 78, No. 5 (Sep. - Oct., 2006), pp. 13-20, 39-40Published by: Australian Institute of Policy and Science

    Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20638423 .Accessed: 17/04/2013 15:59

    Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

    .JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of

    content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms

    of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

    .

    Australian Institute of Policy and Science is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access

    toAQ: Australian Quarterly.

    http://www.jstor.org

    This content downloaded from 129.186.1.55 on Wed, 17 Apr 2013 15:59:21 PM

    http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=aipshttp://www.jstor.org/stable/20638423?origin=JSTOR-pdfhttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/stable/20638423?origin=JSTOR-pdfhttp://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=aips
  • 7/30/2019 Caution in Electronic Voting

    2/11

    The mouse leaves no trail:need for caution on electronic voting

    ByTonySmithChange isa constant ofAustralian elections.On one hand, responsible agencies andsemi-judicial authorities seem tobe continually conducting boundary redistributions inaccordance with constitutional and statutoryrequire

    ments. On the other, governments produce ad hocalterations to the legislation and regulations whichprovide the framework forelections. It is understandable then if hepoor voter feels somewhat bewildered,especially when faced with different procedures atlocal, state and federal levels.1

    Many changes to the conduct of elections are relativelyuncontroversial. These tend tobe prompted byexpert opinion gathered at public inquiries, and theyusually attract bipartisan support. After each federalelection, theparliamentary Joint tanding Committeeon Electoral Matters (JSCEM) inquires into the conductof the election and reports to parliament with recommendations.2 Other changes arouse suspicionsbecause they seem tohave thepotential to favour thepartywhich is the incumbent government at the timeoftheir introduction.The Government criticisedSome political scientists have criticised theAustralianGovernment's recent amendments to electoral arrangements. Professors Colin Hughes, Brian Costar andMarian Sawer arewidely respected scholars with stronginternational reputations and scores ofpublicationsbetween them and Hughes isa former Electoral Commissioner. Theywell understand world's best practiceand know that there are objective criteria forassessingthe effectiveness and fairness of electoral systems.Australian elections have been highly regarded, andAustralian officials are regularly invited tobe observersat overseas polls.Elections should ensure thatgovernments are calledtoaccount, thatchange ispossible, thatvotes reflect thewill of thepeople, thatvotes translate proportionallyintoseats and that important issues are discussed. Theyshould enable equal participation by all voters and allTonySmith has a PhD in olitical Science.His reviewsand opinion pieces have appeared in various journals.

    candidates. The Government's most recent changeshowever, largelythose inthe Electoral and ReferendumAmendment (Electoral Integrity nd Other Measures)Bill 2005, have attracted severe criticism. Sawer, forexample, has pointed out that theHoward Governmenthas used theoccurrence of a small number of rorts tomake enrolment and votingmore difficult.The problem is that in supposedly moving topreserve the 'integrity' f theelectoral roll, theGovern

    ment's changes threaten the roll's 'comprehensiveness'.And unfortunately, certain groups will be affectedmore adversely than others. Sawer notes that Aboriginal voters could be disadvantaged by evidentiaryrequirements and young people by the close of therollsupon the issuing ofwrits for n election. Againstthe spirit of international human rights conventions,prison inmateswill also be stripped of the franchise.Meanwhile, laws relating todeclaration of sources ofcampaign finance arebeing liberalised, legalisingmuchlarger nonymous donations topolitical parties.3The Government praisedItmust come as a reliefto theGovernment then, tofindthatone intended reformhas met with approval fromits targetpopulation. On 23 August 2006, the e-mailnewsletter of theHuman Rights and Equal OpportunityCommission carried an enthusiastic endorsement of atrial felectronic voting. See next page.It is theGovernment's responsibility tomake votingas easy as possible for all Australians, and makingspecial provision forpeople with any disability isobviously desirable. It isamatter forembarrassmentforus all as a community thatwe have stillnotmadeadequate provision enabling allAustralians to vote inelections, which are after all, themost basic form ofpolitical participation.More thanone form f printdisabilityThere is little doubt that having a 'print disability'makes participation in elections difficult. However,people with sight impairments are not themajority ofpeople with a print disability. A Federal Election washeld in 1990,which was designated United Nations YearofLiteracy.At thatelection, it as impossible to tellhowmany Australians either failed to vote or were unableto cast the ballot aswisely as theywanted because of a

    AQ September-October2006 13

    This content downloaded from 129.186.1.55 on Wed, 17 Apr 2013 15:59:21 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
  • 7/30/2019 Caution in Electronic Voting

    3/11

    The mouse leaves no trail

    -Original MessageFrom: "Web Feedback" Sent:Wednesday, August 23,2006 3:55 PMSubject: HREOC LISTS: 50-year-old Commissioner getssecret ballot -for he first ime******************************************HREOC Mailing ListService******************************************PriorityMailing List******************************************50-year-old Commissioner gets secret ballot -for hefirst ime******************************************Wednesday, 23 August 2006Federal Cabinet's decision earlier thisweek to trialelectronic votingmeans thatAustralia's Human RightsCommissioner, Graeme Innes,will get a secret ballotfor he first ime in is life. ommissioner Innes,who istotally lind, has always had to rely n someone he truststocomplete the ballot paper forhim-eithera familymember or friend, r a polling official."Notvotingmyself has never felt uite right ome,"said Commissioner Innes. "I've done it ecause it'smyresponsibility s an Australian citizen,but I've lwaysfelt littlexcluded because I ould not do itmyself. I'mnow veryexcited about votingmyself in he election nextyear."Commissioner Innes,who has been workingwith thegovernment on this reform, ongratulated SpecialMinister of State Gary Nairnand Cabinet on theirdecision."Thisdecision means that round 300,000 people witha print isability in ustraliawill have the chance to votefor hemselves - that'sabout 2000 in ach electorate,"Mr Innes said. "I realise thatthis is nlya trial, ut I'mconfident that it ill be stronglytaken up. Iapplaud thegovernment formoving towards equal voting rights orall Australians."******************************************For further nformationbout HREOC's ElectronicMailing ListService visit:http://www.humanrights.gov.au/mailing_lists******************************************

