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catalan

The Catalan language in education in Spain | 2nd Edition |

The CaTalan language in eduCaTion in Spain

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This document was published by the Mercator European Research Centre on Multilingualism and Language Learning with financial support from the Fryske Akademy, the Province of Fryslân, and the municipality of Leeuwarden.

© Mercator European Research Centre on Multilingualism and Language Learning, 2013

ISSN: 1570 – 12392nd edition

The contents of this dossier may be reproduced in print, except for commercial purposes, provided that the extract is proceeded by a complete reference to the Mercator European Research Centre on Multilingualism and Language Learning.

This Regional dossier was originally compiled in 2000 by Maria Areny (SEDEC) and Alie van der Schaaf (Mercator-Education). Important contributions were provided by Miquel Strubell (UOC) and Joaquim Arenas i Sampera (SEDEC). It only contained data on Catalonia.

This second version has been compiled in 2012 by Maria Areny, Pere Mayans and David Forniès (CIEMEN). It updates the contents of the first version on Catalonia and adds all the contents on the Valencian Country, Balearic Islands, Aragon and Murcia.

Unless otherwise stated academic data refer to the 2010/2011 school year.

From August 2012 onwards Ineke Rienks and Saskia Benedictus-van den Berg havebeen responsible for the publication of the Mercator Regional dossiers series.

Albanian; the Albanian language in education in ItalyAsturian; the Asturian language in education in SpainBasque; the Basque language in education in France (2nd ed.)Basque; the Basque language in education in Spain (2nd ed.)Breton; the Breton language in education in France (2nd ed.)Catalan; the Catalan language in education in France Catalan; the Catalan language in education in Spain (2nd ed.)Cornish; the Cornish language in education in the UKCorsican; the Corsican language in education in France (2nd ed.)Croatian; the Croatian language in education in AustriaFrisian; the Frisian language in education in the Netherlands (4th ed.)Gaelic; the Gaelic language in education in the UKGalician; the Galician language in education in SpainGerman; the German language in education in Alsace, France (2nd ed.)German; the German language in education in BelgiumGerman; the German language in education in South Tyrol, ItalyHungarian; the Hungarian language in education in SlovakiaHungarian; the Hungarian language in education in SloveniaIrish; the Irish language in education in Northern Ireland (2nd ed.)Irish; the Irish language in education in the Republic of IrelandItalian; the Italian language in education in SloveniaKashubian; the Kashubian language in education in PolandLadin; the Ladin language in education in ItalyLatgalian; the Latgalian language in education in LatviaLithuanian; the Lithuanian language in education in PolandMeänkieli and Sweden Finnish; the Finnic languages in education in SwedenNorth-Frisian; the North Frisian language in education in Germany (2nd ed.)Occitan; the Occitan language in education in FrancePolish; the Polish language in education in LithuaniaRomani and Beash; the Romani and Beash languages in education in HungarySami; the Sami language in education in SwedenScots; the Scots language in education in ScotlandSlovak; the Slovak language in education in HungarySlovene; the Slovene language in education in Austria (2nd ed.)Slovene; the Slovene language in education in Italy (2nd ed.)Sorbian; the Sorbian language in education in GermanySwedish; the Swedish language in education in Finland Turkish; the Turkish language in education in GreeceUkrainian and Ruthenian; the Ukrainian and Ruthenian language in education in PolandVõro; the Võro language in education in EstoniaWelsh; the Welsh language in education in the UK

Contents

Glossary ..............................................................................2

Foreword ..............................................................................3

1 Introduction...........................................................5

2 Pre-schooleducation..........................................32

3 Primaryeducation..............................................36

4 Secondaryeducation..........................................41

5 Vocationaleducation..........................................46

6 Highereducation................................................49

7 Adulteducation...................................................58

8 Educationalresearch..........................................64

9 Prospects............................................................67

10 Summarystatistics.............................................70

Endnotes................................................................................72

EducationsysteminSpain.....................................................73Referencesandfurtherreading..............................................74Addresses...............................................................................85

Otherwebsitesonminoritylanguages...................................92

WhatcantheMercatorResearchCentreofferyou?..............93

ContentsGlossary2Foreword 31 Introduction52 Pre-schooleducation323.Primaryeducation364.Secondaryeducation 415.Vocationaleducation 466.Highereducation497.Adulteducation 588.Educationalresearch 649.Prospects 6710.Summarystatistics 70Endnotes 72EducationsysteminSpain 73Referencesandfurtherreading 74Addresses 85Otherwebsitesonminoritylanguages 92WhatcantheMercatorResearchCentreofferyou? 93

2

Glossary

ALTE AssociationofLanguageTestersinEuropeASCUMA AssociacióCulturaldelMatarranya (CulturalAssociationof theMatar-

ranya)CEFR CommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceCNL Consorci per a laNormalització Lingüística (Consortium for Linguistic

Normalization)CIE Cosd’InspeccióEducativa(BodyofEducationInspectors)CIFOLC ComissióInteruniversitàriadeFormacióenLlenguaCatalana(Interuni-

versityCatalanLanguageTeachingBoard)COFUC Consorci per al Foment de la Llengua Catalana (Consortium for the

PromotionoftheCatalanLanguage)EAC StatuteofAutonomyofCataloniaEACV StatuteofAutonomyoftheValencianCommunityECRML EuropeanCharterforRegionalorMinorityLanguagesEHEA EuropeanHigherEducationAreaESO EducacióSecundàriaObligatòria(CompulsorySecondaryEducation)FEV EscolaValenciana-Federaciód’AssociacionsperlaLlengua(Valencian

School-FederationofAssociationsfortheLanguages)FRL FundacióRamonLlull(RamonLlullFoundation)ICE InstitutdeCiènciesdel’Educació(ScientificEducationInstitute)IEBC Institutd’EstudisdelBaixCinca(InstituteofStudiesoftheBaixCinca)IRL InstitutRamonLlull(RamonLlullInstitute)JQCV JuntaQualificadoradeConeixementsdeValencià(QualifyingCommit-

teeonKnowledgeoftheValencianLanguage)LEC LawonEducationofCataloniaLNL LawonLinguisticNormalizationLNLIB LawonLinguisticNormalizationintheBalearicIslandsLOE OrganicLawonEducationLOGSE OrganicLawontheGeneralOrganisationoftheEducationSystemLOU OrganicLawonUniversitiesLPL LawonLinguisticPolicyLUEV LawontheuseandteachingofValencianMEC MinistryofEducationandCulturePAIRE Plad’Acollida,IntegracióiReforçEducatiu(PlanforReception,Integra-

tionandEducationalReinforcement)PEC ProjecteEducatiudeCentre(EducationSchoolPlan)PEV Programad’EnsenyamentenValencià(ValencianEducationProgramme)PIL Programad’ImmersióLingüística(LinguisticImmersionProgramme)PIP Programa d’Incorporació Progressiva (Progressive Incorporation Pro-

gramme)PLC ProjecteLingüísticdeCentre(LinguisticSchoolPlan)SEDEC Serveid’EnsenyamentdelCatalà(CatalanTeachingService)TAE Tallersd’AdaptacióEscolar(SchoolAdaptationWorkshops)UIB UniversitatdelesIllesBalears(UniversityoftheBalearicIslands)


3

Foreword

background The Mercator European Research Centre on Multilingualismand Language Learning aims at the acquisition, circulation,andapplicationofknowledgeinthefieldofregionalandminor-ity language education. Regional or minority languages arelanguages that differ from the official language of the statewheretheyarespokenandthataretraditionallyusedwithinagiventerritorybynationalsofthatstateformingagroupnumeri-callysmallerthantherestofthestate’spopulation.Forseveralyears an importantmeans for theMercator ResearchCentreto achieve the goal of knowledge acquisition and circulationhas been the Regional dossiers series. The success of thisseriesillustratesaneedfordocumentsstatingbrieflythemostessential featuresof theeducation systemof regionswithanautochthonouslesserusedlanguage.

aim Regional dossiers aimat providing a concise description andbasicstatisticsaboutminoritylanguageeducationinaspecificregionofEurope.Aspectsthatareaddressedincludefeaturesoftheeducationsystem,recenteducationalpolicies,mainac-tors, legal arrangements, and support structures, as well asquantitativeaspects,suchasthenumberofschools,teachers,pupils,andfinancial investments.Thiskindof informationcanserveseveralpurposesandcanberelevantfordifferenttargetgroups.

target group Policymakers, researchers, teachers,students,and journalistsmay use the information provided to assess developments inEuropean minority language schooling. They can also use aRegionaldossierasafirstorientationtowardsfurtherresearchorasasourceofideasforimprovingeducationalprovisionsintheirownregion.

link with In order to link these regional descriptions with those of na-tional education systems, the format of the regional dossiersfollows the format used by Eurydice, the information networkoneducation inEurope.Eurydiceprovides informationon the

Eurydice

eduCaTion and leSSer uSed languageS

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administration and structure of national education systems inthememberstatesoftheEuropeanUnion.

contents Theremainderofthisdossierconsistsofanintroductiontotheregionunderstudy,followedbysixsectionseachdealingwithaspecificleveloftheeducationsystem.Thesebriefdescriptionscontain factual information presented in a readily accessibleway.Sectionseighttotencoverresearch,prospects,andsum-mary statistics. For detailed information and political discus-sionsaboutlanguageuseatthevariouslevelsofeducation,thereaderisreferredtoothersourceswithalistofpublications.


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1 Introduction

language CatalanbelongstotheRomancebranchoftheIndo-Europeanlanguage family. It isspoken infiveautonomouscommunitiesin Spain: Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, most of the Valen-cian country, the eastern part of Aragon (an area known inCatalanas ‘FranjadePonent’)andalso inasmallpartof theautonomouscommunityofMurcia(ElCarxe,anarealyingbe-tweenthemunicipalitiesofJumilla,AbanillaandYecla).OutsideSpain,CatalanisspokeninmostofthedepartmentofEasternPyrenees(southernFrance)andinthePrincipalityofAndorra.There is also a small community of speakers in the town ofAlghero(Sardinia,Italy).Thoseareasaredepictedinfigure1.InthisissuewewillonlyrefertothesituationofthelanguageinSpainwherethebiggestsharesofCatalanspeakersarefound.

From the eleventh century until the early eighteenth centuryCatalanenjoyedofficialstatus.Ordersanddecreeswerepub-lishedinCatalanbytheviceroys–representativesoftheSpan-ishmonarch inCatalonia.However, in theeighteenthcentury,King Philip V, attempting to erase the national character ofCatalonia,ValenciaandtheBalearicIslands(andevenAragonthatalreadyhadbeenheavilycastilianized)introducedSpanishintoallCatalan-speakingcountriesunderhissovereignty.

For much of the nineteenth century and in the beginning ofthetwentiethcentury,arevivalistmovementinCatalancultureandlanguageknownasthe“Renaixença”flourished,mainlyinCatalonia.Themovementalsosoughttoraisepoliticalaware-ness: this was achieved in Catalonia but not in the BalearicIslandsandtheValencianCountry,becauseofthelackoflocalbourgeoisies thatcouldboost it.Nevertheless, in thefieldsoflanguageandhighliterature(popularliteraturewasalwaysverymuchaliveinalltheterritories)areunionofallCatalan-speak-ing lands did happen. This process even touched NorthernCataloniainFranceandthetownofAlgheroinItaly.

In the twentiethcentury, furtherattempts toeradicateCatalanweremade.Themostseriousoneoccurredafter theSpanishCivil War, when Francisco Franco’s dictatorship (1939-1975)


6

Figure 1. The areas where Catalan is spoken (indicated by the bold line). (Source: by authors).

not only abolished the official status that Catalan had beengrantedunderthestatuteofautonomythat theSecondSpan-ishRepublic (1931-1939)hadaccorded toCatalonia,butalsocompletelyforbadeitspublicuse.TheGeneralitat (autonomoussystemof government ofCatalonia) had its cultural andedu-cational institutionscloseddown,andtheuseandteachingof

SPAIN

FRANCE

AndorraAndorra la Velta

Catalunya Nord

PerpinyaSalces

Principat de Catalunya

Barcelona

Girona

CATALONIA

Tarragona

LIeidaFraga

Tortosa

Illes BalearsCiutat de Mallorca

Mao

Guardamar

AlacantPinósElCarxe

EivissaIllesPitiüses

VALENCIAN COUNTRY BALEARIC ISLANDS

CastellódelaPlana

País ValenciàCiutatdeValencia

ITALY

L’Alguer

Sardenya

L’Alguer

Franja de Ponent


7

Catalanwere forbidden.ThebanningofCatalanalsoappliedto the Balearic Islands, the Valencian Country and Aragon,although the language had not reached official status thereduringthe1930s,sincethoseterritoriesdidnotgettoachievetheirownstatutesofautonomy(eventhoughsomestudiesandproposalsinthatdirectionhadbeenmade).

Theupcomingmassmediaandeducationprovedtobepower-ful social instruments in favourof thisprocessof culturalandlinguistic homogenisation during the dictatorship. Immigrationof Spanish-speaking workers from poor Spanish regions, at-tractedbytheCatalanindustry(andtoalesserextentalsobytheValencian industry) and by the jobs generated in touristicareasofCatalonia,theValencianCountryandtheBalearicIs-lands,alsocontributedtothedecreaseoftheshareofCatalanspeakersthere.

The revival of Catalan only started after Franco’s death, in1975.Theadoptionof thenewSpanishConstitutionof1978,envisaging the establishment of self-governing regions (“au-tonomouscommunities”),wasimportantforthisprocess.Intheyearsthatfollowed,alltheterritoriesofSpainpassedtheirownanddifferent statuteofautonomy.Thus,while theStatutesofCatalonia,theBalearicIslandsandtheValencianCountrysaidthat Catalan (called “Valencian” in the Valencian Country forhistorical andpolitical reasons) is theofficial languagealong-sideSpanish,theStatutesofAragonandMurciadidnotmakeanyreferencetothelanguage.

population Most Catalan speakers are to be found in Spain. The areaswheretheylivearehometoabout13,000,000people.


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Territory Population Remarks

Catalonia1 7,502,075(2010)Theautonomouscommunityhas7,512,381inhabitants,but10,206livingintheOccitan-speakingAranValleyhavebeenleftout.

Valencia2 4,436,706(2010)

ThetotalpopulationoftheValencianCountryis5,111,706.About675,000ofthemliveinhistoricallySpanish-speakinglands(insomecases,someofthoseareashadbeenAragonese-speaking).

BalearicIslands3 1,106,049(2010)

TheFranja(Aragon) 47,771(2006)ThetotalpopulationofAragonis1,277,471.Ofthose,about25,000haveAragoneseastheirownlanguage.

ElCarxe(Murcia)4 674(2008) ThetotalpopulationoftheautonomouscommunityofMurciais1,370,306.

TOTAL 13,093,275

Table 1: Population of Catalan-speaking areas in Spain.

If we add to this figure the population of Andorra, NorthernCataloniaandAlghero,thenumberofpeoplelivinginhistoricallyCatalan-speaking territories exceeds 13.5million people, whichrepresentsthe9thplaceintheEuropeanUnionwithregardtopos-sibleusersofalanguage.

Nevertheless, languagecompetence levelsaredifferent ineachterritory,accordinglywiththelegalstatusofthelanguageandtheimportanceoftheimmigrantpopulationinlastdecades.

Languagecompetenceisrepresentedinthefollowingtable:

understanding speaking writing reading

Catalonia (2008)5 94.6 78.3 61.8 81.7

Balearic Islands (2010)6 85.00 63.41 47.9 70.82

Valencian Country (2010)7 41.5 30.3 14.6 23.6

Table 2: Catalan language competence in %.


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TheValencianCountryisdividedintotwomainareas,accord-ing to its linguistic predominance: a Valencian-speaking areaandaSpanish-speakingarea.8Thesearetheresultsaccordingtoeacharea:

Table 3: Valencian Country. Knowledge of the Catalan language by areas of linguistic predominance in % (2010).9

language status After centuries of neglect and often outright repression, theSpanishStateadoptedamorepositivestanceon itsmainre-gionallanguagesintheConstituciónespañola(1978)(SpanishConstitution).ItestablishesSpanishastheofficiallanguageofthestate,butpermitstheautonomouscommunitiesorregionsofSpaintomakeotherlocallanguagesalsoofficial.

Thus,asmentioned,at thismomentCatalan isanofficial lan-guage inCatalonia, theBalearic Islands andValencia, and itiswidelyused inmanyaspectsofdaily lifeandeducation. In1990, theEuropeanParliamentofficially recognised thevalueoftheCatalanlanguageandsetitsusewithinthecontextoftheEuropeanCommunitiesasagoaltobeachievedbytheEuro-pean institutions through the “Resolutionon languages in theCommunityandthesituationofCatalan” (EuropeanParliamentResolution,1990).

Nowadays, Catalan is recognised as a language of commu-nication in dealings with the citizens by the main institutionswithin theEuropeanUnion (EuropeanCommission,European


totalValencian speaking area

Spanish speaking area







41.5 46.4 9.5 30.3 34.3 3.9 14.6 16.5 1.7 23.6 26.6 4.1










41.5 46.4 9.5 30.3 34.3 3.9 14.6 16.5 1.7 23.6 26.6 4.1


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Parliament,Council,OmbudsmanandCommitteeofRegions).CitizenshavetherighttogetananswerinCatalanfromthoseinstitutions.SomepublicationsandofficialEUdocumentsarealsotranslatedintoCatalan.

Thelanguagestatusinthedifferentcommunitiesisasfollows:

Catalonia ThefirstEstatutd’AutonomiadeCatalunya(StatuteofAutono-

myofCatalonia)afterFranco’sdictatorship,whichwasdrawnup in 1979, proclaimedCatalanasCatalonia’s own languageandgaveitofficialstatusalongsideCastilianorSpanish,whichisofficialthroughouttheSpanishState(Article3).TheGeneral-itat(theGovernmentofCatalonia)shallensurethenormalandofficialuseofboth languages,adopt thenecessarymeasurestoensuretheirknowledgeandcreatetheconditionsmaking itpossible for them toachieve full equality as far as rightsandobligationsofthecitizensofCataloniaareconcerned.

Thefirstpointofthearticle,inwhichCatalanisrecognisedasCatalonia’sown language,constitutesan importantdifferencebetweenCataloniaandotherautonomouscommunitieswhereother regional languagesarespoken,because itprovides theCatalan language with a specific legal status related to itsrecognitionasthelanguageofthecountry.

Thecreationof theServeid’EnsenyamentdelCatalà(CatalanTeaching Service; hereafter: SEDEC) by the Generalitat ofCatalonia in 1978, dealing with education, and the DireccióGeneraldePolíticaLingüísticade laGeneralitatdeCatalunya(GeneralDirectorateofLinguisticPolicyofCatalonia)in1980,intheserviceofsocietyasawhole,werethefirststepsintheproc-essof linguisticnormalisationof theCatalan language.Theselinguisticnormalisationbodieshavemademajorachievementsthrough awareness and normalization campaigns, courses,grants,agreementswithcompaniesandsoon,fortherecoveryoffurtherareasofusefortheCatalanlanguage.

The passing of the Llei de normalització lingüística (Law onLinguistic Normalization; hereafter: LNL) by the Parliamentof Catalonia in 1983 saw the definitive release of the Cata-lan language.The new lawwas aworking instrument for the


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normalizationandextensionofthesocialuseofCatalan.Thislaw,a landmark in thehistoryofCatalan languagepolicy, setoutnormsandgrantstointroduceandextendtheCatalanlan-guageinthepublicadministration,schools,mediaandculturallife,andtoguaranteeitssocialpromotion.

In 1998 theCatalan Parliament passed a new law, the Llei depolíticalinguistica(LawonLinguisticPolicy;hereafter:LPL),whichreinforcedthelinguisticpolicythatwasinitiatedduringthe1980s.The act strengthened the role of Catalan as the first languageof thepublicadministrationofCatalonia,of thepublicmedia,ofplacenamesandofeducation(especiallynon-highereducation).

In2006,anewEstatutd’AutonomiadeCatalunya (StatuteofAutonomyofCatalonia;hereafter:EAC)wasapproved,amend-ing some aspects of the first one. The main change relatedto language isArticle 6, which establishes that all citizens ofCataloniahavetheright tousethetwoofficial languagesandalsothedutytoknowthem.AndthatCatalanisthelanguageofnormalandpreferentialuseinpublicadministrationbodiesandin thepublicmedia ofCatalonia, andalso is the languageofnormaluseforteachingandlearningintheeducationsystem.

Itmustbesaid,however,thattheSpanishConstitutionalCourtruled inJuly2010 that thewording“preferential”ofArticle6.1was unconstitutional. The Constitutional Court has put intoquestion the role ofCatalanas first language in theareasofpublic administration, public media and education. After thedecisionoftheConstitutionalCourt,otherSpanishcourtshaveruled in 2010 and 2011 thatSpanishmust bemade a linguafranca in Catalan schools alongside Catalan. This implies achangeinthelinguisticmodelofCatalanschoolsthathasbeeninplaceforthelast30years.Itisstilltobeseentowhichextenttheserulingswillaffecteducationinpractice.

Balearic Islands Both the Estatut d’autonomia de les Illes Balears (Statute of

AutonomyoftheBalearicIslands)of1983andthe newStatuteofAutonomyof2007state thatCatalan, theown languageoftheBalearicIslands,shallbeofficial,alongsideSpanish.Publicauthorities of theBalearic Islands shall guarantee the normal


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andofficialuseofboth languages.Theyshall taketheneces-sarymeasures toassure theirknowledgeand theywillcreatetheconditionsthatmakeitpossibletoachieveafullequalityofboth languagesas to the rightsof thecitizensof theBalearicIslands.

Similarly towhatCataloniahaddone, theBalearicParliamentpassed in 1986 the Llei de normalització lingüística a lesIlles Balears (Law on Linguistic Normalization in the BalearicIslands;hereafter:LNLIB),whichwasaimedatdevelopingthearticle related to the language of theStatute ofAutonomy, intermsofnormalizationofCatalanas theown languageof theBalearicIslandsinallareas.Itwasalsointendedtoensuretheuse of Catalan and Spanish as official languages of the au-tonomouscommunity.Therefore,thelawwantedtoassuretheknowledgeandprogressiveuseofCatalanaslinguafrancainBalearicschools.

Othergoalswere:fosteringtheuseofCatalanwithinthepublicadministrationandmediaandraisingawarenessoftheimpor-tanceofCatalan forallcitizensof theBalearic Islands.Article2ofthelawspecifiedthetermsinwhichthelinguisticrightsofcitizensas regards toCatalanshallbeexercised. ItalsosaidthatBalearicdialectsofCatalanshouldreceivespecialprotec-tion,withintheframeworkoftheunityoftheCatalanlanguage.

Valencian Country TheEstatutd’Autonomiade laComunitatValenciana (Statute

of Autonomy of the Valencian Community; hereafter: EACV)was approved in 1982. Its Article 7 states that the officiallanguages of theAutonomousCommunity are Valencian andSpanish and all people have the right to know them and tousethem.Also, theValencianCommunityshallguaranteethenormalandofficialuseofbothlanguages,andshalladoptthenecessarymeasurestoensuretheirknowledge.

An important difference in relation to theEAC inCatalonia isthattheValencianStatuteforeseesthatthelawshalldefinetheterritorieswhereeachoneofthetwolanguagespredominatesandshallalsoestablishwhichterritoriesmaybeexemptedfromthestudyanduseoftheownlanguageofthecommunity.


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InordertoimplementtheofficialcharacterofCatalan,theCortsValencianes (legislative body of the Valencian Community)approvedtheLleid’úsiensenyamentdelvalencià(1983)(Lawon the use and teaching of Valencian; hereafter: LUEV). ItsmaingoalwastocomplywithArticle7oftheEACV.Thelawin-tendedtograntpeopletheirrighttoknowanduseValencian,toprotecttherecoveryprocessofthelanguageandtoguaranteeitsnormalandofficialuse.Besides,itforesawtheregulationofValencianwithinpublicadministration,mediaandschools.AstheEACV requested, the law specifiedwhich territorieswerepredominantly Valencian-speaking and which predominantlySpanish-speaking.However, the lawalso foresaw thatpeopleliving in predominantly Spanish-speaking territories could re-questtheknowledgeanduseofValencianiftheysowished.

In2006a reformof theStatuteofAutonomyof theValencianCommunity(OrganicLaw1/2006)waspassedandsomenewprovisionswereincluded.Amongthem,thenewstatute(Article6.2)acknowledgedthateveryonehadtherighttobetaughttheValencianlanguageandtobetaughtintheValencianlanguage.

The Franja Thisareabelonging toAragonhasneverhadCatalanasone

ofitsofficiallanguages.TheEstatutodeAutonomíadeAragón (StatuteofAutonomyofAragon)of1982stated thatAragon’sown languagesand languagevarietieswouldbegrantedpro-tection. Its teachingand the linguistic rights of their speakerswouldbeguaranteedasestablishedbya“lawoftheAragoneseParliament for the areas where they are predominantly spo-ken”.(StatuteofAutonomyofAragon,Article7)

ThecontentofArticle7wasenlargedwhentheStatuteofAu-tonomywas revised in 2007 (Organic Law5/2007).The newwordingaddedthatnooneshouldbediscriminatedagainstonthegroundsofhisorher language.TheStatutealso foresawthat a language law ofAragon should be passed in order toestablish the legal framework that should regulate languageissues.According to theStatute ofAutonomy, the law shouldfosterthe“protection,recovering,teaching,promotionanddis-seminationofthelinguisticheritageofAragon”andshouldalso


14

foreseetherightofpeopletousethoselanguagesintheirrela-tionswithpublicinstitutions.

ThenamesofAragon’sownlanguagesandlinguisticvarietieshave not been specified in 1982, nor in 2007. Nevertheless,the Ley 3/1999 del Patrimonio Cultural Aragonés (Law ofAragoneseCulturalHeritage)saidthatAragoneseandCatalanwereAragon’sminoritylanguages(Article4).

A much more important law was passed before the end of2009:theLey10/2009,deuso,protecciónypromocióndelaslenguaspropiasdeAragón (Law10/2009on theuse,protec-tion and promotion ofAragon’s own languages). This act didnotgrantofficialstatusforCatalan,butatleastitacknowledgedthatthelanguageisspokeninsomeareasofAragon.Article2declaredAragoneseandCatalanas“originalandhistoricallan-guages”ofAragon.Beingso,theyshouldhave“protection”andtheirteachingandtherightoftheirspeakerstousethemintheareaswheretheyhavebeenpredominantlyspoken,especiallywhendealingwithpublicadministrations.

El Carxe TheEstatutodeAutonomíadeMurcia(1982)(StatuteofAuto-

nomyofMurcia)includesnorecognitionofitsCatalan-speakinglinguisticminority.Thus,inElCarxenopolicyforpreservingthelanguageisbeingimplementednorhaseverbeen.

As far as European policies are concerned, Spain signedthe European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages(ECRML)in1992andratifieditin2001.10However,intheDec-larationcontained in the instrumentof ratification,SpaindoesnotincludeMurcia.ThismeansthatCatalaninElCarxehasnoprotectionevenfromtheCharter.

status of As mentioned above, Catalan had been banned from theschool systemduring theperiodof theGeneralFrancodicta-torship and it was only until 1975 that a few hours of nativelanguageswere permitted to be taught, althoughCatalan didnot become obligatory until 1978 (only in Catalonia) or 1979(ValencianCountryandBalearicIslands).ThreeRoyalDecrees(Real Decreto 2092/1978, Real Decreto 2193/1979 and Real

language education


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Decreto2003/1979) introduced theCatalan language into thepre-schoolstudyplans,primaryschoolsandsecondary levelsinthosethreeterritories.

InAragon andMurcia,Catalan has never been obligatory. InAragon it is taught as an optional subject since 1984/1985,butinMurciaCatalanhasneverbeenintroducedintoschools.Thus,therehasneverbeenanyexperienceofteachingCatalaninschoolsinElCarxe.

Thus,asaresultofthedifferentlegislativeframeworks,thecur-rentstatusoftheCatalanlanguageineducationisdifferent ineachterritoryandwewillconsiderandanalysethemseparately(whennecessary).

Catalonia Atfirst(1978-1983),theteachingofCatalanwasimplemented

through threehoursperweekofmandatoryclasses. In1983,90%ofpupilsinpre-schoolandprimaryeducationalreadyhadclassesofCatalanlanguage.

Duringthatperiod,the1979StatuteofAutonomywaspassedandthepowersinthefieldofeducationweretransferredfromthe Spanish government to the Catalan government in 1980(RoyalDecree2809/1980).Thesechangesopenedthedoortomajor steps in termsof regulationof standards toensurenotonlytheteachingofCatalan,butalsotheuseofCatalanasavehicularlanguageforteaching.

Allthismeantthatasecondperiodwasborn(1983-1992).Itbe-ganwiththeapprovaloftheLNL(1983)thatintroducedCatalanas the languageof teaching. ItsTitle II states thatCatalan isthelanguageofeducationatalllevels.Theadministrationmustguaranteethisright.CatalanandSpanisharetobeobligatorysubjects at non-university levels and degrees.Teachersmustknowbothofficiallanguages.

Thelawalsostatesthatinfantshavetherighttoreceiveearlyeducationintheirusuallanguage,whetherCatalanorSpanish.This principle only affects childrenofSpanish-speakingback-ground,andtheparentsortutorsaretheoneswhodemandthisright,asallchildrengotothesameschools(thus,pupilsarenotseparatedindifferentclassroomsalonglinguisticlines).


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In the academic year 1992/1993 a new educational systemwas applied in Spain for non-university levels, regulated bytheLeyOrgánica1/1990,deOrdenaciónGeneraldelSistemaEducativo (Organic Law on the General Organisation of theEducation System; hereafter: LOGSE). This reformmeant afar-reachingchangeineducationinCatalonia,aboveallasfaras language is concerned. The legal framework surroundingitwasprovidedbyadecree(Decree75/1992)onthegeneralorganisationofteachinginpre-school(from0to5yearsold),primary (from 6 to 12 years old) and obligatory secondaryeducation (from13 to16 yearsold) inCatalonia.Article3ofthis Decree stipulates that Catalan was the language to benormally used as a vehicular, learning language in all non-universitylevelsofeducation.The Decree established Catalan as the normal language ofinstructionandputanendtothegradualcharacteroftheintro-ductionofCatalanat theschools.Before1992,the legislationestablishedtoenacttheLNLallowedtheschoolstouseCata-lanasamediumofinstructionprogressively.Thatisthecauseof thedevelopmentofdifferent typesofschools,according tothenumberofsubjectstaughtinCatalan.TheregulationsintheDecreewere alsomadeofficial by theCatalan LPL (1/1998),which states the sameas theLNLconcerning theuseof thelanguageineducation.Thus,afterthe1992Decreeand1998Law,allschools,privateandpublic,mustuseCatalanasanormalmediumof instruc-tion,whilealwaysrespectingtherightofinfantstoreceiveearlyeducationintheirusuallanguage,whetherCatalanorSpanish.Itmust be said, however, that very few families exercise thisright(afewdozenperyear).Ingeneral,familiesareawarethatpupilshaveasimilarknowledgeofCatalanandSpanishattheendofcompulsoryeducation,astheofficialresultsshow.TheEACof2006and theLleid’EducaciódeCatalunya (LawonEducation ofCatalonia; hereafter: LEC) of 2009 have fur-ther reinforced the role of Catalan as the vehicular languagein schools.Article35of theEAC (Linguistic rights in thefieldofeducation) includes the rules thatwerealreadyestablishedin1983and1998 laws in relation to theuseofCatalan inall


17

educational levels and in relation to the rights and duties ofpupilsandteachers.Furthermore,LEChasagainstressed thatCatalan is the lan-guagenormallyusedasavehicularlanguageandforteachingin the education system and recalled that pupils cannot beseparatedindifferentcentresorgroupclassesbecauseoftheirusuallanguage(Article11.3).ItmustalsobesaidthattheaforementionedrulingoftheSpanishConstitutionalCourtof2010ontheEACof2006specifiesthatArticle35.1and35.2oftheStatute(dealingwiththerightofeachindividualtoreceiveeducationinCatalanandtherightandob-ligationofpupilstohaveasufficientoralandwrittenknowledgeofCatalanandCastilianuponcompletingcompulsoryeducation)must be interpretedas if they foresaw thatSpanishhad to bethevehicularlanguageofteachingalongsideCatalan.Thus,therulingchallengestheroleofCatalanas thevehicular languageof Catalan schools. This interpretation could lead to a changeoflinguisticmodelinCatalanschools.Itstillremainstobeseentowhichextentthisisbroughtintopractice.Catalaninstitutions,teachersandmostpoliticalpartiesandtradeunionsopposetherulingandmaintain the linguisticmodelof theCatalanschoolsisnotgoingtobechanged,irrespectiveofwhattherulingsays.

Balearic IslandsThe teachingofCatalanas a compulsory subject beganwiththeRoyalDecree2193/1979,whichopenedthedoortothein-corporationofteachingprogrammesinCatalan,providedthereweresufficientmeanstodoso.TheBalearic Islandsdidnot receive fullpowersoneducationuntil 1998, and this had an important impact in the recoveryprocess of the Catalan language and its status within theeducation system. Thus, Spain did not acknowledge that theautonomousgovernmenthad theexclusivepower to regulatetheteachingofitsterritoriallanguage(Catalan)until1998.

AsinthecaseofCatalonia,Catalanasavehicularlanguageofeducationwasnot introduced inschoolsuntil1986,when theLNLIB(TitleII:Onteaching)waspassed.ThelawestablishedCatalan as an obligatory and official language of teaching in


18

the Balearic Islands in all educational levels. It also foresawthatpupilsshallnotbeseparatedindifferentclassroomsalonglinguisticlines.Togiveeffecttotheseprovisions,theBalearicgovernmentde-ploysvariousdecreesandotherlegalinstruments,whichwereverygeneric in thebeginning,given that itwasnotuntil1997(six months before the transfer of powers) that the use andteachingofandinCatalanwasregulated(Decree92/1997).The regulations currently in force emanate from the Decree67/2008,whichlaysdownthegeneralorganizationofteachinginpre-schooleducation,primaryandcompulsorysecondaryeduca-tion in theBalearic Islands.Article6of theDecreeestablishesthatCatalan is the languageof teaching, learningandcommu-nication,emphasizingthattheactivitiesofteachingandlearningthroughthemediumofCatalanimplytheoralandwrittenuseofthislanguage.Atthesametime,theDecreesaysthatthe edu-cational authoritiesmustfacilitatetheintegrationofnewlyarrivedstudentsintheownlanguageandcultureoftheBalearicIslandsbydevelopingspecificprogrammesforlearning.Non-compulsorysecondaryeducation(Baccalaureate)isregu-lated by the Decree 82/2008, which establishes the struc-ture and curricula of Baccalaureate education in the BalearicIslands.Article5recallsthatCatalanmustbeusedasthelan-guageofteaching,learningandcommunication,sothatpupilshaveacompetenceallowingthemtocommunicateinanormalandcorrectwayattheendofthisstage.Inshort, itcanbesaidthatthelawfavoursCatalan,albeitnottothesameextentasinCatalonia.Italsosetsasingleeduca-tionalmodel.

Valencian CountryAsinCataloniaandtheBalearicIslands,therestorationofcom-pulsorystudyofthelanguageasasubjectstartedthankstotheRoyalDecree2003/1979,whichregulatestheincorporationoftheValencianlanguageintotheeducationsystem.TheapprovaloftheEACVof1982,thatdeclaredValenciantheownandofficiallanguageoftheValencianCommunity,allowedto issue a decree regulating the introduction of the language


19

intoallnon-university levels,bothinpublicandprivateeduca-tionalinstitutions.TheLUEV(1983) introduced the language into teaching inalleducational levels (Title II), although it established differentmodelsdependingonwhichisthemainlanguage(SpanishorCatalan) inagiven territory.Thus, inareaswhereCastilian isthemainlanguage,Valencianisanoptionalsubject.InthezonewhereValencianisthemainlanguage,parentsandlegaltutorsofstudentsinnon-universityeducationmayasktobeexemptedfromstudyingValencianiftheycanprovetemporaryresidencein the territory.TheDecree79/1984 implemented the law thefollowingyearinallnon-universitylevels.Thus,incontrasttothesituationoftheothertwomainCatalan-speaking regions, it can be said that the Valencian Countryhas twoeducationalmodels:onewhere themain language isCatalanandtheotheronewherethemain language isSpan-ish,inaccordancewiththelegislationenactedbytheValenciangovernment,whichhaspowersineducationsince1983.According to this legislation, in the Valencian-speaking areaparentscanchoosebetweenseveral linguisticmodels: teach-ing inValencian forValencian-speakingpupils (Spanishbeingin principle only a subject), teaching in Spanish (Valencianbeingacompulsorysubject), linguistic immersioninValencianforSpanish-speakingpupils,orevenmodelsthatgraduallyin-troducetheownlanguageoftheValencianCountry(cf bilingual education forms,p.25).Inanycase,decreesapproved in2007thatestablishthecur-riculaofprimaryandsecondaryeducationsetasmaingoalsofthat phase of education “to know and use appropriately bothValencianandCastilian[...];toattachvaluetothecommunica-tivepossibilitiesofValencianastheownlanguageoftheValen-cianCommunityandasafundamentalpartofitsculturalherit-age,aswellwasthecommunicativepossibilitiesofCastilianasthecommonlanguageofallSpaniardsandasaninternationallanguage”(Decree111/2007,Article4eandDecree112/2007,Article 4i).Sucha statement of principles cannot be found inCatalonianorintheBalearicIslands.