    printdisability. It ispossible however that the numbersaffected could be as high as the 10-20%Australians withinsufficient skills to function ina society thatassumeseveryone is literate. Some 4% or 5% eligible Australianswere not registered,and similarnumbers failed toattend thepolls and cast informal votes. It is impossible toaccurately estimate the number ofpeople whoselack of reading confidence might have forced them tocomplete 'donkey' votes or to accept party literature inorder to copy out the numbers.4

    The decision tohold a voluntary postal ballot for

    the 1999 'republic' referendummust have constructedan effective barrier for theprint handicapped. Thereis ample evidence that education and literacy areessential prerequisites forcitizenship, but the teachingof literacy remains an area of ideological contestation.Part of theproblem for theAustralian Electoral Commission and other agencies charged with ensuringmaximum participation isthatprintdisability can arisefromvarious causes. Aswell as sightdisability and lowliteracyskills, thereare also cultural factors,and peoplewhose firstlanguage isnot English can be disadvantaged in thisway. The AEC has made serious attemptstohave material available in community languages,and has co-operated with theRoyal Blind Society toensure theproduction and availability of audio tapesof themain booklets distributed tohouseholds duringcampaigns. It s, owever, difficulttoknow how effectivethese measures have been. It seems that returningofficers t each House ofRepresentatives Division weresupplied with a tape,but theiravailability isnotwidelyknown. Inquiries following elections suggest that therehas been no collection of data about theuse of thesetapes, so it sdifficulttomeasure demand for themor toknow whether theyhave been effective.For people with a printdisability but not necessarilya visual impairment, electronic votingwill present thedisability ina different form.While provision ofproperfacilities for the sight-impaired is laudable, electronicvoting will not assist the hundreds of thousands ofpeople with literacyneeds.Trusting theGovernment on disability, onelections and on ITThe rhetoric surrounding the trial is of concern forpeople with disabilities. Unfortunately, the realityof government policy towards the disabled does notencourage the view that this concern is genuine. Insome budgets ithas increased spending on defencewhile reducing that on welfare. Its decision that allpeople on a disability pension should try arder to findemployment was not received well among the targetpopulation. Subsequent cases suggest that the 'welfaretowork' policy has added significantlyto thehardshipexperienced bymany disabled people. It suggeststhat the Government's idea of assistance can involvepunitive measures and 'fiscal punishment'.5

    14 AQ September-October2006

    This content downloaded from 129.186.1.55 on Wed, 17 Apr 2013 15:59:21 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
  • 7/30/2019 Caution in Electronic Voting

    4/11

    The mouse leaves no trail

    While the trialhas bipartisan support and will beconducted by theAEC, a statutory uthority thatreportsto parliament rather than executive government, manyvoters will have difficultyaccepting that theGovernment is acting ingood faith.While the Liberal Partyhas not been alone inattempting to squeeze every lastadvantage from the electoral system, some of itspasttactics suggest thatvoters should be verywary of anychanges itproposes. The Partyhas been implicated insome verydubious practices, ofwhich 'push-polling' isperhaps themost notorious.

    Push-polling involves asking electors 'survey'questions that are supposedly hypothetical and soclaim tomake no assertion about theparty'sopponents.Typically thequestions take the form 'if ou knew that....' In the Canberra by-election of 1995 for example, the

    questions implied that the Labor candidate supportedabortion as late as ninemonths and supported violentdemonstrations. The Liberal Party's federal directorissued an apology. The party has always denied usingpush-polling. In thiscase, the federal director explainedthatthepartywas just using 'benchmark surveying' thesame asmost parties used, but that thequestions hadbeen poorly framed.The difference he said,was in theintent.6The problem is that regardless of the sincerityof apologies issued, it is impossible toput the genieback inthebottle. Seeds of doubt have been sown intheminds of electors.

    Some Australians will doubt the Government'scommitment todemocracy ingeneral. Only themostoptimistic Coalition supporters can believe that legislation to relax media ownership lawswill increasediversity ofpolitical information.Media analysts havebeen warning of thedangers of concentration foryears.Chris Nash of theAustralian Centre for IndependentJournalismhas referredtoan Orwellian approach 'thatsacrifices democratic principles toaugment thepowerof the interests it eeks to represent'.7Grave doubts must also be held about theGovernment's ability to control information technology (IT).In 2000, 40% government agencies failed tomeet adeadline forestablishing online services, and whentheGovernment decided tooutsource IT services, theAuditor-General and the Australian National AuditOffice found that the contract arrangements had beeninefficient.The billion dollar outsourcing project cost

    triple the amount budgeted, saved less than anticipated andwas two and a half years behind schedule.8Shadow ITMinister Senator Kate Lundy said thatoutsourcing was abandoning 'our strategic tools for thefuture'.9 Senator Stott-Despoja has argued that parlia

    mentarians are not 'cyber-sawy'.10 While most partieshave developed websites, some seem tohave had thisforcedonto them.According to 'Hitwise', 40% politicalinternet traffic eaded for theALP website during the2001 election campaign, while only 12%went to theLiberals' site.11Curiously, in 2004 the Liberal Party sitehad links to an archive ofmaterial for 2005. Clairvoyance is not the same as cyber-sawy.