20

The FranjaThe Autonomous Community of Aragon had no powers ineducation before 1998. The study of Catalan, on a voluntarybasis,wasallowedbytheMinisteriodeEducación(MinistryofEducationofSpain; hereafter:MEC)andwas first introducedin theeducationsystem inNovember1984.TheautonomousgovernmentaskedforthispermissionafteragreatpressurebythemayorsoftheCatalan-speakingarea.InOctober1985,theConsejeríadeCulturayEducación(Minis-tryofCultureandEducation)oftheGovernmentofAragonandtheMEC signed an agreement that established the student’spossibilitytolearntheCatalanlanguage,duringclassscheduleandupto3hoursperweek,butalwaysonavoluntarybasis.TheGovernment ofAragon received powers on education in1998,butthisdidnotchangeanyofthelegalprovisionsontheteachingofCatalanlanguage.It isonlysince the2007/2008schoolyear thatacertificateofintermediate level of Catalan language (level B) is awardedto those pupils that have completed compulsory secondaryeducation, provided that they have always passed Catalanas a subject during the compulsory secondary phase aswellas during, at least, four school years of primary education inAragoneseschools.Duringthe2009/2010academicyear,thepresenceofCatalanin the schools ofCatalan-speaking territories could beof twotypes: as a compulsory subject offered in schools, with cur-ricularvalue,butoffreechoicebystudents,andasalanguageof instruction, inschoolswith theirown linguisticplan,where,besidesbeinglearnedasasubject,Catalancanbeusedasalanguageofinstruction(20or30%ofthecurriculum).Since2010,thesituationofCatalanintheschoolsintheFranjaisregulatedbyLey10/2009,deuso,protecciónypromocióndelaslenguaspropiasdeAragón(Lawontheuse,protectionandpro-motionoftheownlanguagesofAragon).ItsChapterVIArticle22guaranteestherightofteachingCatalanintheareaswherethislanguagehashistoricallybeenused.TheGovernmentcommitsitselftoguaranteethatrightthroughanadequateofferinschools.Still,thelearningofCatalanisdoneonavoluntarybasis.


21

The law has opened the door to a further expansion of theteaching of Catalan. Article 23 says that “where the ownlanguages” ofAragon (i.e. Catalan andAragonese) “are pre-dominantlyused,theirteachingwillbeguaranteedinalllevelsandphasesasanintegralsubjectofthecurriculum,alongsideCastilian” and that the government ofAragon “will foster thepublicationofteachingmaterialstobeusedforsubjectsintheownlanguagesintheeducationalcentresofAragon”.

education TheSpanishParliamenthasestablishedthebasicco-ordinatesof the education system through the Ley Orgánica 2/2006,de Educación (Organic Law on Education, hereafter: LOE).According to that law, school attendance is compulsory andfreefromagesixtosixteen.ThebasicobjectivesoftheSpanisheducationsystemincludefulldevelopmentofthestudent’sper-sonality,learningrespectforfundamentalrightsandfreedoms,the acquisition of intellectual habits and respect for the lin-guistic and cultural plurality of Spain. University education istheobjectofaseparate law.Universities inSpainare largelyself-governing.Inrelationtopre-schooleducation,itmustbesaidthateduca-tionauthoritiesare trying togradually increase thenumberofschoolplaces for itsfirstcycle (up to threeyears). Itssecondcycle (three to six years) is freeof chargeandboth inpublicschools and in private schools subsidised by the authorities(calledcentres concertats).

private and Education in Spain is financed by both public and privatesources. The majority of public schools are financed by theMinistries of Education of theAutonomousGovernments, butinCataloniaandinsomeotherautonomouscommunitiesthereare also public schools run by municipal councils and otherpublicbodies.Thisdependencyonadministrationisreflectedinthemorehomogeneouscharacterofthepublicschools,alsointermsoflanguagepolicy.TheprivatesectorofeducationhasalwayshadaveryspecialpositionthroughoutSpain,althoughtheirrightstogovernmentaidwere onlymade official in the 1978Constitution.Schools

system

public


22

financed through public funding (both public and state-subsi-dised)representamajorityofthetotalprimaryandsecondaryschools.DuringFranco’sdictatorship(1936-1975)Catalanwasbannedinschools.Nevertheless,afewprivateschoolsstartedtointro-duceCatalansincethelate1960s(Siguan,1993,p.159).Evenafter theapprovalof theLNL(1983),moreprivate thanpublicschoolsintroducedCatalanasthemainmediumofinstruction.Private schools have very different ideologies, but themajor-ityare related to theCatholicChurch.Funding for theprivateschools comes from families and entities. However, most ofthemaresubsidisedbytheauthorities.

bilingual Catalonia Catalanistheusuallinguafrancainnon-universityteachingin

Catalonia,accordingtoCatalanlawsaforementioned.Inshort,theselawsrecognizetherightofpupilstoreceivethefirstyearsofteachingthrougheitherCatalanorSpanish;pursuethegoalthatpupilshaveacompetenceallowingthemtocommunicateinacorrectwayattheendofcompulsoryeducation;andestab-lishthatpupilsthatjointheeducationsystemofCataloniaatalaterstagecanreceivespecialandadditionalsupportregardingtheCatalanlanguage.In order to implement this, after passing the 1983 LNL, theGeneralitat introduced the Programa d’Immersió Lingüística(LinguisticImmersionProgramme;hereafter:PIL)followingtheexampleofimmersioncoursesinCanada,toguaranteecompe-tenceinbothlanguagesalsoforthechildrenofSpanish-speak-ing parents. This pedagogical programme, planned by theschoolauthoritiesand targetedatSpanish-speakingstudents,was applied to schools with over 75% non-Catalan-speakingchildren. The pedagogical programme was originally meantfor children from three to seven years of age, but was laterextendeduptotwelveyears.Earlytotalimmersionimpliesthatall instruction,includinglearningtoreadandwrite,isprovidedinCatalan,whereasSpanishisnotintroducedbeforegrade3.Thismodelwasmotivatedby the commitmentof theCatalaneducational authorities to create a single educational model

education forms


23

that contributed to keep a single Catalan society, not brokenalonglinguisticlines.Thus,thegoalwastoensureknowledgeofbothCatalanandSpanish,regardlessofthemothertonguesofpupils:PILwassimplyabilingualeducationprogrammethatintroduced the socially weaker language (Catalan) from anearlyageinschools.Needless to say that, in contexts where Catalan is themainlanguageofsocialuse,aCatalanizationof theeducationsys-temhasoccurred:Catalanhasbecometheusuallanguageoflearning,whileensuring thatallpupilsmustknowbothofficiallanguageswiththesamelevelofcompetence.Teststakenbythestudentsshowthatthisgoalisfullyachieved.Remarkably,the levelofknowledgeofSpanishamongCatalanstudents isthesameasitisintherestofSpain.Inordertoensurethisgoal,theMinistryofEducationofCatalo-niarequiresallcentrestohaveaneducationplanoftheirown(Projecte Educatiu de Centre; hereafter: PEC) which definesthegeneral frameworkwithinwhich theeducationalactivityofthecentreistobeperformed.Theeducationplanmustincludea specific section, the linguistic plan (Projecte Lingüístic deCentre;hereafter:PLC),whichwillestablishthegeneralcriteriafor the treatment and use of languages in the centre. Thus,the linguistic plan will determine the function (the status) ofthelanguagespresent inthecentre(Catalan,Spanishand,atleast,one foreign language), inaccordancewith legal regula-tions.AlthoughCatalan is thenormal languageof instruction,Spanishisusedalsoforatleastonesubject,accordingtothebackgroundofthestudentsandstaff.

ThefirstnormativereferencetoPLCisfoundinJune1993,inacourtorder/resolutioninstructingonthewayeducationalcen-tres(bothpublicandprivate)shouldorganizethemselvesandoperate.Thetextsaidthat“theLinguisticPlanwillbetheele-mentintheeducationalprojectthatwilllisttheissuesthatareinrelationtotheteachinganduseoflanguageswithintheschool”.Infact, this istheconfluenceoftwoprocesses:onebasedontheautonomyofschools(regulatedbytheLOGSElaw)andan-otheronecomingfromthedevelopmentoflanguagelegislation


24

in Catalonia, both the general legislation (laws on linguisticpolicy)andthelegislationoneducation.Thus, PLC is based on this confluence. PLC can be definedas the tool that enables schools tomanage and organize, inaccordancewithcurrentregulationsbutautonomously,certainaspectsregardingthesituationanduseoflanguagesinschool,andthewaythatlanguagesaretreatedwithinthecurriculum.Finally, it must be said that a new wave of migration fromaround theworldcoming toCatalonia in theearly twenty-firstcentury(thefigureofforeignstudentsrosefrom24,787intheacademicyear2000/2001to155,845in2009/2010)hascausedsomeshakingof the linguisticmodel inCatalan schools.TheCatalanadministrationreactedtothisphenomenonbycreatingCatalan language specific programs targeting those students(notdoingsowouldhavealmostcertainlyresultedintheCas-tilianization of many classrooms), by establishing the Tallersd’AdaptacióEscolar(SchoolAdaptationWorkshops;hereafter:TAE)between2000and2004,andby implementing thePlanfor Language and Social Cohesion (from 2004 onwards), aprogramme including theopeningofmore thanone thousandreceptionclassrooms.The new reality of the country led the Catalan Ministry ofEducationtoestablishanUpdatingPlanfortheLanguageIm-mersionProgramme(Plapera l’actualitzacióde laMetodolo-gia d’immersió en l’actual context sociolingüístic. 2007-2013).Subsequently,theimmersionprogrammewasforthefirsttimeincorporatedintothedecreeofthecurriculaofprimaryeduca-tionDecree142/2007,Article5)and,alsoforthefirsttime,wasintendedtoreachsecondaryeducation(12-16years).

Balearic Islands Teaching of and in Catalan in the Balearic Islands followstwodifferentmodels: in the first one, all teaching is done inCatalan; in the second, bilingual one, Catalan and Spanishare combined. In any case, all pupils, whatever their usuallanguage in thebeginningof theschoolmaybe,mustprovean adequate knowledge of both languages at the end ofcompulsoryeducation.


25

In bilingual schools, the share of use of each language aslanguageofinstructiondependsoneachsingleschool.Inanycase,theuseofCatalanmustmeettwominimumrequirements:Catalanmustbeusedduringat least50%of thetime,andateachlevel,itmustbeusedintheappropriatesubjectsaslegallyestablished(usuallysocialsciencesandnaturalsciences).InsomeschoolswithamajorityofSpanish-speakingstudentsthe Language Immersion Programme is also applied. Theprogramme started in the 1980s and 1990s – sometimesspontaneously ledbygroupsofteachersandwiththesupportof families.Subsequently, theprogrammehad the institutionalsupportgivenbytheadviceoftheTeachingServiceofCatalan.Asweshallseelater,inthelastfewyearsthenumberofschoolsusing Catalan as a language of instruction has significantlyincreased,thankstothelanguagepoliciesofthegovernment.

In thesamewayasCatalonia,since1994Balearic legislationencourages thedevelopmentof school linguisticplans (PLC),whichmustfollowthegoalssetbytheregulations,butalsoinaccordancewiththerealityofeacheducationalcentre.Also, as was done in Catalonia, the increase of newcomersled theBalearicMinistry of Education to put in place thePlad’Acollida, Integració i Reforç Educatiu (Plan for Reception,IntegrationandEducationalReinforcement; hereafter:PAIRE)inthe2008/2009schoolyear.Theplanbringstogetheractions,measures and specific programmes which seek to improveattention for late-entry students in the education system ofthe Balearic Islands. Facilitating the learning of Catalan andcontributing to theeffort toestablish itas the lingua franca inschoolsaretwoofthemaingoalsofPAIRE.

Valencian Country Asseenabove,andunlikeCataloniaandtheBalearicIslands,the Valencian Country opted for different educational lines,dependingontheuseofValencianandSpanish.In Valencian-speaking territories, three models of bilingualeducation are currently found:Programad’IncorporacióPro-gressiva (Progressive Incorporation Programme; hereafter:


26

PIP),Programad’EnsenyamentenValencià (ValencianEdu-cationProgramme;hereafter:PEV)andProgramad’ImmersióLingüística(LanguageImmersionProgramme;hereafter:PIL).Nevertheless, all programmes must meet the goal of anadequateknowledgeofbothlanguagesbytheendofcompul-soryeducation.WithinPIP,thebasiclanguageofschoolingisSpanish.Valen-cianisintroducedinpre-schooleducation,butonlyorally,andinprimaryeducationpupils learnValencianasasubject.Thelanguageisgradually introducedasateachinglanguagefromthe third year of primary education onwards. In compulsorysecondary education, Valencian is still the teaching languagein,atleast,twonon-languagesubjects.The difference between PEV and PIL is only the kind ofstudents that each model targets and, therefore, the teach-ing strategies. PEV targets Valencian-speaking pupils, whilePIL targets non-Valencian speaking pupils. In pre-school andprimary education, PEV is designed for Valencian-speakingstudents. In secondary education, it also includes Spanish-speakingstudents.The language used from the beginning of schooling (pre-school) is Valencian,with an introduction of spokenSpanish.Inprimaryeducation,schoolshave theoption togradually in-creasethenumberofsubjectstobetaughtinSpanish,soastoguaranteeabalancedknowledgeofbothofficiallanguagesbytheendofthisstageofeducation.PILisonlyfoundinthestagesofpre-schoolandprimaryedu-cation.Insecondaryeducation,PILstudentsjoinPEV.Parentsor guardians must explicitly declare their wish to have theirchildreneducatedunderPIL.Inthisprogramme,Spanish,asasubjectandasalanguageofinstruction,startsfromthefirstorsecondcycleofprimaryedu-cation,dependingonthesociolinguisticcontextoftheschool.Inspiteofthisfact,thePILensuresproficiencyinbothlanguages.In those territoriesofficially classifiedaspredominantlySpan-ish-speaking, teaching is done inSpanish,whileValencian isonlytaughtasasubject(cfstatus of language educationp.18).However,schoolsoftheseareascanalsoadoptthePEVmodel


27

as longasparentsor guardiansexplicitly declare theirwill tohaveitandtheschoolhasthecapacitytoorganizeit.

The Franja CatalanisonlytaughtasasubjectintheschoolsoftheFranja.However,afewschoolshaveabilingualprogrammeandalsouseCatalanasa languageof instruction in20or30%of thecurriculum,dependingon the linguisticprojectofeacheduca-tionalcentre.

administration Throughout Spain, the Ministry of Education (MEC) of theSpanishGovernmenthastoguaranteetherightandthedutytolearnSpanish in theautonomouscommunitiesalongsidewiththeirownlanguages.

The ‘full authorisation’mentioned in theConstitution of 1978meant inpracticeadecentralisationof responsibilitiesamongseveral political levels. The Constitution foresees that theadministration of educationmust be decentralised, as in therest of Spanish public administration. But in the beginningnotalltheAutonomousCommunitiesobtainedthesamelevelof autonomy as regards education. Catalonia, the BasqueCountry and Galicia were the first autonomous communitieswhichwerefullyautonomousinthatarea.Currently(2011),allAutonomous Communities are fully autonomous, but alwayswithin the legal framework for education defined by the leg-islation applying to Spain as a whole, which determines thegeneralorganisationoftheeducationsystemandtheminimumcontentsofthecurriculum.

The Ministry of Education of each autonomous community isresponsible foreducationadministrationatall levels.Ministriesare responsible for the implementation of basic Spain-widestandardsandfortheregulationofnon-basicaspectsoftheedu-cationsystem,aswellasfortheadministrationoftheeducationsystemintheirrespectiveregions.Theyhavetotakecareofedu-cationalinstitutions,teachingstaff,technicalinspectionservices,administration and implementation of state provisions for theplanningand regulationof levelsof education, option streams,sectionsandspecialisations(CEDEFOP,2010,par.1.2).


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At the local level,municipalauthoritiesusuallyassumerespon-sibilitiesasregardstheprovisionofplotsfortheconstructionofpublicschools.Theyarealsoresponsibleforthemaintenanceofcentresofpre-schoolandprimaryeducationandtheyalsoofferpedagogical and technical services, especially in the students’registration period. Some of them have aMunicipal EducationInstitutethatofferspedagogicalaid.Theyalsopromotethecrea-tionofeducationalcentresforchildrenaged0-3years.Municipalschoolcouncilsarethelocalsocialparticipationbodies,togetherwiththeAutonomousGovernment(CEDEFOP,2010,par.1.2).

inspection AllautonomouscommunitieshavetheirownTechnicalInspec-tionService(Inspeccióntècnicaeducativa)foreducationalmat-ters.TheCosd’InspeccióEducativa(BodyofEducationInspec-tors;hereafter:CIE)consistsofcivilservantswhoperformtheirdutiesmainlyinschools,andareresponsibleforcheckingiftheeducationsystemisinlinewiththerequirementsdeterminedbyeachAutonomousGovernment. There is also a StateHigherInspectionService,whichhasoneormorespecific inspectorsineachAutonomousCommunitywhorepresenttheHigherIn-spectionoftheSpanishstate(CEDEFOP,2010,par.1.4.).

support Catalonia The linguistic policy of theCatalangovernment itself, aswehave seen, is to promote a “normalization” of the Catalanlanguage.ThisiscarriedoutbytheMinistryofCultureforthewholepopulationaswellastheMinistryofEducationfornon-university education levels. A specific organisation createdin 1978within the latter department used to exist (SEDEC),whichpromotedCatalananddealtwitheverything related toCatalan in education: the publication of teaching materialssuitedtotheeducationalneedsoftheschoolstudents,directadvisorytocentres,whichinvolvedalargeSupportTeamforTeaching in Catalan, the treatment of the languages in theframeworkofamulti-lingualreality,theactionsofthelinguisticnormalisationcoordinatorsforthecompulsorysecondaryedu-cationcentres,etc.ThisservicesetupandranthePIL,which,aswesaidbefore,

structure


29

while recognising the varied sociolinguistic situation of thecountry,triedtoputintopracticethegovernment’sfinalaimofCatalanbeingthelanguageofinstruction.So, apart from the administrative regulation measures andtechnicaladviceinareasassociatedwithschoolteachingma-terialsandstaff, theactivitiesof theGeneralitat in thefieldofeducationhavebeendevelopedinthreedirections:pedagogi-calaidforteachers,intensivelinguisticcoursesforschoolsandthestudyandexperimentalapplicationofdidacticmethods.Twenty-five years after the creation ofSEDEC, the newedu-cational needs caused by the continued incorporation at allnon-universitylevelsofahighpercentageofmigrantpupilswhodonotknowCatalanledtheGovernmenttoadoptnewsupportmeasuresinordertoachievethedesiredgoalswithregardtothelearninganduseofCatalan.Thus, in 2004 the Sub-Directorate General of Language andSocialCohesionwasestablishedwithintheMinistryofEduca-tion.TheSub-Directoratewasentrustedwith the implementa-tionoftheaforementionedPlanforLanguageandSocialCohe-sion.TheSEDEC,aspartof thisnewbureau, is renamedastheServiceofImmersionandLanguageUse,withachangeinitsroleasthenameimplies.The taskof thesenewteamsofadvisers,whohavegatheredthe experiences that existed so far, has mainly focused onadvising teachers who deal with new pupils that are joiningthe education system in Catalonia and do not know Catalanonstrategiesforsecondlanguageteaching;oncreatingteamsofteachersforpre-schoolandprimaryeducationtoupdatetheLinguisticImmersionProgrammeinordertomeettheneedsofthenewsociolinguistic reality;andonmanaging theso-calledEnvironmentEducationalPlans(asakeyfactortoensurecon-tinuity,alsoregardingthequestionoflanguage,betweenwhatisdoneatschoolandwhatisdoneoutside).