    What will the trial involve?The Electoral Commission of the Australian CapitalTerritory has conducted trials of electronic votingforTerritory elections. In 2001, electronic voting wasprovided at fourpre-poll voting places and eightplaceson polling day. 16,5559 votes were cast, some 8.3% allvotes counted. 12The Commission considered thatthe system had many advantages including eliminatingmanual counting and resultant errors, speedingresults, security, preventing voter error and reducingthe number of informals.According toCommissionerPhillip Green, the system 'allowed blind and sightimpaired people tovote entirelywithout assistance andin secret throughuse ofheadphones and recorded voiceinstructions and provided on-screen voting instructions in 12differentlanguages'.The trial identified some problems, mainly of atechnical nature, and no votes were lost. Some 90%of respondents inan exit poll found the system easytouse. However, the Commission has noted that thecost ofproviding electronic voting at all polling placeswould be prohibitive. Ithas noted one radical proposalto abolish voting day and extent thevoting period toabout threeweeks across only twelve locations. PhillipGreen correctlyobserves that thiswould 'dramaticallychange thenature of the political process'. Indeed, itwould alter thepolitical culture inmany ways, someofwhich would be unpredictable and some thatmighterode democratic ideals.

    The Commission has found thatUS experimentswith internet voting for overseas troops reportedserious problems, mainly relating to security of the

    AQ September-October2006 15

    This content downloaded from 129.186.1.55 on Wed, 17 Apr 2013 15:59:21 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
  • 7/30/2019 Caution in Electronic Voting

    5/11

    The mouse leaves no trail

    system and voter identification. Ithas therefore recommended thatuntil such problems can be overcome,electronic voting should be conducted only 'atpollingplaces using secure local area networks'. This is a significant findingbecause it ppears that theAustralianGovernment's trialwill include provision for ustralianservice personnel on overseas postings.The aims of the trialneed clarificationJSCEM inquiries have the important aim ofmakingvoting easier for the public. In itsmost recent reporttoparliament, recommendations 41-44 dealing withelections and computers were supported by the Government. Recommendation 41 calls for 'a trial of anelectronic voting system... at an appropriate locationineach electorate, toassist blind and visually impairedpeople, who currently cannot cast a secret and independently verifiable vote'. 13

    Generally the proposal has been seen as beinguncontroversial and has received Opposition support.Steve Georganas argued thatwhen securityproblemsare overcome, 'a gradual move towards electronic votingmakes a great deal of sense'.14 Georganas mentionedbut did not pursue an importantdistinction here. Electronicvoting strictly nderstood simplymeans votingusing a computer. Itdoes notmean voting remote fromthepolling booth.The Government's own position seems tohave beenchanging since theCommittee reported on the 2001election. Following awritten question byLabor's JohnMurphy Health Minister Tony Abbott responded onbehalf of the Special Minister of State. The questionasked what theMinister was doing 'toensure visuallyimpaired and blind people are able to independentlycast a vote at thenext election'. The answer noted thattherewere some technological aids such as a 'luminouscontrast' and thatblind people could nominate a personsuch as a scrutineer or polling official to assist them.The AEC suggested a trialof electronic voting in its ubmission to the JSCEM inquiry,but noted concerns over'security, ogistics and costs'.As a result,theCommitteedid not recommend a trial t that time.15Government MPs themselves seem a little onfused.In theirSecond Reading speeches on theGovernment'selectoral amendments bill, LiberalMPs stated a rangeofpositions. Anthony Smith noted thatwhile thematter

    Electronic voting strictlynderstoodsimplymeans votingusing a computer.Itdoes notmean voting remote fromthepolling booth

    of electronic votingwas not in thebill, the trialwas recommended unanimously by the JSCEM.He urged theGovernment to act. Smithunderstood that theAEC trialwas strictly or theblind, and 'wedo not, as some peoplehave reported, see thisas a precursor toa generalmoveto electronic voting'.16 Peter Lindsay believed thattheGovernment had not 'takenup' theCommittee'srecommendation. However, he referred to theuse ofelectronic voting around theworld andmentioned thattheElectoral Commission ofThailand had shown himtheir machines.17

    The paradox ofVirtual democracy'More thought must be given to the likely culturalimpacts ofmaking elections into virtual affairs.Currently, attendance at polling booths provides anopportunity forcommunity interaction.Many peoplehappily show theirpolitical colours byworking for andidates. Some discussion of issues and education ofvoters can occur on election days. Itwould be a greatshame should the local school or church hall lose thisimportant activity.It seems significant that forsome years,MPs haveknown about proposals to lodge theirparliamentaryvotes electronically.Their failure to embrace this technology deprives the community of theopportunity toobserve a valuable experiment. Their lack of enthusiasm suggests thatMPs do fear thatsome problems couldresult fromadoption ofelectronic parliamentary votes.Margaret May noted that the Procedures Committeediscussed the issue of electronic votingwithin parliament. She pointed out thatwhile the cost of installingthenecessary technology isusually considered tobe