Balearic IslandsSupportmeasureswithregardtothelanguagethatarecreatedbyBalearicgovernmentagenciesare very similar to thoseofCatalonia. Over the years there has been much cooperation


30

betweenthetwogovernmentsinordertoshareandexchangeexperiences.Thus, the Catalan Teaching Service was also created in theBalearicIslandsintheearlyyearsoftheintroductionofCatalanintoschools.ItsfunctionswereverysimilartoitscounterpartinCatalonia.The work that this service dedicates to advising on the im-plementation of thePIL and its ability to produce educationalmaterialsarenoteworthy.Assaid,andregardingtothenewrealitycreatedbythearrivalof migrant pupils, in 2008/2009 school year the DirectorateGeneral of Innovation and Teacher Training put in place thePAIRE. The plan targets late-entry students in the educationsystemoftheBalearicIslandsandincludesmeasurestofavourthelearningofCatalan.At thebeginningof the2011/2012academicyear,however, itseemsthatsupportmeasurestothelearninganduseofCata-lanwillbereduced, following thecoming intopowerofanewautonomous government. The new executive aims to furtherincreasetheweightofSpanishandotherforeignlanguagesasvehicularlanguagesintheBaleariceducationsystem.

Valencian Country In the Valencian Country a language service was also cre-ated (Valencian Teaching Service), which (as in the case ofCataloniaandtheBalearicIslands)hadtheroleofadvisingonissuesrelatedtolanguageteaching,especially inthosecaseswheremethodologiesof languageimmersionprogrammesareapplied.This Service has been replaced in the 2011/2012 academicyearbyanewbodycalledServicid’EnsenyamentenLlengües(Languages Teaching Service), which seems more designedtoadviseonforeign language learning thanonValencian lan-guage learning. If the situation remains unchanged, it mightleadtothedisappearanceofadvisingservicestothoseeduca-tionalcentresthatteachinValencian.CivilsocietyhasbeenactivelyinvolvedintherecoveryofCatalanasthelanguageoftheeducationsysteminallCatalan-speaking


31

territories.However,takingintoaccountthespecificcharacteris-ticsoftheValencianCountry,thetaskthathasbeencarriedoutsincethe1980sandisstillbeingcarriedoutbytheorganizationEscola Valenciana - Federació d’Associacions per la Llengua(Valencian School - Federation of Associations for the Lan-guage;hereafter:FEV)mustbehighlighted.FEV,whichiscurrentlymadeupof24associations,organizestheso-calledMeetingsofSchools inValencian.Thesearere-creationalandrecognitiongatheringsthathavebecomeFEV’smostwell-knownproject.FEValsoorganizesthePartyfortheLanguage, where every year over 200,000 people (parents,studentsandteachers)gatherinsometwentydifferentregionalmeetings.

The Franja TherehasneverexistedaspecificadvisoryteamintheFranja.Instead,localteachersofCatalanorganizethemselvesthroughapermanenttrainingseminar,whichiscoordinatedbytheCen-tre forTeachersandResources inFraga (theFranja’s largesttown),whichalsoorganizesaCatalanSummerSchoolinordertotrainteachersfortheteachingofandinCatalan(its15thedi-tionisheldin2011).


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2 Pre-school education

target group Pre-school education is aimedat childrenup to six yearsoldanditisnon-compulsory.However,almostallthechildrenstartgoing to school at its second cycle, at three years old (morethan90%).

structure The structure of the education system divides pre-primaryeducationintotwocyclesofthreeyearseach:age0-3andage3-6,which inCataloniaarecalledLlard’Infants(Nursery)andParvulari(InfantEducation),respectively.

Pre-schoolsareoftenlocatedwithinthesamebuildingcomplexasprimaryschools.Nurseryschoolsareusuallyseparate (al-thoughfacilitiesgreatlyvarydependingonthearea).

legislation Pre-schooleducationisregulatedbytheOrganicLawonEdu-cation (LOE,2006)establishedby theSpanishParliament. Inthis lawpre-schooleducation isconsideredasaneducationalstageonitsownandisdesignedtocontributetothephysical,affective, social and intellectual development of pupils; closeco-operationwithparentsisstressed.(TitleIChapterI,Article12oftheLOE (2006)(cfch.1p.21))

language use Catalonia TheuseoftheCatalanlanguageisestablishedinthelegalpro-visionsregulatingbothcycles.Thecorrespondingdecrees(De-cree282/2006andDecree181/2008)establishthattheCatalanlanguage,asCatalonia’sownlanguage,isthelanguagewhichis to be used normally as the medium of instruction in pre-schooleducation.Thus, Catalan as a medium of instruction starts in the earlyyearsandsodoes theCatalan immersionprogramme, in theunderstandingthat,inanycase,theindividuallinguisticrightsofpupilswillberespectedinaccordancewithcurrent legislation.Attheendofthestage,non-CatalanspeakingpupilsmusthaveoralcompetenceinCatalan.


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Balearic IslandsAsseenabove(status of language education, p.17),legislationstatesthatCatalanmustbethelanguageofinstruction,learningandcommunicationatthisstage,sothatattheendofthestageallpupilshaveasufficientknowledgeofthelanguagethatallowsthemtocommunicatewithotherchildrenandwiththeirteachers.Atthebeginningofprimaryeducation,pupilsshouldbeabletofollow thecorrespondingareas thatare taught inCatalan. It isforeseenthatallthislearningprocessmustbedoneintheunder-standingthattheindividuallinguisticrightsofthestudentwillberespectedinaccordancewithcurrentlegislation.However, aswe have seen in the sectionbilingual education forms (p. 24), thismay be compliedwith to varying degrees,andmanycentreshaveopted to teachonlya fewknowledgeareas inCatalan,mostly inprivateandsubsidisedschools (cfstatistics,p.35).

Valencian Country Due to the existence of several linguistic models, the mainlanguageofpre-schooleducationmaybeCatalanorSpanish,althoughitmustberememberedthatthedecreeonestablish-ingthecurriculumofthesecondcycleofpre-schooleducationintheValencianCommunity(Decree38/2008)foreseesthattheabilityofchildrentoacquirelanguageatthisagemustbetakeninto account. Therefore, the school must create contexts inwhichpupilsdeveloptheircommunicativecompetenceinbothofficiallanguages.Therefore,thethreelinguisticmodelsspecifiedinsectionbilin-gual education forms(cfp.25)coexistatthisstage.Accordingtounofficialdata11,thedemandforeducationinValencian(PEV/PIL)ishigherthanthesupply.Thisappliesbothtopre-schoolandtocompulsorystagesofeducation.

The Franja Therearetwoschoolswithlinguisticprojectsand,thus,bilingualeducation is only offered in two schools of the Franja duringthe second cycle of pre-school education. In all the remainingschoolsCatalanlanguageisonlyofferedasanoptionalsubject.


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teaching The tremendous increase of Catalan education at the begin-ningofthe1980sledtoasimilardemandofteachingmaterials.Theexistenceofmaterialsfortheteachingofthelanguagehasmade very positiveprogress since1978,whenRoyalDecree2092/1978 includedCatalaninthestudyplansofCataloniauptill now. Nowadays, the publication of materials for languageteachingiscompletelynormalisedbothintermsofteachingofthelanguageandteachinginthelanguageatalllevelsofedu-cationinthethreeautonomouscommunities.InAragon,apartfromsomespecificmaterials,theyusematerialsthathavebeenpublishedinCatalonia.ThespecificwebsitesoftheMinistriesofEducationofCatalo-nia,theBalearicIslandsandtheValencianCountryofferawiderangeofmaterialsandother resourcesboth for teachersandstudentsforallnon-university levelsofeducation.Thus,Cata-lanlanguagematerialscanbefoundwithnodifficultyinvariousformatsandmediums.Thespecificcharacteristicsofpre-schooleducationalsofavourtheexistenceofquiteawiderangeofmaterialsthatareavail-ableinseveraldialectalstandards(whicharealwaysverysimi-laramong themselves).Thisoption isespecially important fortypicalcomplementaryeducationalmaterialsforthisagegroup:children’sstories,tales,andfables.In theFranja, textbooksand teachingmaterials usually comefromCatalonia,with theexceptionof thosematerials thatareelaborated by the teachers participating in the permanenttrainingseminarofFraga(assaidbefore)andsomematerialspublishedbytheGovernmentofAragon.

statistics CataloniaThere are no separate statistics available becauseCatalan issupposedtobetheonlylanguagenormallyusedasalanguageofteaching.Theonlystatisticmaterialwehavecorrespondstotheschoolyear1996/1997and it shows thatCatalanwas thelanguageofteachingfor81%ofstudents;18%usedCatalaninsomesubjectsandonly1%usedSpanishasthemainlanguageofteaching(LascifrasdelaeducaciónenEspaña.Curso2008-2009.StatisticalOfficeoftheMinistryofEducationofSpain).

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Balearic IslandsIntheschoolyear1998/1999,Catalanwasthelanguageofin-structionfor62%ofpupils;29%hadbothCatalanandSpanishaslanguagesofteaching,while9%usedSpanishasthemainlanguageandonlylearntCatalanasasubject.Fromthenonwards,all teachingwaswithCatalanasthemainlanguage(mainlyinpubliccentres)orbilingual(mainlyinprivateandsubsidisedcentres).Thenumberofstudentswhoaretaughtthrough Catalan as the main language was higher than 70%in the school years 2004/2005 and 2005/2006. In 2008/2009(the last school year for which official data are available) thisfiguredroppedto65%(78%oftheminpubliccentres)whiletheremaining35%followedbilingualeducation(Lascifrasdelaedu-caciónenEspaña.Curso2008-2009.StatisticalOffice).

Valencian Country Accordingtotheofficialdata,intheschoolyear1998/1999thenumber of students enrolled in the Valencian Language Pro-grammes(PEV/PIL)was29%,mostoftheminpubliccentres;42%of thestudentswereenrolled in thePIPprogrammeand29%studiedValencianonlyasasubject.Duringtheschoolyear2008/2009,thepercentageofpre-schoolstudents enrolled in the Valencian Language Programmes(PEV/PIL)hadincreasedupto36%,mostofthemalsoinpubliccentres. 48% were enrolled in the PIP programme and 16%studiedValencianonlyasasubject(LascifrasdelaeducaciónenEspaña.Curso2008-2009.StatisticalOffice).

The Franja There are no separate statistics available for the pre-primarylevel.However,thedatawehaveshowthatduringtheschoolyear2009/2010,89.9%ofthepupils(855pupils)learnedCata-lanlanguageasasubject.InthetwocentreswhereCatalanisusedas a languageof instruction, 89.5%of the students fol-lowedthebilingualprogramme.


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3 Primary education

target group PrimaryeducationisthefirstcompulsorystageofeducationinSpain.Itisaimedatpupilsfromsixtotwelveyearsold.

structure Primaryeducation isdivided into three levelsorcyclesof two

yearseach.Thelowercycleisforchildrenaged6-8,theinter-mediatecycleforchildrenaged8-10,andtheuppercyclefor11to12-year-oldchildren.

legislation PrimaryeducationisregulatedbytheOrganicLawonEduca-tion (LOE,2006)establishedby theSpanishParliament.Thislaw states that the objective at this level is to facilitate theacquisitionofbasicculturalelements,receptiveandproductiveoralandwrittenskills,arithmetic,andanincreasingautonomyofaction,aswellasdevelopingsocialskills,workingandstudyhabits,artisticsense,creativityandaffectivity(TitleI,chapterII,Article16oftheLOE(cfch.1p.21).

language use Catalonia TheCatalanlanguage,asCatalonia’sownlanguage,isthelan-

guagewhichistobeusednormallyasthemediumofinstruc-tioninprimaryeducation.TheteachingofSpanishbeginsinprimaryeducation,atthefirstcompulsory stage.Childrenusually start learning to readandwriteinCatalanwhentheyaresixyearsold,followingontheiractiveoralproductionofthelanguage,acquiredatpre-primarylevel.The learning of Catalan throughout the primary educationperiod is definedas theacquisitionof an instrumentwhich isto serveboth for communicationand learning.Priority is thusgivento its functional,oral,andwrittenuses;and it isconsid-eredthattheteachingofbothCatalanandSpanishmustbeofaglobalnature,facilitatingthetransferofknowledgewithouttheneedtorepeatthecontentsforeachofbothofficiallanguages.However, as stated inbilingual education forms (cf p. 22), allthedecisionsrelatedtotheuseoflanguages(Catalan,Spanishand,atleast,oneforeignlanguage)mustbeestablishedinthe


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linguistic plan of each school, in accordancewith the regula-tions.AlthoughCatalan is thenormal languageof instruction,Spanishisalsousedinonesubjectasaminimum,accordingtothebackgroundofthestudentsandstaff.

Balearic Islands As in pre-school, legislation for primary education (Decree72/2008)states thatCatalan is the language tobeusedasalanguageofinstruction,learningandcommunication,sothat,attheendofthestage,pupilshaveasufficientknowledgeofthelanguage that allow them to communicatewith other childrenandwith their teachers.At thebeginningofsecondaryeduca-tion, pupils should be able to follow the corresponding areasthataretaughtinCatalan.However,asinpre-school,thismaybecompliedwithtovaryingdegreesrangingfromteachinginbothlanguages(thepreferredchoiceinprivateandsubsidisedschools)toteachinginCatalanonly (mostly in public schools). In any case, decisions in thisfieldshouldbeincludedintheLinguisticPlan.

Valencian CountryDuetotheexistenceofseverallanguagemodels,themainlan-guageinprimaryeducationmaybeeitherCatalanorSpanish,taking into account commongoals to beachievedat theendofthestage(Decree111/2007).Theseobjectivesstatethatallpupilsshould“knowanduseappropriatelyValencianandCas-tilian,both inoralandwritten forms,value thecommunicativepossibilitiesofValencianastheownlanguageoftheValencianCommunity as a fundamental part of their cultural heritage,alongsidewith the communicative possibilities of Castilian asacommonlanguagetoallSpaniardsandas international lan-guage”(Decree111/2007,Article4e).As inpre-school, there isacoexistenceof the three linguisticmodelsspecifiedinthesectionbilingual education forms(cfp.25),because,generally speaking, inprimaryeducationpupilsfollowthemodelchosenwhentheystartedtheirschooling.


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The FranjaThereare twoschoolswitha linguisticplanand,so,bilingualeducationisonlyofferedintwoschoolsoftheFranjainprimaryeducation. In all the remaining schools, Catalan language isonlyofferedasanoptionalsubject.

teaching Nowadays, therearetextbooksinCatalanforallsubjectsandforalllevels.InCatalonia,alltextbooksmustnecessarilybeinCatalan. In the remaining territories, bilingual education alsorequires textbooks inCatalan forsubjects tobe taught in thislanguage.Fromthebeginning, inorder tofillall thosegaps thatexist inthemarket, public initiative (in this case, the governments ofCatalonia,theBalearicIslandsandtheValencianCountry)haspublishedabigamountofdidacticmaterials,bothintraditionalanddigitalformats.Forexample,governmentswerethefirsttoproducewrittenandonlinematerialsfornewcomerstudentstolearnCatalan.It should be noted, however, that under the competencies ofeachautonomousgovernment,eachterritoryhasdifferenttext-books.ThisisespeciallytrueforbooksusedtolearnCatalan:in each area, textbooks are written in the different regionalstandards of the language accepted by the Institut d’EstudisCatalans(InstituteofCatalanStudies;hereafter:IEC),thehigh-estauthorityinCatalanlinguisticmatters.

statistics Catalonia ThedevelopmentofCatalanschoolsfrom1978to1996showsanincreaseinCatalaneducation,speciallymarkedafter1986.Thedevelopmentofthenumberofstudentsfrom1986to1996alsoshowsasharpincreasingline.ThenumberofchildrenwithCatalaninstructionalmostdoubledintenyears’time(1986-1996)from42.5%to81.5%in1996(SE-DEC,1998)andreachedalmostthe96%(95.91%)intheschoolyear1999/2000(yearofthelastcensuscarriedonbytheMinis-tryofEducationoftheGeneralitat).Thesepercentageswerere-flectedinthelossofstudentsinbilingualandSpanisheducation,duetotheprogressiveincreaseofthenumberofsubjectstaught

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inCatalanafterthe1/83Lawand,after1992/1993,asaresultoftheimplementationoftheneweducationalsystem.Therearenodataavailable from theSpanishMinistryofEducationafter1996/1997duetothefactthatCatalanisthelanguagenormallyusedasalanguageofteaching.

Balearic Islands TheuseofCatalanasalanguageofinstructionexperiencedastronggrowthinthe1990s.Intheschoolyear1983/1984therewereonlyfifteenschoolswithsomeformofeducationinCata-lanwhilein1990/1991(thefirstyearwithdataavailable)48%ofthepublicschools(101centres)and5.76%(15)oftheprivateschoolsdidsomekindofteachinginCatalan.The last available data show the following: in the 1998/1999schoolyear37%ofstudentsweretaughtinCatalanand59%inSpanishandCatalan,while4%ofthestudentslearnedCatalanonly as a subject and used Spanish as their language of in-struction(whichdoesnotreach1%in2001/2002,thefinalyearthatsignificantdatawereavailable).The number of students who do all their learning in Catalanreaches 59% in 2004/2005, but during 2008/2009 (the lastschoolyearwithofficialdataavailable), thisfiguredropped to50.2%(73%of them inpublicschools),while49.8%receivededucation in both languages (Las cifras de la educación enEspaña.Curso2008-2009.StatisticalOffice).