    16 AQ September-October2006

    This content downloaded from 129.186.1.55 on Wed, 17 Apr 2013 15:59:21 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
  • 7/30/2019 Caution in Electronic Voting

    6/11

    The mouse leaves no trail

    Cartoon yBill eak rom heAustralian,ww.newsphotos.com.au

    themain objection to the scheme, the Committee alsoconsidered 'the impact on our parliamentary culture,especially the relationships between all members- backbench and frontbench - of changing our fundamental procedural mechanism'.18 Interestinglywhenthe New South Wales Parliament introduced secretballots for theposition of Speaker, Labor MPs showedtheirballot papers to one another to ensure that theirvoteswere cast in ccordance with prior arrangements.19When parties are apprehensive about the impact ofelectronic procedures on the parliamentary culture,they should be verywary about the effects ofparallelchanges inthe broader electorate.Endangered traditionsSeveral traditional elements ofAustralian democracycould be threatened if lectronic voting becomes anend in itself.These include compulsory voting, inclusiveness, time to reflect, representation, tolerance forminorities and community of interest.CompulsionInwritten answer to a question in2000, the SpecialMinister of State advised that 'the se ofcompulsory, fullpreferentialvoting... which enjoyswide public support,places additional obstacles'.20 He added that the 'high

    level of public confidence Australians have in theirelections and election resultsmust not be jeopardised,and thereforeno new technology will be introducedunless the government believes that the higheststandards of security and secrecy can be met'. Whilethe Prime Minister has given assurances thatvoluntaryvoting isnot on theGovernment's agenda, some of hisMinisters seem interested in the idea. Besides, similarassurances were given about the goods and servicestaxbefore its introduction. Itprobably displays a touchof arrogance for ny political party tobelieve that theprofile of the likely oluntary voter fits tsown supportersbetter than those of theiropponents.Inclusiveness

    Nor should it e assumed that electronic voting has aproportionate impact across the community. A decadeago, PruGoward as head of the Office for the Status ofWomen, warned that unless women embraced IT thenthey could well be locked out ofmany white collarpositions.21 This suggests thatmales have been morecomfortablewith themedium, andwomen have beenunder-represented inuniversity IT courses.22 Theimpact across age groups could also be uneven. Whileelectronic votingmight well alienate those elderlywhohave computer phobias, adoption of themedium isnot

    AQ September-October2006 17

    This content downloaded from 129.186.1.55 on Wed, 17 Apr 2013 15:59:21 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
  • 7/30/2019 Caution in Electronic Voting

    7/11

    The mouse leaves no trail

    necessarily going to address themain barrier toyouthenrolment and voting. Bymany estimates the level ofpolitical disaffection and disinterest among youngAustralians isalarmingly high.23Perhaps theGovernment isnot entirelytoblame foryouth disillusionment, but it as certainlydone littletocorrect the tendency to abandon traditional politicalinstitutions. Alan Ramsey notes that theGovernmenthas forced all schools todisplay lists of values such ascare, compassion, a fair go, striving, freedom, honesty,integrity, respect, responsibility and understanding. 24Unfortunately, students are experts at spottinghypocrisy and unless the Government itselfdisplayssuch qualities, the list ismore likely to create radicalcynics than responsible citizens.Further disproportion is likely to occur across thesocio-economic spectrum. The cost of IT issignificantand people on lower income are less likely obe familiarwith computers than those whose incomes allow themtohave efficientmachines and internet connections.While thehardware would obviously be provided at anyelection, lack of comfort using computers is likely toprove a disadvantage forlargenumbers ofvoters.Time to reflectArguments about the speed of the count inelectronicvoting have instantappeal, but democracy isgenerallya slow process. Currently, thepossibility of scrutinisingeveryballot paper individually isan important part ofensuring public confidence in theprocess. Replacement of the paper trailwith an electronic one willrequire considerable skill. Election day has becomean important institution with itsown traditions. Thepost-poll wake or celebration commonly known as'Don's Party' after the title of aDavid Williamson playisalready threatened by the speed of some psephologists' computers as theypredict final results based onearly returns.Some serious research isrequired into thesocial impact ofmaking elections into instant events.RepresentationDick Morris, author of TheNew Prince, has mooted a'paradigm shift' from 'representative (Madisonian)democracy todirect (Jeffersonian)democracy'.25 Butthemere action ofvoting does not fulfil ll the criteriafor democratic system. Indeed, even themost basic

    Arguments about thespeed of thecount inelectronic voting have instant appeal, butdemocracy isgenerally a slow process

    politics textswarn against thedangers of a tyrannousmajority. Democracy depends upon moderation inaction, tolerance of minorities and the valuing ofconsensus. The 'website townmeetings' advocated byMorris are no substitute for the communal interactionadvocated byAristotle.There is a place forwebsite and email interactivitybetween MPs and constituents. The QueenslandPremier was keen for his website to provide chatsessions with MPs and to facilitate online presentation of petitions.26 The name eDemocracy is however,controversial. Mark Latham embraced the idea andsuggested that 'internetdemocracy' would re-engagepeople disillusioned by elected politicians who followopinion polls.27 Ironically perhaps, thevote.com futureespoused byMorris exalts the importance ofpolls ratherthan demoting them.At time ofwriting (23October2006) for example, www.vote.com was conductingan online poll onwhether Iraq had become anotherVietnam, and promised to send the results toPresidentBush.When constituents can log on and make representations through a site that exists incyberspace, therole of the intermediary representative could becomeredundant.While this systemmight have some appeal,the internet erviceprovider cannot be held responsibleforproviding advocacy like thatcurrentlyofourMPs.Tolerance forminoritiesAvote.com future ssoheavily focused on theprocessesofdecision-making that it ignores the importance ofoutcomes and preconditions. Although democracy isahotlydebated concept and there isroom forevolution,