Valencian CountryAccordingtotheofficialdata,intheschoolyear1998/1999theshareofprimaryschoolstudentsenrolledintheValencianLan-guageProgrammes(PEV/PIL)was21%,mostoftheminpubliccentres. 56.3%were enrolled in the PIP programme and theremaining22.6%studiedValencianonlyasasubject.During the school year 2008/2009, the number of studentsenrolledintheValencianLanguageProgrammes(PEV/PIL)in-creasedupto33.3%,mostofthemalsoinpubliccentres;52%wereenrolledinthePIPprogrammeand13.7%studiedValen-cianonlyasasubject(LascifrasdelaeducaciónenEspaña.Curso2008-2009.StatisticalOffice).


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The Franja Inthe1984/1985schoolyear,thetotalnumberofstudentswholearnedCatalanasa subjectwas791 in twelve schools.Tenyears later, in 1994/1995, the number exceeded 3,000,mostoftheminpre-schoolandprimaryeducation(about90%ofthestudents)inoverthirtyschools.During the school year 2009/2010, 87% of the pupils of pri-mary education (1,951 pupils) learned the Catalan languageas a subject. In the two centreswhereCatalan is used as alanguageofinstruction,80.48%ofthestudentsofprimaryedu-cationfollowedthebilingualprogramme(XarxaCruscat,2011).


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4 Secondary education

target group SecondaryeducationincludesEducacióSecundàriaObligatòria(compulsorysecondaryeducation;hereafter:ESO),addressedtostudentsfromtwelvetosixteenyearsold,andnon-compulsorysecondaryeducation,BatxilleratandFormacióprofessionaldegrau mitjà (Baccalaureate and Intermediate Level VocationalTraining),forthestudentsolderthansixteen.

structure Compulsorysecondaryeducation isdivided into twocyclesoftwoyearseach:thefirstcycleforstudentsfromtwelvetofour-teenyearsoldandthesecondcycleforstudentsfromfourteentosixteenyearsold.Studentswhocompletecompulsorysecondaryeducationhav-ingachievedthebasiccompetencesandtheobjectivesofthestagewillbeawardedtheCertificateincompulsorysecondaryeducation,whichallowsthemtoproceedtothebaccalaureateandtheIntermediateLevelVocationalTraining.Post-compulsory secondary education (upper secondary edu-cation) starts at the age of sixteen and lasts for two years.Studentscanchoosebetweenauniversityorientededucation,Baccalaureate, which enables them to access higher educa-tion,andanIntermediateVocationalTrainingbranchforthosestudentswhowanttoenterthelabourmarket(cfchapter5).

legislation Article22oftheLOE(cfp.21),regulatescompulsorysecond-aryeducation.Theaimofcompulsorysecondaryeducation isto ensure that students acquire the basic cultural elements,developandconsolidatestudyandworkhabits,andpreparefortheir incorporation into higher education or the labourmarket(TitleI,ChapterII,Article22oftheLOE).Article32of theLOEregulatestheBaccalaureate. It isstatedthattheaimofbaccalaureateistoprovidepupilswithtraining,humanandintellectualmaturity,knowledgeandskillstoenablethem todevelopsocial functionsand toallow them toaccesshighereducation(TitleI,ChapterIV,Article32oftheLOE).


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language use Catalonia Catalanisthelanguagecommonlyusedasavehicularlanguage

of teaching and learning both in ESO and Baccalaureate, asstated in thevariousdecrees that regulate thecurriculaof thisstage. Catalan is also the welcoming language for newcomerstudentswhojointheCatalaneducationsystematthosestages.However,andasmentionedinbilingual education forms(cfp.22), allthedecisionsrelatedtotheuseoflanguages(Catalan,Spanish and, at least, one foreign language)must be estab-lishedinthelinguisticplan,inaccordancewiththeregulations.AlthoughCatalan is thenormal languageof instruction,Span-ishisusedalsoinonesubjectasaminimum,accordingtothebackgroundofthestudentsandstaff.

Balearic Islands The regulations governing the use of language at this level

(Decree73/2008andDecree82/2008)alsostatethatCatalanwill be used as the language of teaching, learning and com-munication,sothatpupilshaveacompetencethatallowsthemtocommunicatenormallyandcorrectlyattheendofthestage.However, as in pre-school and primary education, this maybeadhered tovaryingdegrees, ranging fromteaching inbothlanguages(preferredchoiceinprivateandsubsidisedschools)toteachingonlyinCatalan(mostlyinpublicschools),althoughthedominantoptionisthebilingualone.Inanycase,decisionsinthisfieldshouldbeincludedinthelinguisticplan.

Valencian CountryTheregulationsregardingtheknowledgeofofficiallanguagesinESO(Decree112/2007)statethat,attheendofthestage,pu-pilsmustbeableto“understandandexpresscorrectlycomplextextsandmessages,bothinoralandwrittenforms,inValencianandinCastilian”(Decree112/2007,Article4i).Regarding the Baccalaureate, the common goal (Decree 102/2008)is“toincreasethecommunicativecompetenceofstudentsinbothofficiallanguagesoftheValencianCommunity”.Therefore, the three linguistic models specified in the sec-tion bilingual education forms (cf p. 25) coexist in secondary


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education:teachinginValencian(PEV),teachinginbothValen-cianandSpanish(PIP),andteachinginSpanishwhilelearningValencianasasubject.However, thenumberof students fol-lowingthefirstmodeldecreasessignificantlyintheBaccalaure-ate.Asmentioned, theLinguistic ImmersionProgramme(PIL)doesnotcontinueinsecondaryeducation.

The FranjaCatalanlanguageisofferedasanoptionalsubjectbothincom-pulsorysecondaryeducationandintheBaccalaureateinalltheschoolsofthisCatalan-speakingarea.Therearethreeschoolswithalinguisticplanand,thus,theyhavebilingualeducationincompulsorysecondaryeducation.

teaching Aconsiderablequantityofteachingmaterialexists,andthesitu-ationissimilartoprimaryeducation.Publishinghouseshaveanormal productionofmaterials to teachCatalanand to teachtheothersubjectsinCatalan.

statistics Catalonia In1990/1991,31%ofthestudentsfollowededucationinCata-

lan;62%inCatalanandSpanish,and7%inSpanish.12

In theschoolyear1996/1997, thesefigureswere:81%of thestudents of ESO hadCatalan as the language of instruction,18%hadbilingualeducation,andonly1%usedSpanishasamainlanguageoflearning.In theBaccalaureate,53%of thestudents followededucationwhichusedCatalanas the teaching language;45%hadbilin-gualeducation,and2%usedSpanishasthemainlanguageoflearning (Lascifrasde laeducaciónenEspaña.Curso1996-1997,StatisticalOffice).Asstatedbefore,therearenoavailabledatafromtheMinistryofEducationafter1996/1997duetothefactthatCatalanisthelanguageusednormallyasalanguageofinstruction.

Balearic IslandsOfficial data corresponding to the decade 1998/1999 - 2008/2009 (the latest available) show the following results: in the

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school year 1998/1999, 36.6%of the studentswere taught inCatalan,60%inCatalanandSpanish,whiletheremaining3.3%usedSpanishastheirvehicular languageandlearnedCatalanonlyasasubject(thisfiguredroppedtoonly0.2%in2001/2002,thelastschoolyearforwhichsignificantdataareavailable).In the school year 2004/2005, the number of pupils carry-ing on all their instruction in Catalan reached 41.3%, but in2008/2009 (last school year with official data available), thenumberdroppedto39%(78%oftheminpublicschools).Theremaining61%weretaughtinbothlanguages.ThenumberofstudentsthathaveCatalanasthelanguageofinstructionthusdecreasedifcomparedtofiguresinprimaryeducation.RegardingtheBaccalaureate,in1998/1999,41%oftheschoolsstill usedSpanish as the language of instruction.However, in2001/2002, thisfigurehaddroppedtoonly2.6%,whilealmost50%oftheschoolsusedCatalanandSpanish,and47.6%usedonlyCatalan.In 2008/2009, the percentage of each model of teaching issimilar to thatofESO, inglobalfigures,but ifweanalyse thesituation according to the type of schools, only 5%of privateandsubsidisedschoolsuseCatalanasthelanguageofinstruc-tion(LascifrasdelaeducaciónenEspaña.Curso2008-2009.StatisticalOffice).

Valencian Country Accordingtotheofficialdata,intheschoolyear1998/1999thepercentage of ESO students enrolled in the Valencian Lan-guageProgramme(PEV)was12%,mostoftheminpubliccen-tres.InthePIPprogramme51.8%ofthestudentswereenrolledand36.2%studiedValencianonlyasasubject.During the school year 2008/2009, the number of ESO stu-dentsenrolled in theValencianLanguageProgrammes(PEV)increasedto27.3%,mostofthemalsoinpubliccentres;58.6%wereenrolled in thePIPprogramme,and14%studiedValen-cianasasubject.RegardingtheBaccalaureate,accordingtotheofficialdata, intheschoolyear1998/1999mostofthestudents(between75%and 88%) studied Valencian only as a subject, 17.8% were


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enrolledinthebilingualprogramme,andtherestintheValen-cianLanguageProgramme(PEV).Fiveyearslater, in2004/2005mostofthestudentsfollowedabilingualprogramme,thePIP,(79.5%),whileonly6.3%studiedValencianasasubject,and13.9followedthePEV.Duringtheschoolyear2008/2009,thenumberofstudentsen-rolledintheValencianLanguageProgrammes(PEV)increasedto18%,mostof themalso inpublic centres;60.4%wereen-rolled in thebilingualprogramme,and21%studiedValencianas a subject (Las cifras de la educación en España. Curso2008-2009.StatisticalOffice).

The Franja During theschoolyear2009/2010,70%of thepupils incom-pulsory secondary education (878 pupils) and 60.23% (153students)ofthepupilsintheBaccalaureatelearnedCatalanasasubjectintheFranja.In the three centreswhereCatalan is usedasa languageofinstructionincompulsorysecondaryeducation,49%ofthestu-dentsfollowthebilingualprogramme.Inaddition,andforthefirsttimeever,inthe2010/2011schoolyear a group of students having learnt at least one subjectthrough themedium of Catalan in the entire stage has com-pletedsecondaryeducationinoneofthosethreecentres.Intheremainingtwo,thisisgoingtohappennextschoolyear.


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5 Vocational education

target group Vocational education (Cicles formatius) is a non-compulsoryleveladdressedtostudentsfromsixteenyearsoldwhowanttoenter the labourmarket, inorder toprovide themwithprofes-sionalqualifications, togive themaccess toemployment,andto prepare them for active participation in social, cultural andeconomiclife.

structure Aftercompulsorysecondaryeducation,studentscanchoosefora oneandahalfor two-yearcourse(dependingonthebranch)of specific vocational education at intermediate level (Inter-mediateVocationalTraining).This typeofeducation ismainlyprovidedatsecondaryeducationcentres.

There is also a higher cycle of vocational education: specificvocationaleducationatadvancedlevel,Formacióprofessionaldegrausuperior(AdvancedVocationalTraining),requiringpriorcompletion of upper secondary education (Baccalaureate) orequivalentandleadingtothelabourmarketoruniversity.

legislation Article39of theLOE lawregulatesvocationaleducation.Thegoalofvocationaleducation is topreparestudents towork ina professional field and prepare them for the ever-changingemploymentmarket, as well as contributing to their personaldevelopmentandtotheirparticipationindemocraticcitizenship(TitleI,ChapterV,Article39oftheLOElaw(cfch.1p.21)).

language use Catalonia As in theothereducational levels,Catalan is the language to

beusedasavehicularandlearninglanguage,althoughduetothecharacteristicsofthestudies,sometimesthisisthelevelinwhich lessprogresshasbeenmade regarding itsnormaluseasalanguageofinstruction.

Asinthepreviouslevels,theuseofteachinglanguagesmustberegulatedbytheLinguisticPlan.


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Balearic IslandsCurrent regulations of the autonomousgovernment state thateducationalteamsshouldencouragethepresenceoftheCata-lan language in the teachingof thecycle, coherentlywith theknowledge areas that students have studied in this languageduringthepreviousstage,takingintoaccounttheaspectsthatcouldbetterstressthesocialandjobplacementofgraduates AsinCatalonia,intheLinguisticPlan,schoolswilldescribeandcarryoutthenecessarymeasurestoenforcecurrentlanguageregulations.

Valencian CountryVocational training is the stage in which most students aretaughtinSpanish.Eventhough,withregardtoeducationinVa-lencian,thetwolinguisticmodelsmentioned–teachinginbothlanguages(PIP)andteachinginValencian(PEV)–coexist,butthe latterhasvery littlesignificanceand is tobefoundalmostentirelyinpublicschools.

The FranjaCatalan isnotused invocational training (in fact,mostof thestudentsintheareagotoschoolsinLleida,inCatalonia,whereclassesareinCatalan).

teaching Duetothespecificcharacterofmostofthevocationaltrainingstudies, there are fewer didactic materials in Catalan at thislevelthanintheotherlevelsofeducation.ThisfactisespeciallyclearoutsideCatalonia.

statistics Catalonia Intheschoolyear1996/1997(thelatestavailabledata)40%ofthestudentstookeducationwithCatalanaslanguageofeduca-tion,59%hadbilingualeducation,andonly1%usedSpanishastheirmainlanguageoflearning(LascifrasdelaeducaciónenEspaña.Curso1996-1997,Edición2000.StatisticalOffice).

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Balearic Islands AccordingthelatestofficialdatafromtheMinistryofEducationofSpain,inthe2001/2002schoolyear40.5%ofstudentsweretaughtinCatalan,54.4%inCatalanandSpanish,and5.2%inSpanish.From2002/2003onwards therearenoofficial data regardingtheuseoflanguages.

Valencian CountryIn the last years of the 20th century, Spanish was the mainlanguageof instructioninvocationaltraining.However, itsusewasdecreasinguntil2003/2004,whenthenumbersofstudentsin a bilingual programme or using Spanish as a language ofinstructionweresimilar(49.6%and48.3%,respectively).Only2%followedthePEV(alloftheminpubliccentres).Intheschoolyear2008/2009,thenumberofstudentsenrolledin the bilingual programme was 60.3%, while 35.2% usedSpanishasthe languageof instruction.Theshareofstudentsin theValencianLanguageProgramme(PEV)wasonly4.2%,alloftheminpubliccentres(LascifrasdelaeducaciónenEs-paña.Curso2008-2009.StatisticalOffice).


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6 Higher education

structure Studentscanaccessuniversitybysuccessfullycompletingtheirsecondary education (compulsory and non-compulsory) andpassingauniversityentranceexamination.Since the adaptation of the Spanish university system to theEuropeanHigherEducationArea(EHEA),universityeducationhasbeenorganisedinthreecycleswithspecifictrainingobjec-tives andautonomousacademic value:Bachelor (240 creditsminimum13),Master(between60and120credits)andDoctor-ate.Thisstructurehadbeenfullyimplementedinthe2010/2011academicyear.The number of universities has steadily grown in the last 25years.IntheCatalan-speakingareaofSpainthereareeighteenuniversities, fifteen of which are public (one of them being adistance-learning university, and another one being an inter-national university). Out of the three private universities, twobelongtotheCatholicChurchandoneisthedistance-learninguniversity.InCataloniatherearetwelveuniversities.Fromthethreeorigi-nal universities (Universitat deBarcelona,UniversitatAutòno-madeBarcelona,andUniversitatPolitècnicadeCatalunya)theregionaluniversitycollegesbrokeawaytobecomeindependentuniversitiesRoviraiVirgili(inTarragonaandReus),Lleida,andGirona.AfurtherpublicuniversitywasestablishedinBarcelona,thePompeuFabra.SeveralprivatecollegesjoinedtogethertoformtheRamonLlulluniversity,andtwofurtherprivateuniver-sities (Universitat Internacional de Catalunya andAbat OlivaCEU)werealsofounded.Finally,UniversitatdeVichasapublicnatureandprivatemanagement.In1995theUniversitatObertadeCatalunyawasfoundedwithcore public funding but run by a foundation. This is a digitaluniversity: ithasavirtualcampuson the Internet.All learningmaterials for thedegreecoursesare inCatalan,and itsmorethan50,000undergraduatestudentsare free to relate–elec-tronically–with their tutors ineither language, thougha largemajoritydosoinCatalan.IntheBalearicIslandsthereisonepublicuniversity(Universitat


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delesIllesBalears)andintheValencianCountrytherearefiveuniversities,all of thempublic:Universitat Jaume I (Castelló),UniversitatdeValènciaandUniversitatPolitècnicadeValència,Universitatd’AlacantandUniversitatMiguelHernández(Elx).Degrees in Catalan Language and Literature (Filologia Cata-lana) are offered at nine public universities (six in Catalonia,plustheUniversitatdelesIllesBalearsandtwointheValencianCountry – Universitat de València and Universitat d’Alacant).PompeuFabraandJaumeIuniversitiesincludeCatalanintheirdegreeinInterpretationandTranslation.TheInstitutRamonLlull(RamonLlullInstitute;hereafter:IRL),responsible for promoting the Catalan language and cultureabroad and depending on the governments of Catalonia andtheBalearicIslands,promotesandcoordinatestheteachingofCatalan inuniversitiesandothercentresofadvancedstudiesaroundtheworld. Italso facilitates theresearchregardingtheCatalanlanguageandculture,withaprogrammeofgrantsforthecreationandmaintenanceofchairsandstudycentres.In 2008, the IRL and theGovernment ofAndorra created theFundacióRamonLlull(RamonLlullFoundation,hereafter:FRL)inorder toallowgovernments insideandoutsideSpain toco-operateinthefieldofinternationalpromotionofCatalan.Nowa-days, theFRLconsistsof IRL (i.e.Cataloniaplus theBalearicIslands),theGovernmentofAndorra,theGeneralCouncilofthePyrénéesOrientales(i.e.NorthernCataloniainFrance),thecitycouncilofl’Alghero(Italy)andtheNetworkofValencianCities.Nowadays (2011), the university network of Catalan studiesabroad includes 160 universities in 28 countries around theworld,withmorethan7.000students.

legislation ThebasiclawregulatinguniversitiesinSpainistheLeyOrgáni-ca 6/2001, de Universidades (Organic Law on Universities,hereafter:LOU),modified in2007 toadaptSpanishuniversitystudiesto theprescriptionsof theEuropeanHigherEducationArea(EHEA).Universitiesareself-governingbodies.Professorsand lecturersinpublicuniversities throughoutSpaingenerallywin their posi-tion thanks to a public examination (oposicions). Autonomous


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governments are responsible for founding and funding publicuniversities,intheframeworkofanoverarchingSpanishlaw.

language use CataloniaUntiltheapprovalofthenewStatuteofAutonomyofCatalonia,whichestablishes (Article35.1) that “Catalanshallbeusedasthe teachingand learning languageforuniversityandnon-uni-versityeducation”and(Article35.5)that“theteachingstaffandpupilsofuniversitieshavetherighttoexpressthemselves,orallyandinwriting,intheofficiallanguageoftheirchoice”, theuseofCatalaninuniversityeducationwasguaranteedbytheCatalanlawsofLNL(1983)andLPL(1998):inordertomutuallyrespecttherightofstaffandstudentstouseeitherCatalanorSpanishallstaffmemberswereexpected tohaveat leastpassivepro-ficiencyinCatalan.GeneralinformationwasissuedinCatalan,thoughSpanishversionswereusuallyavailableaswell.

TheLlei1/2003d’universitatsdeCatalunya(LawonUniversitiesinCatalonia;hereafter:LUC)established(Article6)thatCatalanis the language of Catalan universities and therefore the lan-guageofnormalusefortheundertakingofitsactivities.Thelawalso regulates the incorporationof theCatalan language inallthoseareasofknowledgeandthecontributiontotheprocessofnormalisationofthescientific,culturalandsocialuseofCatalanasoneoftheobjectivesoftheCatalanuniversitysystem.Since2010,adecreeof theGeneralitat (theAutonomousGov-ernment),Decree128/2010,establishestherequirementof theknowledgeofCatalantoapplyforteachinginapublicuniversity.ADegree inCatalanPhilology–or inCatalanLanguageandLiterature – has been available in Catalan universities since1972.Nowadaysitisofferedbysixofthem(UniversitatdeBar-celona,UniversitatAutònomadeBarcelona,UniversitatRoviraiVirgili,UniversitatdeLleida,UniversitatdeGirona,andUniver-sitatObertadeCatalunya).Apart from this, nearly all Catalan universities have a ServeiLingüístic (Language Service) entrusted with promoting theuse of Catalan. These offices offer the teaching of Catalanto theuniversity community, promote its use in teaching, and


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undertake activities to foster the use of the language of thecountryamongstudents.ThereisaComissióInteruniversitàriadeFormacióenLlenguaCatalana (Interuniversity Catalan Language Teaching Board;hereafter: CIFOLC) whose aim is to coordinate Catalan lan-guageteachingprojectsintheCatalanuniversitysystemandtoaidcooperationbetweenuniversitylanguageservicesinaspectsrelatingtoCatalanteachingandlearningattheuniversities.CIFOLCawardscertificatesinCatalanthroughitstwelveCata-lan university language services and accredits five levels ofCatalan language skills: Basic (A2), Elementary (B1), Inter-mediate (B2), Advanced (C1), Advanced for Teaching andResearchStaff (C1),andProficiency(C2) in linewith theuni-versity-adapted Common European Framework of ReferenceforLanguages(CEFR).

LanguageservicesalsoproducestatisticsontheuseofCata-lan,Spanish,andotherlanguagesinawiderangeofaspectsofuniversitylife.Themostvaluabledataforthisdossier,ofcourse,relatetotheuseoflanguageasamediumofinstruction.TheproportionofuseofCatalanasalanguageofteachinginpublic universities canbe calculated to bebetween60%and70%oftheclasses,althoughwithineachuniversitythepropor-tionvariesdependingonthedegrees.For instance, in theUniversitat de Barcelona, the latest pub-lished information on language use refers to the 2008/2009academic year. Overall, 64.3% of the first degree classesweretaughtthroughthemediumofCatalan.Thesituationwasmore or less the same as in 2004/2005, when 66.4% of theclasseswereinCatalan.However,thispercentage(2004/2005)wasmuch higher in theDepartments of Educational Science(80.2%)andExperimentalScienceandMathematics (79.7%),whereasitwasmuchlowerinLegal,EconomicandSocialSci-ences(46.6%).The Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona shows similar dataregarding the use of Catalan (an average of 65.6% during2008/09),asdotheUniversitatRoviraiVirgili(69.8%)andtheUniversitatdeLleida(67.3%).


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Intheacademicyear2009/2010,61.2%oftheteachingoftheUniversitatPolitècnicadeCatalunyawasinCatalan;22.4%inSpanish,and13.7%inEnglish.2.6%wasbothinCatalanandSpanish(OfficeofPlanning,EvaluationandQualityUPC).The Universitat Pompeu Fabra, in Barcelona, shows similardatain2009/2010:61.60%inCatalan;31.70%inSpanish,and6.70%inEnglish(Sociolinguisticdata:UPF).TherearehundredsofuniversitymanualsinCatalan,andit isthelanguageusedinmorethan50%ofstudysupportmaterials.

TheuseofCatalangraduallydeclinesinpostgraduateanddoc-toralcourses,andespeciallyinthedoctoralthesesandresearch,wheretheuseofEnglishisrapidlyincreasing.IntheUniversitatde Barcelona, for instance, the evolution between 1989/1990and 2007/2008 shows that the number of theses presented inCatalanremainsbetween30%and40%,whilethosepresentedinEnglishrisefrom0tomorethan10%.The2009/2010figuresareevenhigher:thesesinCatalan,17.8%;inSpanish,37%;inEnglish,22%; in two languages,22%(50%of theminCatalanandEnglish).Theremaininguniversitiesshowsimilartrends.Agrowingnumberofstudents fromabroad,andfromtherestofSpain,attendCatalanuniversitiesforatleastapartoftheirdegreecourse.InadditiontoonlineresourcestolearnCatalan,every university offers free or subsidised language classes,oftenbeforethestartoftheacademicyear,toenablestudentstounderstandthelanguagespokenintheirclasses,attheuni-versity and, essentially, in cities and towns. Students are notrequired to speak Catalan, but they are expected to be ableto understand it. This is not usually a problem for thosewithagood commandof otherRomance languages, even thoughtheirstayisshort,asisoftenthecasewithErasmusstudents.Createdin1999bytheLinguisticServicesoftheCatalanuni-versitiesandtheDirectorateofLinguisticPolicyoftheCatalanGovernment, the Intercatwebsite offers a collection of elec-tronic resources for learningabout theCatalan languageandculture,speciallydesignedforstudentsonmobilityprogrammeswhoarevisitingCatalanuniversities.Most universities do not provide two sets of classes – one


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in Catalan and the other one in Spanish – for students fromelsewhere. Instead, Catalan students study alongside thosefromoutsideCatalonia,whichcanbeconsideredanenrichingexperienceforallconcerned.Manypostgraduate coursesare increasingly taught inEnglish.This internationalisation puts pressure on Catalan in a similarway to the pressure on other languages that occurs in manyEuropeancountrieswheremedium-sizedlanguagesarespoken.

Balearic Islands The Universitat de les Illes Balears (University of BalearicIslands; hereafter: UIB) has organisational autonomy for theuse of Catalan in all areas of its authority, according to thatestablished byArticle 5 ofDecree 170/2003,which approvedthe statutes of the UIB: “The Catalan language used by theUniversityof theBalearic Islands,has, togetherwithSpanish,the character of an official language and all members of theuniversityhavetherighttouseit.TheuniversitywillnormalisetheuseofCatalanintheareaofitsresponsibilities”.RegardingtheuseofCatalan,dataofthe2007/2008academicyear show thatapproximately52%ofprofessorsuseCatalanastheirlanguageofinstruction,44%useSpanish,and2.38%useaforeignlanguage.Itshouldbenotedthatthesedataindi-catemajortrends.In2002/2003thenumberofdoctoralthesesinCatalanreachedtheirmaximum(16outof40),but thenumberfellsignificantlyin the followingyears. In2007/2008, therewere12 theses inCatalan(28%)(Anuaridel’EducaciódelesIllesBalears2009).Theuniversity offers aDegree onCatalanPhilology.Besidesthis, there is a language service (Servei Lingüístic) that pro-motestheuseofCatalaninteachingandundertakesactivitiesinordertofostertheuseofthislanguageamongstudents.Theservicealsocoversanyneedonlanguageinuniversitylife,anditoffersCatalancoursesinthefivelevelsmentionedabove.


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Valencian CountryThestatutesof theUniversitat deValènciaand theUniversitatJaume I establish the official status of Valencian and Spanishand, the universities being public Valencian institutions, theydeclareValencianastheirownlanguage.Onthecontrary,thoseof the Universitat Politècnica de València and the Universitatd’AlacantsimplyindicatethatValencianandSpanishareofficiallanguages,without stressingValencianas their own language.ThestatutesoftheUniversitatMiguelHernándezmakenorefer-encetowhichlanguagesareconsideredofficial.However,theyrecognize the right of students “toperformexamsand tests inanyoftheofficiallanguagesoftheAutonomousCommunity”.All public universities (except the Universitat Miguel Hernán-dez)offerthepossibilitytostudyallor,atleast,somesubjectsin Valencian. At the time of enrolling, students are asked toselectthelanguageinwhichtheywishtostudy.In 2007/2008, Valencian students answered in very differentways. Students at universities in Castelló de la Plana andValènciaexpressedamuchgreaterpreferenceforstudying inValencianthanthoseatuniversitiesinAlacantandElx.So,whileattheUniversitatJaumeIalmost30%ofstudentschoseValencianastheirlanguageofpreferencewhenregistering,attheUniversitat deValència theywere24.8%andat theUniversitatd’Alacant thedemandwasonly7.4%.At theUniversitatMiguelHernándezonly0.07%ofthestudentschosethisoption.Data regardingdoctoral thesesareonlyavailable for theUni-versitatJaumeI.Intheperiodbetween1992and2008,5.45%ofthethesesweredefendedinValencian,83.43%inSpanish,and11%inEnglish.TheUniversitatd’AlacantandtheUniversitatdeValenciaofferaDegreeinCatalanPhilology.Except for Universitat Miguel Hernández, all Valencian pub-lic universities have their own language services (Servei dePolíticaLingüísticaorServeideLlengües)thatpromotetheuseof Valencian in universities, offer Catalan courses, and issuelanguageskillscertificates.UniversitatMiguelHernándezonlyorganizesCatalancourseswithinitsuniversityextensionactivi-tiesandSummerschools.


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teacher training primary training Ingeneral,all theuniversities in theCatalan-speakingareaof

Spain offer the possibility to study Educational Sciences, theminimumdegreetobecomeateacherofprimaryeducation.IntheuniversitiesofCataloniaandtheBalearic Islands, it isun-derstoodthatallgraduatesarequalifiedforteachinginCatalan.In those of the ValencianCountry, studentsmust choose thelanguageinwhichtheywanttospecialise:CatalanorSpanish.

secondary trainingIn order to teach in secondary education, teachers must begraduates, engineers or architects, or they must have anequivalentqualification.Inaddition,theymusthavecompletedthepost-graduatetraininginPedagogyandDidacticsstipulatedbytheSpanishgovernmentforeachsubject(LOElaw).MostoftheuniversitiesoftheCatalan-speakingterritoriesofferit.

in-service trainingIn the last thirty years, the governments of Catalonia, theBalearic Islands, and the Valencian Country have developedambitiousplans for training teachers,both in termsof linguis-tic competence and pedagogical training in their respectivespecialities.Themost importantpartofretrainingcoursesforteachers(in-cludingcoursestolearnCatalanortoimprovetheknowledgeofthis language)isorganisedbytheministriesofEducationandbytheInstitutsdeCiènciesdel’Educació(ScientificEducationInstitutes;hereafter:ICE’s).InCatalonia,allthecoursesareinCatalan,regardlessofthesubject.SecondarytraininginCatalanisalsoprovidedbyprofessionalcollegesandbythedifferentassociations(e.g.theRosaSensatAssociation,oneofthemostimportantdidacticmovementsforeducationalrenewal, inCataloniaorEscolaValenciana-Fed-eraciód’AssociacionsperlaLlengua,intheValencianCountry)thatorganisecoursesforteachers,especiallysummercourses.Theircoursesareusuallyrecognisedbytheauthorities.InCataloniaandintheBalearicIslands,teachersmustproveaknowledgeofCatalanequivalenttolevelC1ofCEFRinorder


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tobeallowedto teachatallnon-university levels.Becauseofthat,inbothterritoriesteacherswhostilldonothaveanofficialcertificateofCatalancannotask tochangeschool (desplaça-ment) ortobepromotedintheirpositionatschool.IntheFranja,regardingtheknowledgeofCatalan, the lawontheuse,protectionandpromotionofAragon’sown languages(passed in 2009) also states the obligation of the authoritiesto ensure “the training of teachers required to teach nativelanguages[ofAragon]”.However,thelawdoesnotimposeanyobligationonteachers,who“willbeprogressivelytrainedintheknowledge of the languages in a voluntary and gradualway”(Law10/2009,Article26)andthemeasuresforeseeninthelawhavenotbeenimplementedyet.

statistics Therearenostatisticsavailableforthelatestyearsbecause,asindicatedbefore,inCataloniaandtheBalearicIslandsallnewteachers are entitled to teachCatalan and inCatalan. In theValencianCountrythesituation is thesamedependingonthechosenspeciality.InCatalonia,however, thenumberofpeopleseeking the lan-guage proficiency qualification exams which allowed them toteach through Catalan sharply increased in the early 1990s,whentheSpanishConstitutionalCourtdismissed theSpanishgovernment’s claim that a Catalan Parliament Act requiringproficiencyinCatalantobeapart-requirementforthosewish-ingtoentertheCatalancivilservice,wasunconstitutional.Thenumber rose from 10,000 in 1991 to nearly 50,000 in 1997(ConsortiumforLinguisticNormalisationoftheGovernmentofCatalonia,1998).


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7 Adult education

structure and Theaimofadulteducationistoofferpeopleovereighteenthepossibility toacquire,update, completeoradd to their knowl-edge and skills for professional and personal development.(TitleIChapterIX,Article66oftheLOE(cfch.1p.21)).Adulteducation trains for qualifications which are not offered at auniversityorteachertrainingcollege.Adult continuing education and training is structured into twomainbranches:adulteducationprogrammesplannedbyedu-cation administrations,which cover formal adult education aswellassomeaspectsofnon-formaltraining,andadulteduca-tion provided by employment administrations as well as withlocalgovernmentandvarioussocialagents.EachAutonomousCommunity,within thescopeof itscompe-tences, isentitledtoorganiseandmanageitsprovisionunderitsownlegislativeframework.

CataloniaIn Catalonia, language courses are mostly offered by theConsorci per a la Normalització Lingüística (Consortium forLinguisticNormalization; hereafter:CNL), a public consortiumsetupin1988bytheGeneralitatandmostofthelargestlocalauthorities inCatalonia,with themainaimofofferingCatalanlanguagecoursesforbothCatalan-speakingandnon-Catalan-speakingadults.TheGeneralDirectorateofLanguagePolicyorganisesexamstocertifythegeneralknowledgeofCatalanlanguage(certificatsde coneixements generals de català). There are five Certifi-catesofgenerallinguisticattainment,whichareinlinewiththeCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReference(CEFR):A2,B1,B2,C1andC2.TheInstitutRamonLlullalsoofferstheCertificatsdeconeixe-ment de llengua catalana (Certificates of knowledge of theCatalan language) outside the Catalan-speaking area. Theyalso follow the CEFR and progress on a scale of five levelsof knowledge as established by theAssociation of LanguageTestersinEurope(ALTE).ThisscaleisusedinmostEuropean

language courses


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languages.ThecertificatesprovethelevelofknowledgeoftheCatalanlanguageinbothacademicandoccupationalpurposes(publicadministration,enterprises,institutions),andforallpur-poses they have the same force and effect as those issuedby the Government of Catalonia and the Government of theBalearicIslands.Exams are held every year in dozens of centres round theworld.

Balearic Islands In the Balearic Islands the main institution responsible fororganising Catalan language courses is the Consorci per alFomentdelaLlenguaCatalana(ConsortiumforthePromotionoftheCatalanLanguage;hereafter:COFUC),createdin1997bytheMinistryofEducation,CultureandSportsoftheAutono-mousGovernmentandtheUniversityoftheBalearicIslands.It organises courses for adults on its own or in collaborationwithotherinstitutionsandprivateentities:localcouncils,islandcouncilsandschoolsamongothers.As in Catalonia, the General Directorate of Language Policyorganises exams to certify the general knowledge ofCatalanlanguage. These tests are homologated with the CommonEuropean Framework of Reference (CEFR): A2, B1, B2, C1andC2.Thecoursesareorganisedindifferentways:Catalanclassroomsettingcoursesforadultsforalllevels(A1,A2,B1,B2,C1,C2);andCatalan languageblendedcoursesanddistance-learningcoursesonlyforintermediateandadvancedlevels(B2,C1andC2).TherearealsoCatalanlanguagecoursesforforeigners(Levels1and2)and forparentswhichareheld in thesameschoolswhere theirchildrenstudy inorder to facilitate theiraccess totheCatalanlanguage.

Valencian Country UnlikeCataloniaandtheBalearicIslands,inValenciaaspecificbodyresponsibleforlanguagecoursesdoesnotexist.AccordingtotheregulationsoftheValencianMinistryofEducation,these


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coursesareconductedinpublicschoolsofAdultEducationandundertheAdultTrainingProgrammesofthemunicipalities.From2007onwards,legalregulationsrequirepublicschoolsofadulteducation,dependingontheMinistryofEducation,toin-cludecoursestopromoteknowledgeofValencianintheiredu-cationaloffer,amongthemthosefocusedtoenablestudentstoobtaintheCertificatesofValencianissuedbytheJuntaQuali-ficadoradeConeixementsdeValencià (QualifyingCommitteeonKnowledgeoftheValencianLanguage;hereafter:JQCV).

The Franja TheculturalinstitutionsoftheFranja(Institutd’EstudisdelBaixCinca - IEBC,AssociacióCultural delMatarranya -ASCUMAandCasalJaumeIofFraga)haveorganisedCatalanlanguagecoursesforadults.Sincethe2005/2006academicyear,peopleattendingthesecoursescouldobtainthecorrespondentCertifi-cateofgenerallinguisticattainmentintheexamsheldinFraga(themainmunicipalityofthearea)bytheGeneralDirectorateofLanguagePolicyoftheGeneralitatofCatalonia.These courses have benefited, in most cases, from financialsupportfromtheMinistryofEducationandCultureoftheGov-ernmentofAragon.For the2011/2012academic year, theseassociationswill notorganiseanycoursebecause theydonothavefinancial sup-port from the autonomous government, although the afore-mentioned Law on the use, protection and promotion of theAragon’s own languages states (Article 25) that “theGovern-mentofAragonshallfostercoursesforadultsorlonglifelearn-ingoftheownlanguagesofAragon,mainlyintheareasoftheirpredominanthistoricaluse”.

El CarxeThe only experience of teaching Catalan (Valencian) in thisareaofMurciahasbeenmadeby theValencianAcademyofLanguage, which has organized courses to learn Valencianin the municipality of Yecla, between 2005 and 2008, at therequestofthetowncouncil.