    18 AQ September-October 006

    This content downloaded from 129.186.1.55 on Wed, 17 Apr 2013 15:59:21 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
  • 7/30/2019 Caution in Electronic Voting

    8/11

    The mouse leaves no trail

    Cartoon yNicholson rom he ustralian, ww.nicholsoncartoons.com.au

    itusually occurs inamoderate political culture thatshuns extreme solutions. The tyrannyof themajorityisprevented by ensuring thatgovernment has strictlylimited power and a desire forconsensus is used as areinon assuming thatcorrectness can be conferred bymathematical formulae. Some degree ofapathy isconsidered desirable and thepolitical class isregardedwithhealthy scepticism.The vote.com vision contradicts these requirements.Itsextreme formwould involve those interestedvotingcontinually in referenda to settle every issue. Itwouldeven be possible for computer program to tallyresultsand issue directions to executive officers.Governmentthrough the internetwould produce a ruthless system,where one vote couldmean the difference between lifeand death, and where the same vote could produce theopposite effect theverynext day.While internet otesmight emphasise process, it s farfromideologically neutral. Ithas a greatdeal incommonwith the 'capitalistdemocracy' that isdriven bymarketvalues, individual freedoms, competitiveness and thesurvival of the fittest. It is incompatible with a 'socialdemocracy' rooted in community desire toensure thateveryone has a reasonable share of thecommon wealth.Because it is so process oriented, direct democracydiscourages debate about possible futures and pushesaside the essential concept of leadership.

    Government bymouse has erroneous assumptionsabout equal voting rights.While all systems fall shortof the ideal, an indispensable element of democracyis thatall citizens are politically equal. Certainly, thereare huge inequalities inmost systems already becausenot all citizens have equal access togovernment, eitherat election times or inbetween. Far from solving suchproblems, reliance on the internetwould accentuatedifferences. The system could deteriorate intoa dictatorship of thenerdocrats or digerati as the race to staytechnically ahead overwhelms the content ofpolicies.Poll-driven government would be taken to itswildestextremes.

    Direct democracy isfine forsmall communities, notjust for thepractical reason that all can participate, butalso because all share a common interest.The internetcould deliver virtual democracy only if hereare virtualcommunities toparticipate indecision-making. Thisiswhy indirect, representative democracy with all itsfaults, isbetter for complex world.The concept of representation is evolving. Whentransportwas slower and people associated almostexclusively with a local area, ideas of representationbased on geographical electorates seemed natural. Aspeople have become conscious of other forms of association throughmembership ofcategories ofage, sex orclass, theyhave demanded alternative styles of repre

    AQ September-October2006 19

    This content downloaded from 129.186.1.55 on Wed, 17 Apr 2013 15:59:21 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
  • 7/30/2019 Caution in Electronic Voting

    9/11

    The mouse leaves no trail

    sentation. Democratic representation must be basedon some community of interest. Otherwise, the processofaggregating opinion cannot be deemed democratic.Proponents of internet democracy argue that theinternet builds community, but the case is far fromproven. Activists certainlyuse the internet togeneratepetitions and organise lobbying but there is reason tobelieve that theircommon interestarises before theiruse of the internet.Besides, if he internetbecame thefinal arbiter of interestarticulation, people would havetostayon-line continually toprotect their nterests. hiswould suit those who advertise on thenet. Ifglobalismismarket economics thenpolitics by internet is simplecapitalist politics. An idea that is culturally undemocratic cannot be rescued bymajoritarian processes.Community of interestPolitics lags in the quest to develop institutions thatcan control the rapidly evolving global economy.Sometimes, the smart response seems to be to abandonattempts to control economic developments andinstead to follow. Some years ago, the Liberal Government inSouth Australia proposed reformof theupperhouse to counter interstateemigration. ItsMinister forthe 'Information Economy 2002' announced that therewould be two 'virtualMembers' to represent virtualSouth Australians. Unlike real timevoters, these virtualectors live outside South Australia, but because theywere born around Adelaide, might choose tomaintaintheir interest in ffairsof thatState electronically.28

    At www.talkingpoint.sa.gov.au, real voters andpotential virtualectors recorded theiropinions on thismatter. Most discussion centred on the question ofcommunity of interest. n one hand, critics said that therights of citizenship demanded some reciprocity andthat theminimum requirement should be residence.Usually, community of interest isa strong consideration in the fixingof electoral boundaries. Supportersargued that times have changed, implying that SouthAustralia had become littlemore than a state ofmind.The talents of expatriates should not be lost simplybecause theyare forced to seek employment inSydneyandMelbourne, or toretire n theGold Coast.It is a cause forconcern that the needs of the oldeconomy and the technical capabilities of the newthreaten to combine to crush the notion of citizen