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language use CataloniaCatalanasateachinglanguagehasenteredincentresofadulteducationmore slowly than in other stages. In 1999, 14%ofschools still usedSpanishasa languageof instruction,while54%usedbothlanguages,CatalanandSpanish,andonly32%usedCatalan.In2002,adecreeonthecurricularorganisationofbasicadulteducation (Decree 213/2002), established, in Article 5, thatCatalanwas thevehicular languageand languageof learningfor the instrumental teaching cycle and the secondary cycleofadulteducation,andassuchfulfilledtheundertakingoftheprovisions in LPL (1998) in this area. In 2009, a newdecree(Decree161/2009)onthecurricularorganisationofcompulsorysecondary education for adults, did the same. Thus, Catalanisthevehicularandlearninglanguageofadulteducationcen-tresandclasseswhichdependontheMinistryofEducationofCatalonia.TeachersofadultsarerequiredtohavethesameknowledgeofCatalanastheotherteachers(C1ofCEFR).

Balearic IslandsAdulteducationintheBalearicIslandsisregulatedbytheLaw4/2006 on education and continuing training for adults in theBalearicIslands.OneofitsaimsistopromotetheCatalanlan-guageandthecultureof theBalearic Islands. Inspiteof that,therearenospecificreferencesrelatedtotheuseoftheteach-inglanguageortothelearningofCatalanasasubject.Article 6 of the Law also establishes that “those initiativeswhich promote the preservation and the development of theCatalanlanguageandthecultureoftheBalearicIslandswillbeconsideredaspriorityactionsinthisarea”,andthat“thepublicadministration bodies of the Balearic Islands will ensure thatthosebodiesandcentresdedicatedtoeducationalactivitiesforadultsundertake initiativesandeducationalcoursesrelatedtotheCatalanlanguage”.ManycentresuseCatalanastheirlanguageofrelationshipandteaching,ascanbeseenfromtheirwebsites.


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Valencian Country Law1/1995oftheValencianGovernment,onadulteducation,establishes,asoneofitsobjectives,to“promotetheknowledgeanduseofValencianasa languageofcommunication,know-ledgeandrecreation,aswellashistoricalandculturaltraitsthatcharacteriseus”.(Article2)TheLawalsoincludesprogrammesaimedat“promotingtheknowledgeoftheValencianrealityinallitsaspectsand,specifically, ineverything related to languageandculture”(Article5).TheDecree220/1999implementsthatlawandincludesValen-cian as a subject (Article 6) in basic education, following therequirementsoftheLUEV(1983).Thereisnoreference,how-ever,towhichshouldbethelanguageofinstruction.

statistics CataloniaIn2003,inadulttrainingcentreswheregeneraleducationwasoffered, the use of Catalan language showed the followingpattern: everything in Catalan, 77.4%; Catalan and Spanish,15.8%;everythinginSpanish,6.8%(LinguisticPolicyReportoftheCatalanGovernment,2003).From then onwards, no more statistics have been released,since it is considered that Catalan is the usual language ofteaching.As regardsCatalan learning, from the2000/2001school yearonwards therehasbeenaspectaculargrowthofCatalan lan-guagescourses,duetotheenrolmentofstudentsbornabroad,especially in initial and basic courses of the Consortium forLinguistic Normalisation (in 2009/2010, these students madeup87%ofthetotalfigure).Inshort: thetotalamountofregis-trationsinCatalancoursesorganisedbytheConsortiuminthelasttwentyyearsgoesbeyondthemillionstudents.Intheacademicyear2009/2010theCNLissuedsome23,000certificates, according to the Common European FrameworkofReference(7,265certificatesA2level;2,639,B1;5.752,B2;5.938,C1and1,225,C2).


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Balearic IslandsTherearenodataavailableon theuseofCatalan inschoolsofadulteducation.Regardingtolanguagelearningcourses,intheacademicyear2009/2010morethan3,700studentswereenrolled(StatisticalOffice).

Valencian CountryTherearenodataavailableontheuseofCatalaninschoolsofadult education.Regarding language learning courses, in theacademicyear2009/2010,510studentswereenrolledinValen-ciancoursesforimmigrants(StatisticalOffice).

The Franja The Institut d’Estudis del Baix Cinca has organised coursessince1983.Between the2005-2010 school years therehavebeen357students.ASCUMAhasorganisedcoursessince1998andCasalJaumeI of Fraga since 2003. Since 2005,ASCUMA also organisescoursesinonemunicipalityoutsidethelinguisticdomain.Almost500studentshavebeenenrolledinthecoursesorgan-ised byASCUMAandCasal Jaume I of Fraga in the last 10years.


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8 Educational research

WhileitistruethateducationalresearchhasdevelopedinthethreemainCatalan-speakingterritories,Catalonia is theplacewheremoststudieshavebeenexecuted.For this reason,wefocusontheworkdoneinthisterritoryoftheCatalanlinguisticcommunity, which,moreover, has affected thewhole Catalanlinguisticdomain.ThankstopoliticalchangesinSpainduringthe1970s,thefirstexperimentalprogrammesofbilingualeducationwereallowed.TheseweredesignedandmonitoredbyateamledbyProfes-sor Miquel Siguan at the University of Barcelona Institute ofEducational Science, wheremost of the research since thenhasbeencentred.Theresearchhadmainlyfocused,asmightbeexpected,onmeasuringthelevelsofacademicattainmentofSpanish-speakingpupilstakingpartinimmersionprogrammes.Theconcernshadbeenthreefold:(a)attainmentinCatalan(b)attainmentinSpanish,and(c)generalintellectualdevelopmentandacademicachievement.As regards Catalan attainment, levels were very good andapproachednative competency, usuallywell before the com-pulsory school-leaving age. This was of course one of themainaimsoftheimmersionprogrammes,sotheoutcomewasno surprise. Spanish attainment did not seem to suffer, andindeedremainedhigherthanCatalanattainmentamongmostofthesepupils.

Perhaps thecruxof thematterwaswhethereducation taughtthrough a second language was as effective as educationthrough the child’s first language. The researchers had pub-lished inconclusive results. Some research projects found nosignificant differences. Cases where pupils seemed to fallslightlybehindinattainmentinacademicsubjectswereproba-blyduetothegreatertimedevotedinthecurriculumtolearningtwolanguages,attheexpenseoftimeforothersubjects.Therewassomeevidence that greater cognitivedevelopment couldbeobservedamong the intellectuallyweaker pupils attendingimmersionprogrammes.Nevertheless,therewereconsiderable


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differencesbetweenschools,whichmaybeinpartduetofamilyandsocialenvironmentalfactors,butalsototheenthusiasmoftheteachingstaff.It remains to be seen whether in the future these Spanish-speaking pupils, mostly of second- (but increasingly of third-)generation immigrant origin, will incorporate Catalan into theiractive linguistic repertoireasyoungadults.There issomeevi-dencethatitishardtofindadultswho,havingachievedfluencyinCatalan,neveruse itorally. Inanycase, itseemsclear thatthesocialandprofessionalcontextsinwhichthesecitizenswillinteractisgoingtodetermineiftheynormallyuseCatalanornot.As farasCatalan-speakingpupilsareconcerned, research inthe mid-1980s showed that their level of Spanish attainmentwas independent of the language model applied in school,whereasCatalanattainmentplummeteddowninschoolswhereCatalanwasnotthemainmediumofinstruction.Theseresultswerereplicatedinthemid-1990s.

Inrecentyears,thepublicbodiesthatareresponsibleforevalu-ating the education system, both autonomous communities’bodies(theHigherCouncilforEvaluationoftheEducationSys-temoftheMinistryofEducationoftheGeneralitatofCatalonia,theInstituteforEvaluationandQualityoftheEducationSystemof theBalearic Islands, and theValencian Institute of Educa-tionalQualityandEvaluation)andStateandinternationalbod-ies,havecarriedoutalargenumberofstudiesoneducationalsystems;studiesthatareeitherspecifictooneoftheCatalan-speaking territories or that cover thewholeCatalan-speakingdomain. Language skills of students (in Catalan, in Spanish,andintheforeignlanguage)havebeenanalysed.Accordingly,andasanexample, in thecaseofCatalonia, theHigher Council for Evaluation of the Education System hasrecentlyreleasedthedocumentProvad’avaluaciódesisècursd’educacióprimària2010.Thedocument includesasynthesisoftheresultsoftheexternaltesttakenin2010byallstudentswhofinishedprimaryeducationinordertochecktheir levelofachievement of basic languageandmathematics skills at theendof thisstage. It is important topointout that theanalysis


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showsthatthemeanscoresobtainedbystudentsinCataloniaarequitesimilarinCatalanandinSpanish,statisticallyspeak-ing(73.7%inCatalanand71.2%inSpanish).Data also show that, in order to maintain the level of know-ledgeofCatalan, it isnecessary thatCatalancontinues tobethe vehicular language of the education systemofCatalonia.Itshouldalsoberecalledthatthesearedataforthe6thgradeofprimaryschool,i.e.fouryearsbeforetheendofcompulsoryeducation,aperiod thatwilleventually level theknowledgeofbothlanguages.

In relation to studies at the Spanish level, it is necessary tomentionthepublication,bytheSpanishMinistryofEducation,ofthe reportEvaluacióngeneraldediagnóstico2010.EducaciónSecundariaObligatoria.Segundocurso. Informederesultados(GeneralEvaluationofDiagnosis2010)whichconfirmsthattheproficiency of 2ndESOstudents inCatalonia (14 years old) inSpanishlanguagelargelycorrespondstotheSpanishaverage.ResultsinCataloniaareevenbetterthanthoseobtainedinsomeofficiallymonolingualregionsorintheBalearicIslandsandtheValencianCountry,whereSpanishhasagreaterpresenceasavehicularlanguageinnon-universityeducation.Finally,researchhasbeguntofocusontheintegrationofyoungmigrantchildrenandalsoonthesuccessoftrilingualimmersionprogrammes. In line with this, the studies by the UniversitatdeGironaonstudentswhohaveattendedtheso-calledaulesd’acollida (receptionclassrooms) inCatalonia in the lasteightyearsmustbementioned.Researchershaveanalysedthechil-dren’s integration into theCatalaneducationsystemand theirlearningprocessoftheCatalanlanguage.In the case of trilingual education, the contributionsmade bytheUnit forMultilingualEducationof theUniversitatd’Alacantmustbementioned.


67

9 Prospects

Asseen in theprevioussection, in thecaseofCatalonia (theterritory where there has been a clearer and more continu-ous languageeducationpolicy foralmost30years) it isclearthat inmanyareasthepresenceof theCatalan languagehasincreased.Itcanbesaidthat,thankstothelinguisticpolicyofCatalonia,allthenewgenerationsofCatalansareabletousebothCatalanandSpanish,orallyandinwriting,whentheyfin-ishcompulsoryeducation.Thisisconfirmedbyallneutralstud-iesdoneinCataloniaandinSpainatlarge.Thesamestudiesalsoshowthatalevelledknowledgeofbothofficial languageshasonlybeenpossiblebecauseCatalan isthe language normally used in the education systemand theschoolhasbeenacompensatoryelement inthelinguisticusein Catalan society. This has not happened (at least, not soclearly) in the other Catalan-speaking territories in Spain. Inaddition,thedataconfirmthatitisnecessarytocarryoninthesamevein ifCatalonia is toensure thatall itspopulationhasagoodcommandofbothofficial languagesat theendof theeducationsystem(somethingthat,itmustbesaidagain,isnotthecaseintheValencianCountry,wheretheknowledgeofbothValencianandSpanishisonlyensuredbytheeducationallinesinValencian).

Again in the case of Catalonia (and in order to place theseprevious statements in the actual impact of these linguisticpolicies on the social use of language), the data containedin the dossier Coneixements i usos del català a Catalunyael 2010:dadesdelBaròmetrede laComunicació i laCultura(KnowledgeanduseofCatalaninCataloniain2010)mustbementioned.ThestudywaselaboratedbytheXarxaCRUSCAT(InstituteforCatalanStudies)andtheFundacióAudiènciesdelaComunicació i laCultura (FUNDACC) from thedataof theBarometerofCommunicationandCulture,andshowsthatthenumberof initial/first languageCatalanspeakersnotonlyhasnotincreased,buthasdecreasedinrecentyears,largelyduetothearrivalofforeignpeople.


68

Accordingtothesedata,only29.8%of14to19yearoldinhab-itants ofCatalonia haveCatalan as their initial/first language,54.2%haveSpanish,and15.5%haveanotherlanguage.Thismeans that, when this segment of the population joined theeducationsystem,alittlemorethan70%oftheschoolpopula-tiondidnothaveCatalanashome language. Itmustbesaidthat no specific data on the initial languageof the populationunder14yearsareavailable,but it is clear that thearrivalofforeignpopulationpointstoanevenmorepronounceddeclineofinitialspeakersofCatalan.Other data by the SpanishMinistry of Education corroboratethe FUNDACC data. According to the Ministry, Catalonia isone of the autonomous communities with the highest shareof foreign students throughout Spain. Therefore, the schoolbecomestheonlyplacethat,giventhesociolinguisticsituationof the country, guarantees all citizens the right to know bothofficial languages. This, in turn, guarantees equal opportuni-ties for all. Thus, despite these data, Catalan students haveasimilarknowledgeofCatalanandSpanishwhen theyfinishcompulsoryeducationsystem,thankstotheimplementationofimmersionprogrammesinCatalan(whichalwaystakeintoac-countthestudents’homelanguage)andtothefactthatCatalanisthelanguagenormallyusedasthelanguageofinstruction.14

IntheBalearicIslands,althoughitistruethattheCatalanizationprocessoftheeducationsystemisnotasdeepasinCatalonia,itisalsotruethattheschoolisoneofthefewareaswheretherightofnewgenerationstoknowbothofficiallanguages(Cata-lanandSpanish)hasbeenguaranteed,atleastforthosepupilsthathavebeenschooledinthebilingualline,withmoresubjectsinCatalan than inSpanish.However, itmustbe recalled thatthe newBalearic government that has been formed after the2011 elections has enunciated a certain change of course oftheislands’educationsysteminfavourofagreaterpresenceofSpanishandforeignlanguages.

IntheValencianCountry,theexistenceofroughlytwolinesofeducation (one inCatalanand theotherone inSpanish)hasprovedthatstudentswhofollowtheteachingintheminoritised


69

language–inthiscaseCatalan–achievebetterresultsinbothofficial languages,while thosewhomainly learn only throughSpanish usually have a very low proficiency in the own lan-guageof thecountry,Valencian.As in theBalearic Islands, itseems that the government of the Valencian Country wantsto introduce a generalized new system of trilingual teaching(Valencian, Spanish, and English). This change would causeCatalan to loseoneof the fewareas (ifonly insome30%ofschools)whereitisthemainlanguage.IntheFranja,schoolshavebeentheonlyareawhereCatalanhasdevelopedduring the last decades, even longbefore theLaw on languages of Aragon (Ley 10/2009) were approved.Ultimately, it has been the only context inwhichCatalan hasbecome a “normal” language, free from the prejudices thatmany speakers had (and still have) against their own varietyofCatalan (whichusually receives thenameof their townor,atmost,oftheircounty),alanguageperceivedtheretobeonlysuitable for informaluses.Thestatementsof thenewgovern-mentofAragonafterthe2011electionsdonotgivemuchhopefor improvement of the situation of the language in schools(andinthesocietyoftheFranjaingeneral).Onthecontrary,itseemsthatthecurrentpositionofthelanguageintheeducationsystemwillbedifficulttopreserve.


70

10 Summary statistics

Catalonia

School level Catalan Bilingual Spanish

Primary(1999/2000) 96% nodata nodata

Secondary

education

(1996-1997)

ESO(compulsorysecondaryeducation) 81% 18% 1%

Baccalaureate 53% 45% 2%

Vocationaleducation 40% 59% 1%

Adulteducation(2003) 77.4% 15.8% 6.8%

Table 4: Percentage of students according to the language of instruction, in Cata-lonia. (Sources: Statistical Office; Ministry of Education of the Generalitat; Linguistic Policy Report of the Catalan Government, 2003).

TherearenoavailabledatafromtheMinistryofEducationfortheschoolyearsafter1996/1997due to the fact thatCatalanis the languageusednormallyasa languageof instruction inCatalonia.

Balearic Islands (School year 2008/2009)

School level Catalan Bilingual Spanish

pre-schooleducation 65% 35% 0%

primaryeducation 50.2% 49.8% 0%

Secondary

education

ESO(compulsorysecondaryeducation) 39% 61% 0%

Baccalaureate nodata nodata nodata

Vocationaltraining(2001/02) 40% 54.4% 5.2%

Adulteducation nodata nodata nodata

Table 5: Percentage of students according to language of instruction on the Balearic Islands (2008/2009) (Source: Statistical Office).


71

Valencian Country (School year 2008/2009)

School level Valencian(PEV/PIL)

Bilingual (PIP) Spanish

pre-schooleducation 36% 48% 16%

primaryeducation 33.3% 53% 13.7%

Secondary

education

ESO(compulsorysecondaryeducation) 27.3% 58.6% 14%

Baccalaureate 18% 60.4% 21%

Vocationaltraining 4.2% 60.3% 35.2%

Adulteducation nodata nodata nodata

Table 6: Percentage of students according to language of instruction in the Valencian Country (2008/2009) (Source: Statistical Office).

The Franja (School year 2009/2010)

School level total number of pupils

pupils learning Catalan

%

pre-schooleducation 951 855 89.9%

primaryeducation 2241 1951 87.09%Secondary

educationESO(compulsorysecondaryeducation) 1247 878 70.04%

Baccalaureate 254 153 60.23%

Total 4693 3837 81.76%

Table 7: Students learning Catalan as a subject in the Franja (2009/2010) (Source: Government of Aragon).


72

Endnotes

1 Source:StatisticalInstituteofCatalonia(IDESCAT)2010.2 Source:StatisticalInstituteofValencia(IVE)2010.3 Source: Statistical Institute of the Balearic Islands (IBES-

TAT)2010.4 Source:NationalStatisticsInstitute(INE).5 Source:IDESCAT(SurveyonLanguageUses,2008).6 Source:IBESTAT(SociolinguisticSurvey,2010).7 Source:ServiceofResearchandStudiesinSociolinguistics

(SIES).Sociolinguisticsurvey,2010.8 TheValencian-speakingandSpanish-speakingzoneswere

officiallydefinedbytheValencianParliament(CortsValen-cianes)inArticles35and36ofLaw4/1983,ontheuseandteachingofValencian.