    ship. Information technology should run on the roboticprinciple ofnever harming people. People are notmerework units ormachines. People are social beings and ITcan be regarded as beneficial onlywhen itbrings socialbenefits. IT isdesigned to simplifyeconomic tasks andenable work tobe performedmore quickly and possiblyat a distance from the traditional centres of employment. People liberated frommundane taskswill usethe resulting leisure time tobenefit the communities inwhich they ive. f nformation technologywere workingit hould make it nnecessary forSouth Australians toleave their State inorder to secure employment. Theyshould be able to tele-commute, while retaining citizenship with a real community of interest. Livelihoodsmight be elsewhere, but livesconsist ofmore thanwork.Today, there isno reference toVirtual MLCs' atwww.parliament.sa.gov.au.ConclusionTechnology hasmany legitimate roles inpolitics. Facialrecognition technology that is used at Sydney airportcould also be used to identifyvoters.29 The internetcan be used for education ofvoters by theAEC, buthopefully not forpropaganda byparties. Itcan be usedfor lobbying, andmaking demands on politicians andgovernment. Itcan be used toease the stressof electioncampaigns, as at www.politicalbigbrother.com. Itshould not be used forspying,as apparently happenedbetween political rivals in theNew SouthWales Parliament. 30There does not appear tobe any research thatcompares voting outcomes on computers and usingpaper. It ould yetbe thatone formor the other shows aheavy bias towards onemajor partyor another, or awayfrom themaltogether.There isnothing intrinsicallywrong with holdingtrials ofnew electoral technology. InBritain LiverpoolCityCouncil decided to trial the casting ofvotes usingmobile phone texting.31he stated aimwas toovercomevoter apathy. The Howard Government's stated aim ofassisting the blind is also a commendable intention.As long as these trialshave not been adopted througha reluctance to consider other options, and theydonot produce covert outcomes, theydeserve generalsupport. In the final analysis however, having a realdemocracy ismore important thanhaving trains,andelections, run on time. AQ~

    20 AQ September-October2006

    This content downloaded from 129.186.1.55 on Wed, 17 Apr 2013 15:59:21 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
  • 7/30/2019 Caution in Electronic Voting

    10/11

    Book review

    In such awork, any author must succumb to thetemptation tobe didactic. But bymaking Leo such acredible, self-interested character, McGahan ensuresthathismusings do not become trite.Leo James is amember of thewhite shoe brigade, but onewho valuesthe joyof life.He acknowledges thatmany Australianpolitical leaders have been 'liars,cheats and swindlers,every one of them,but theyhad personality and noneof themwere afraid of anything'.His brother however,fits tradition inwhich thebean counters conqueredthevisionaries. Leo thinks themoney of recent yearsis different from that of the 1980s. It is 'grey, orporatemoney... nervous and greedy formore. A wealth not forsharing'.Some readers might like to debate whether LeoJames' apocalyptic adventures are inevitable or evenpossible developments inAustralia's near future.Abetter approach might be toproject backwards from theworld constructed byMcGahan into thecurrentexperience. Inotherwords, the vital question iswhether thesocietywe are creating today contains thepotential tounleash the inhuman events described so lucidly byLeo James.Leo's companions on a flightfrom the authoritiesthat takes them fromBrisbane, around outback NewSouth Wales toMelbourne and then toCanberra arefellow fugitives Aisha and Harry. Aisha heads a cellof 'New Islam' and Harry is senior in the 'Oz Underground' resistance movement. Readers can enter thefictional underground by visiting www.jointheunderground.com.au and even send some appropriatelyirreverent 'e-cards', including one of the currentUSPresident reading Underground - upside down, ofcourse.

    Leo isverymuch the accidental terrorist.As he seesboth Aisha and Harry disillusioned and thendestroyed,Leo takes a position that is even more extreme thantheirs.As he awaits his captors, the final ignominy isthat theirvoices identify them not asmembers of theoccupying forcebut 'God help them, they sound Australian'. McGahan warns that unless alternatives areexplored, we Australians could findourselves incre

    mentally creating - or at least accepting - some suchappalling future, ao_

    References_

    The View from20501 Bell,W. (2001) Futures studies comes of age: twenty-fiveyears afterThe Limits toGrowth,Futures 33:63-76.2 Kapoor, K. (2001) Future as fantasy: forgettingthe flaws,Futures33:161-170.3 Mitchell WJ. (2003)Me+^:The Cyborg Self and the etworked City,MIT Press, Cambridge MA.4 Moriarty, P and Honnery D. (2004) Forecasting world transport intheyear 2050, International Journal ofVehicle Design, 35 (1/2):151

    165.5 Norman, D. (1993) Things That Make Us Smart, Addison-WesleyPublishing Co., New York.6 Orr,D. (1999) Our urban future?TheEcologist, 29 (1):12-15.7 Scheffer,M. and Carpenter, S.R. (2003) Catastrophic regime shiftsinecosystems: linking theory toobservation, Trends inEcologyandEvolution, 18 (12):648-656.

    Themouse leaves no trail:need for aution onelectronic voting1 In the2001 by-election for the federal seat ofRyan Labor candidateLeonie Short feared thatQueensland Premier Peter Beattie's'Just ote one' campaign could confuse voters. Queensland Stateelections use optional preferential voting, but to vote validly infederal polls, voters are instructed tonumber everybox. See Australian 24 February 2001.2 The Committee consists of 5Members of theHouse ofRepresentatives (3nominated by theGovernment Whips and 2 bytheOpposition) and 5 Senators (2Government, 2Oppositionand 1Crossbencher), Online: http://www.aph.gov.au/house/committee/em/membership.htm.3 Marian Sawer, 'Election 2004: How democratic areAustralianelections?' Australian reviewofPublic Affairs, 3 September 2004,Online: http: //ww. australianreview.net /digest /2004 /09/sawer.html,Available: 19October 2006. See also MarianSawer, 'Proposed changes toelectoral laws are based on faultyarguments', Australian Policy Online, Online: http://www.apo.org.au/webboard/results.chtml?filename_num=69950, and Australiadoesn't compare well on electoral reform', ustralian PolicyOnline, 8 June 2006, Online: http://www.apo.org.au/webboard/results.chtml?filename_num=80993,Colin Hughes and Brian Costar, 'Proposed changes could denyhundreds of thousands ofAustralians thevote',AustralianPolicy Online, 3November 2005, Online: http://www.apo.org.au/webboard/results.chtml?fllename_num=42196.and Marian Sawer, 'Review ofLimiting Democracy: the rosion ofElectoral Rights inAustralia byColin A. Hughes and Brian Costar',Democratic Audit ofAustralia, ANU, 18October 2006, Online:http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/RN/2004-05/05rn23.pdf.4 Seemy paper, 'Literacy and elections: de facto disenfranchisement', Australasian Political Studies Association Conference,GriffithUniversity, July1991; Briefing Paper (same title),SecondColloquium on Government and Parliamentary Information,Parliament ofNew SouthWales, 2-3October, 1996.5 Stephanie Peatling 'Disabled toearn $2 an hour afterwelfareoverhaul', SydneyMorning Herald 14September 2005, http: //www.smh.com.au/news/national/disabled-to-earn-2-an-hourafter-welfare-overhaul/2005/09/13/1126377316866.html.6 Weekend Australian 4-5March 1995.7 SydneyMorning Herald 27March 2002.8 Australian (IT) 24,31 October 2000.9 SydneyMorning Herald 27March 2001.10 See Natasha Stott-Despoja, Australian Predict IT, olitics, 14March 1998.

    AQ September-October2006 39

    This content downloaded from 129.186.1.55 on Wed, 17 Apr 2013 15:59:21 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
  • 7/30/2019 Caution in Electronic Voting

    11/11

    References_^^^^H11 Australian 11October 2001.12 Phillip Green, 'Democracy in theDigital Age: Enabling ElectronicVoting and Counting in theAustralian Capital Territory',Democratic Audit ofAustralia, ANU, July 004, Online: http: //democratic.audit.anu.edu.au/papers/200407_green_electronic_vot.pdfSee also Richard Grant, 'The 2004 ACT Election', Parliament ofAustralia, Parliamentary Library Research Note No.23,2004-05,Online: http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/RN/200405/05rn23.pdf.13 See 'Documents: Tabling', Senate Hansard, 4 September 2006,Online: http://parlinfoweb.aph.gov.au/piweb/view_document.aspx?id-2368189&table=HANSARDS, Available: 19October 2006.14 Georganas, S. Second reading speech, Electoral and ReferendumAmendment (Electoral Integrity nd Other Measures) Bill 2005,10May 2006, Online: http://parlinfoweb.aph.gov.au/piweb/view_document.aspx?id=2564433&table-HANSARDR, Available:19October 2006.15 Questions inWriting: Federal Elections, Question No.40,10May2005,Online: http://parlinfoweb.aph.gov.au/piweb/view_document.aspx?id=2422529&table=HANSARDR.16 Anthony Smith, Second reading speech, Electoral and Referendum Amendment (Electoral Integrity nd Other Measures) Bill2005,9 May 2006, Online: http://parlinfoweb.aph.gov.au/piweb/

    view_document.aspx?id=2559253&table=HANSARDR.See also Committees: Electoral Matter Committee report, 10October 2005, Online: http://parlinfoweb.aph.gov.au/piweb/view_document.aspx?id=2494321&table-HANSARDR.17 Peter Lindsay, Second reading speech, Electoral and ReferendumAmendment (Electoral Integrity nd Other Measures) Bill 2005,9May2006, Online: http://parlinfoweb.aph.gov.au/piweb/view_document.aspx?id=2559245&table=HANSARDR.18 Margaret May, Committees: Procedure Committee: Report, 18August 2003, Online: http://parlinfoweb.aph.gov.au/piweb/view_document.aspx?id=2224505&table=HANSARDR. See also KateLundy, 'Cyberdemocracy and the future of theAustralian Senate',Paper to theRepresentation and Institutional Change Conference,Parliament House, Canberra, 6August 1999.19 Kevin Rozzoli, Gavel toGavel: An Insider's View ofParliament,University ofNew South Wales Press, Sydney, 2006, p.52.20 Questions on Notice: Voting: Electronic Democracy Article(Question No. 1195), 5 June2000, Online: http://parlinfoweb.aph.gov.au/piweb/view_document.aspx?id=2287093&table=HANSARDR.21 Australian 9 July1997.22 SydneyMorning Herald 30May 2000.23 Australian 7March 2001.24 SydneyMorning Herald 21October 2006.25 SydneyMorning Herald 21August 1999.26 Australian 20March 2001.27 Daily Telegraph 12May 2000,2 April 2001.28 News Release: Information Economy 2002,Minister for InformationEconomy, SA, 17August 2002, Online: www.ie2002.sa.gov.au/news/ve_pr.htm; Australian IT 22August 2000.29 Australian 30 January2003.30 SydneyMorning Herald 10August 2001.31 Australian 16April 2002.

    The Politics ofHappiness1 Jean Francois, An Essay on Public Happiness, Investigating theState of uman Nature Under Each of ItsParticular Appearances,Through the several periods ofHistory, to the resent Times, TwoVolumes, 1774 (reprintedAugustus M. Kelley, New York: 1969).2 JohnStuartMill, On Liberty, 1869.Available at: http://www.bartleby.com/130/ (Access date: 15/9/2006).3 Dan Haybron, website: What isHappiness? Department ofPhilosophy, University of Saint Louis Available at: http://www.slu.edu/~haybrond/What%20Is%20Happiness.htm (Access date:21/08/2006).4 Australian Unity-Wellbeing Index- Introduction',website.Available at: http://www.australianunity.com.au/au/info/wellbeingindex/ (Accessdate: 11/09/2006).5 Australian Unity-Wellbeing Index - Introduction',website.Available at: http://www.australianunity.com.au/au/info/wellbeingindex/ (Access date: 11/09/2006).6 BBC News Website. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1 /hi/programmes/happiness_formula/4666870.stm (Access date:15/09/2006).

    7 Richard Eckersley, 'What isWellbeing?', Available at:www.wellbeingmanifesto.net/wellbeing.htm (Access date: 15/09/2006).8 Michael Bond, 'The Pursuit ofHappiness', in ew Scientist (4October, 2003). Available at: http://www.biopsychiatry.com/happiness/happycountry.html (Access date: 13/09/2006).9 D.G. Meyers, Happiness inPsychology, 7th Edition (NewYork:Worth Publishing, 2004).10 Adele Horin, 'Welcome to theangst-ridden innerwest', SydneyMorning Herald, February 13,2006 Available at: http://www.smh.com.au (Access date: 11/09/2006).11 BBC NewsWebsite. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1 /hi/programmes/happiness_formula/4666870.stm (Access date:15/09/2006).12 Richard Eckersley, 'What isWellbeing?', Available at:www.wellbeingmanifesto.net/wellbeing.htm (Access date: 15/09/2006).13 Penguin Press, 2005.14 Richard Layard, 'Happiness and Public Policy', BBC News May17,2006 Available at: http://news.bbc.co.Uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/programmes/happiness_formula/4966746.stm (Access date:21/08/2006).15 Michael Pusey, The Experience ofMiddle Australia: The Dark SideofEconomic Reform (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2003).16 Clive Hamilton, Growth Fetish (Allen and Unwin, 2003).17 Clive Hamilton, Growth Fetish (Allen and Unwin, 2003).18 Available at: http://politics.guardian.co.uk/speeches/story/0?809168,00.html (Access date: 14/09/2006).19 Australian Unity-Wellbeing Index- Introduction',website.Available at: http://www.australianunity.com.au/au/info/wellbeingindex/ (Accessdate: 11/09/2006).20 Continuum Press, 2005.21 Frank Furedi, 'Politicians, economists, teachers... why are theyso desperate tomake us happy?', Telegraph 7/5/06 Available at:http://www.telegraph.co.uk/core/Content/html (Access date:21/08/2006).22 Richard Eckersley,Well and Good: How We Feel andWhy ItMatters(Melbourne: Text Publishing, 2004) pp. 147-169.

    The Aussie Identity nd Multiculturalism.1. Davison, Graeme'Sydney and the Bush' inCarroll, John (ed) 1992,Intruders in theBush: The Australian Quest for Identity,OxfordUniversity Press,Melbourne, pi09.2. White Richard 1981, InventingAustralia: Images and Identity1688-1980, Mien & Unwin, Sydney, pi63.3. Australian Bureau of Statistics;migration intake: 20064. Williams, Raymond 1993, 'Culture isOrdinary', fromGray,Ann andMcGuigan, Jim, tudying Culture: An IntroductoryReader, EdwardArnold,Melbourne.

    The NSW State Election 2007: Liberal Prospects1 Parliamentary Debate NSW Assembly 17October 2006.2 Ibid.3 ABC Stateline, 27October 2006, http://www.abc.net.au/stateline/nsw/content/2006/177621 l.htm4 Parliamentary Debate NSW Assembly, 17October 2006.Liberalism, Harm, and theLimits ofFree Speech1 Charles Taylor, 'The Politics ofRecognition,' inAmy Gutmann(ed.),Multiculturalism: Examining the olitics ofRecognition(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 25-74.2 The Guardian, 4 February 2006.3 Kenan Malik, 'Toomuch respect,' Prospect, March 2006.4 For the classic exposition on rights,see Ronald Dworkin, TakingRights Seriously (London: Duckworth, 1977).5 E. Beatrice Hall (under pseudonym ofStephen G. Tallentyre), TheFriends ofVoltaire (London: Smith, Elder, 1906).6 Lee Bollinger, The Tolerant Society: Freedom of Speech andExtremist Speech inAmerica (Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1986).7 John urham Peters, Courting theAbyss: Free Speech and theLiberal Tradition (Chicago: University ofChicago Press, 2005).8 Ibid.9 All quotes fromMill are taken from JohnStuartMill, 'On Liberty,'inOn Libertyand Other Essays (Oxford:Oxford University Press,1991).10 Owen M. Fiss, The IronyofFree Speech (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1996).

    40 AQ September-October 2006