9 Source:ServiceofResearchandStudiesinSociolinguistics(SIES).Sociolinguisticsurvey,2010.

10 Declarationscontainedintheinstrumentofratification depositedon9April2001-Or.Spahttp://conventions.coe.int/ treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?NT=148&CM=1&DF =&CL=ENG&VL=111 “Del’entrebancalainvolució.Informesobrel’ensenyament

en valencià.STEPV2011” (“Fromobstacles to involution.ReportontheeducationinValencian.STEPV2011”)http://www.intersindical.org/stepv/polival/informevalencia2011.pdf

12 Source:SEDEC.Inthesenumberstechnicalandvocationalsecondaryeducationareincluded,too.

13 Sixtycreditsareequivalenttooneyearofstudy.14 Itmustberecalled that inprimaryeducation,according to

the language project of the educational centre and underthe conditions set out in section 4.4 ofDecree 142/2007,schoolsmayteachthecontentofnon-linguisticsubjectsinSpanish.Alternatively, Spanishmay be used for activitiesduringthetimeslotsoffreedisposal.


73

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74

References and further reading

regulations main official texts regulating teaching in Catalan CataloniaReal Decreto 2092/1978 de 23 de junio, por el que se regula la incor-poración de la Lengua catalana al sistema de enseñanza en Cataluña[RoyalDecree2092/1978of23June,ontheincorporationoftheCata-lanlanguageintheeducationsysteminCatalonia](1978).BOEn.210.

Ley Orgánica 4/1979, de 18 de diciembre, de Estatuto de Autonomía de Cataluña[OrganicLaw4/1979,of18DecemberStatuteofAutonomyofCatalonia](1979).BOEn.306.

Real Decreto 2809/1980, de 3 de octubre, sobre traspaso de servicios del Estado a la Generalidad de Cataluña en materia de enseñanza.[Royal Decree 2809/1980 of 3 October on transferring services fromtheStatetotheGeneralitatofCataloniaasregardseducation](1980).BOEn.314.

Llei 7/1983, de 18 d’abril, de normalització lingüística a Catalunya [Law7/1983,of18April,onLinguisticNormalizationinCatalonia](1983).DOGCn.322.

Decret 362/1983, de 30 d’agost, sobre aplicació de la Llei 7/1983, de 18 d’abril, de normalització lingüística a Catalunya, a l’àmbit de l’ensenyament no universitari [Decree362/1983,of30August,on theapplicationofLaw7/1983of18April,ontheLinguisticNormalizationinCatalonia,inthefieldofnon-universityeducation](1983).DOGCn.359.

Llei 3/1991, de 18 de març, de Formació d’Adults [Law3/1991,of18March,onAdulteducation](1991).DOGCn.1424.

Decret 244/1991, de 28 d’octubre, sobre el coneixement de les dues llengües oficials per a la provisió de llocs de treball docents dels centres públics d’ensenyament no universitari de Catalunya, dependents del Departament d’Ensenyament [Decree244/1991,of30October,estab-lishingtherequirementofknowledgeofbothofficiallanguagestoteachinpubliccentresofCatalonia](1991).DOGCn.1524.

Decret 75/1992, de 9 de març, pel qual s’estableix l’ordenació general dels ensenyaments de l’educació infantil, l’educació primària i l’educació secundària obligatòria a Catalunya[Decree75/1992,of9March,onthegeneral organisationofPre-school,PrimaryandCompulsorySecondaryEducationinCatalonia](1992).DOGCn.1578.

Llei 1/1998, de 7 de gener, de política lingüística [Law1/1998onLin-guisticPolicy](1998).DOGCn.2553.

Decret 152/2001, de 29 de maig, sobre avaluació i certificació de conei-xements de català [Decree152/2001,of29May,ontheevaluationandcertificationofproficiencyinCatalan](2001).DOGCn.3406.


75

Decret 213/2002, d’1 d’agost, d’ordenació curricular de la formació bàsica de les persones adultes [Decree213/2002,of1stAugust,whichestablishesthecurricularorganisationofbasicadulteducation](2002).DOGCn.3694.

Llei 1/2003, de 19 de febrer, d’universitats de Catalunya[Law1/2003,of19February,onuniversitiesofCatalonia](2003).DOGCn.3826.

Decret 282/2006, de 4 de juliol, pel qual es regulen el primer cicle de l’educació infantil i els requisits dels centres [Decree 282/2006, of 4July,whichestablishestheorganisationof thefirstcycleofpre-schooleducationandcentrerequirements](2006).DOGCn.4670.

Ley Orgánica 6/2006, de 19 de julio, de reforma del Estatuto de Au-tonomía de Cataluña [Organic Law 6/2006, of 19 July, reforming theStatuteofAutonomyofCatalonia](2006).BOEn.172.

Decret 142/2007, de 26 de juny, pel qual s’estableix l’ordenació dels ensenyaments de l’educació primària [Decree 142/2007, of 26 June,which establishes the organisation of teaching in primary education](2007)DOGCn.4915.

Decret 143/2007, de 26 de juny, pel qual s’estableix l’ordenació dels ensenyaments de l’educació secundària obligatòria [Decree143/2007,of26June,whichestablishes theobjectivesofcompulsorysecondaryeducation](2007).DOGCn.4915.

Decret 181/2008, de 9 de setembre, pel qual s’estableix l’ordenació dels ensenyaments del segon cicle de l’educació infantil [Decree181/2008,of9September,whichestablishestheorganisationofsecondcycleofpre-schooleducation](2008).DOGCn.5216.

Decret 142/2008, de 15 de juliol, pel qual s’estableix l’ordenació dels ensenyaments del batxillerat[Decree142/2008,of15July,whichestab-lishestheorganisationofteachingofBaccalaureateeducation](2008).DOGCn.5183.

Llei 12/2009, del 10 de juliol, d’educació [Law12/2009,ofJuly10,onEducation](2009).DOGCn.5422.

Decret 161/2009, de 27 d’octubre, d’ordenació dels ensenyaments de l’educació secundària obligatòria per a les persones adultes [Decree161/2009, of 27October,which regulates the teaching of compulsorysecondaryeducationforadults](2009).DOGCn.5496.

Decret 128/2010, de 14 de setembre, sobre l’acreditació del coneixe-ment lingüístic del professorat de les universitats del sistema universitari de Catalunya [Decree 128/2010, of 14September, establishing the re-quirementoflinguisticknowledgeofprofessorsoftheuniversitiesoftheuniversitysystemofCatalonia](2010).DOGCn.5716.


76

Balearic IslandsReal Decreto 2193/1979, de 7 de septiembre, por el que se regula la incorporación al sistema de enseñanza en las islas Baleares de las mo-dalidades insulares de la lengua catalana y de la cultura a que han dado lugar [RoyalDecree 2193/1979, of 7 September,which regulates theincorporationoftheCatalanlanguageislandmodalitiestotheeducationsystemintheBalearicIslands](1979).BOEn.225.

Ley Orgánica 2/1983, de 25 de febrero, de Estatuto de Autonomía para las Islas Baleares [OrganicLaw2/1983,of25February,StatuteofAutonomyoftheBalearicIslands](1983).BOEn.51.

Llei 3/1986, de 29 d’abril, de normalització lingüística [Law3/1986of29April,ontheLinguisticNormalization](1986).BOCAIBn.15.

Decret 92/1997, de 4 de juliol, que regula l’ús i l’ensenyament de i en llengua catalana, pròpia de les illes Balears, en els centres docents no universitaris de les illes Balears [Decree92/1997,of4 July,whichregulatestheuseandteachingofCatalanlanguage,aspartoftheBal-earic Islands, in thenon-universityeducationalcentresof theBalearicIslands](1997).BOCAIBn.89.

Llei 4/2006 de 30 de març, d’educació i formació permanents de perso-nes adultes de les Illes Balears [Law4/2006of30March,oneducationand continual training for adults in theBalearic Islands] (2006).BOIBn.50.

Ley Orgánica 1/2007, de 28 de febrero, de reforma del Estatuto de Autonomía de las Illes Balears [Organic Law1/2007, of 28February,reformingtheStatuteofAutonomyoftheBalearicIslands](2007).BOEn.52.

Decret 67/2008, de 6 de juny de 2008, pel qual s’estableix l’ordenació general dels ensenyaments de l’educació infantil, l’educació primària i l’educació secundària obligatòria a les Illes Balears [Decree 67/2008,of 6 June, regulating pre-school, primary and compulsory secondaryeducationintheBalearicIslands](2008)BOIBn.83.

Decret 71/2008, de 27 de juny, pel qual s’estableix el currículum de l’educació infantil a les Illes Balears [Decree 71/2008, of 27 June,establishing the pre-school curriculum in theBalearic Islands] (2008).BOIBn.92ext.

Decret 72/2008, de 27 de juny, pel qual s’estableix el currículumde l’educació primària a les Illes Balears [Decree 72/2008, of 27 June,establishing the primary education curriculum in the Balearic Islands](2008).BOIBn.92ext.

Decret 73/2008, de 27 de juny, pel qual s’estableix el currículum de l’educació secundària obligatòria a les Illes Balears [Decree73/2008,of27June,establishingthecompulsorysecondaryeducationcurriculumintheBalearicIslands](2008).BOIBn.92ext.


77

Decret 82 /2008, de 25 de juliol, pel qual s’estableix l’estructura i el currículum del batxillerat a les Illes Balears [Decree82/2008,of25July,establishing thestructureandcurriculumofBaccalaureateeducation intheBalearicIslands](2008).BOIBn.107ext.

Decret 64/2010 de 14 de maig pel qual s’aproven els Estatuts de la Universitat de les Illes Balears [Decree64/2010,of14May,ofapprovaloftheStatutesoftheUniversitatdelesIllesBalears](2010).BOIBn.76.

Valencian CountryReal Decreto 2003/1979, de 3 de agosto, por el que se regula la incor-poración de la Lengua Valenciana al sistema de enseñanza del País Valenciano [RoyalDecree2003/1979,of3August,whichregulatestheincorporationoftheValencianlanguageintotheeducationsystemintheValencianCountry](1979).BOEn.202.

Ley Orgánica 5/1982, de 1 de julio, de Estatuto de Autonomía de la Comunidad Valenciana [OrganicLaw5/1982of1stJuly, theStatuteofAutonomyoftheValencianCommunity](1982).BOEn.164.

Llei 4/1983, de 23 de novembre, d’ús i ensenyament del valencià, en l’àmbit de l’ensenyament no universitari de la Comunitat Valenciana [Law4/1983,of23November,onuseandteachingofValencianinthefield of non-university education in the ValencianCommunity] (1983).DOGVn.133.

Decret 79/1984, de 30 de juliol, del Consell de la Generalitat Valencia-na, sobre aplicació de la Llei 4/1983, d’ús i ensenyament del valencià, en l’àmbit de l’ensenyament no universitari de la Comunitat Valenciana [Decree79/1984,of30July,onapplicationofLaw4/1983,ontheuseandteachingofValencianinthefieldofnon-universityeducationintheValencianCommunity](1984).DOGVn.186.

Llei 1/1995, de 20 de gener, de la Generalitat Valenciana, de Formació de les Persones Adultes [Law1/1995,of20January,oftheGeneralitatValenciana,onadulteducation](1995).DOGVn.2439.

Decret 220/1999, de 23 de novembre, del Govern Valencià, pel qual es regulen els programes formatius que figuren en la Llei 1/1995, de 20 de gener, de la Generalitat Valenciana, de formació de les persones adultes, i s’establix el currículum dels programes d’alfabetització i pro-grames per a adquirir i actualitzar la formació bàsica de les persones adultes fins a l’obtenció del títol de Graduat en Educació Secundària, a la Comunitat Valenciana. [Decree220/1999,of23November,oftheVa-lencianGovernmentregulatingtrainingprogrammesincludedintheLaw1/1995,of20January,oftheGeneralitatValenciana,onadulteducation,andestablishingthecurriculumofliteracyprogrammesandprogrammesforachievingandupdatingthebasictrainingofadultsuntilobtainingtheSecondary EducationCertificate, in theValencianCommunity] (1999).DOGVn.3638.


78

Ley Orgánica 1/2006, de 10 de abril, de Reforma de la Ley Orgánica 5/1982, de 1 de julio, de Estatuto de Autonomía de la Comunidad Va-lenciana [OrganicLaw1/2006of10April, reforming theOrganicLaw5/1982of1stJuly,theStatuteofAutonomyoftheValencianCommunity](2006).BOEn.86.

Decret 111/2007, de 20 de juliol , del Consell, pel qual s’establix el currículum de l’Educació Primària a la Comunitat Valenciana [Decree111/2007,of20July,establishingthecurriculumforPrimaryEducationintheValencianCommunity](2007).DOGVn.5562.

Decret 112/2007, de 20 de juliol, del Consell, pel qual s’establix el currículum de l’Educació Secundària Obligatòria a la Comunitat Va-lenciana [Decree112/2007, of 20 July, establishing the curriculum forCompulsory Secondary Education in the Autonomous Community ofValencia](2007).DOGVn.5562.

Resolució de 20 de setembre de 2007, de la secretària autonòmica d’Educació, per la qual es dicten instruccions per a l’organització i el funcionament dels cursos de valencià en els centres públics de Forma-ció de les Persones Adultes [Resolutionof20September2007,oftheregional secretaryofEducation,dictating instructions for themanage-ment, organization and functioning of Valencian language courses inpublicschoolsofAdultEducation](2007).DOGVn.5614.

Decret 38/2008, de 28 de març, del Consell, pel qual s’establix el cur-rículum del segon cicle de l’Educació Infantil a la Comunitat Valenciana [Decree38/2008,of80March,establishing thecurriculum for secondcycle of pre-school educations in the Valencian Community] (2008).DOGVn.5734.

Decret 102/2008, d’11 de juliol, del Consell, pel qual s’establix el cur-rículum del batxillerat en la Comunitat Valenciana [Decree102/2008,of11July,establishingthecurriculumforBaccalaureateEducationintheAutonomousCommunityofValencia](2008).DOGVn.5614.

The FranjaLey Orgánica 8/1982, de 10 de agosto, de Estatuto de Autonomía de Aragón [OrganicLaw8/1982of10August,ontheStatuteofAutonomyofAragon](1982).BOEn.195.

Cooperation agreement between the Ministry of Education of SpainandtheMinistryofCultureandEducationoftheGovernmentofAragon(1985)

Ley Orgánica 5/2007, de 20 de abril, de reforma del Estatuto de Auto-nomía de Aragón [OrganicLaw5/2007of20April,reformingtheStatuteofAutonomyofAragon](2007).BOEn.97.

Ley 3/1999, de 10 de marzo, del Patrimonio Cultural Aragonés [Law3/1999,of10March,of theAragoneseculturalheritage] (1999).BOAn.36.


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Ley 10/2009, de 22 de diciembre, de uso, protección y promoción de las lenguas propias de Aragón. [Law10/2009of22ndofDecemberontheuse,protectionandpromotionoftheownlanguagesofAragon](2009).BOAn.252.

El CarxeLey Orgánica 4/1982, de 9 de junio, de Estatuto de Autonomía para la Región de Murcia [OrganicLaw4/1982,of9June,on theStatuteofAutonomyoftheRegióndeMurcia](1982).BOE,n.146.

Catalan legal texts may be consulted at: DiariOficialdelaGeneralitatdeCatalunya(DOGC):www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/DOGC

GeneralitatdeCatalunya.Legislaciólinguistica:www.gencat.cat/llengua/legislacio

ButlletíOficialdelesIllesBalears(BOCAIB/BOIB):www.caib.es/boib/index.do

DiariOficialdelaComunitatValenciana(DOCV):www.docv.gva.es/portal

BoletínoficialdeAragón(BOA):www.boa.aragon.es

Mercator Linguistic Rights & Legislation: www.ciemen.cat/mercator/Menu_nou/index.cfm?lg=gb

The following texts involve the whole of Spain. They were drawn up by the Spanish Parliament or Government and are not specific for the Catalan language

Decreto 1433/1975, de 30 de mayo, por el que se regula la incorporación de las lenguas nativas en los programas de los Centros de Educación Preescolar y General Básica [Decree1433/1975,of30May,regulatingtheincorporationofnativelanguagesintheprogrammesofthecentresofpre-schoolandbasicgeneraleducation](1975).BOEn.156.

Constitución Española de 1978 [SpanishConstitutionof1978] (1978).BOEn.311.

Ley Orgánica 8/1985, de 3 de julio, reguladora del derecho a la educación[OrganicLaw8/1985,of3July,ontheRighttoEducation](1985).BOEn.159.

Ley Orgánica 1/1990, de 3 de octubre, de Ordenación General del Sistema Educativo [OrganicLaw1/1990,of3October,ontheGeneralOrganisationoftheEducationSystem](1990).BOEn.238.

Ley Orgánica 6/2001, de 21 de diciembre, de Universidades [OrganicLaw6/2001,of21stDecember,onUniversities](2001).BOEn.307.


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Ley Orgánica 5/2002, de 19 de junio, de las Cualificaciones y de la For-mación Profesional [OrganicLaw5/2002,of19June,onQualificationsandVocationalTraining](2002).BOEn.147.

Ley Orgánica 2/2006, de 3 de mayo, de Educación [Organic Law 2/2006,of3May,onEducation](2006).BOEn.106.

Ley Orgánica 4/2007, de 12 de abril, por la que se modifica la Ley Orgá-nica 6/2001, de 21 de diciembre, de Universidades [OrganicLaw4/2007,of 12 April, modifying the Organic Law 6/2001, of 21st December, onUniversities](2007).BOEn.89.

Spanish legal texts may be consulted at the Official State Gazette(BOE):www.boe.es

publications generalArenas,J.(1988).La llengua a l’ensenyament primari als Països Cata-lans / Language at primary school in the Catalan countries.Barcelona:Lallardelllibre.

Artigal,J.M.ed.(1995).Els programes d’immersió als territoris de parla catalana.Barcelona:FundacióJaumeBofill.

Bassa, R. (1990).El català a l’escola (1936/39-1985). Crònica d’una desigualtat. Barcelona:Lallardelllibre.

Boix,E.(2010).Treballs de sociolinguística catalana 20. Llengua i en-senyament. Barcelona:SocietatCatalanadeSociolingüística.

Cedefop; Eurydice (2010).Structures of Education and Training sys-tems in Europe. Spain 2009/10 Edition. Madrid: Spanish EurydiceUnit. Ministry of Education. Institute for Education Training.Availableat: http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/eurybase/structures/041_es_en.pdf[Accessed:11October2011]

Departament d’Educació. (2007). Language and social cohesion plan. Education and immigration. Barcelona:Generalitat deCatalunya.Avai-lable at: www.xtec.cat/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/e157d62a-e2ba-4603-9654-98643921a1a0/Pla_lic_english.pdf.[Accessed:26June2011]

Departament de la Vicepresidència. Secretaria de Política Língüís-tica (2007).Catalan, language of Europe. Barcelona: Generalitat deCatalunya. Available at:www20.gencat.cat/docs/Llengcat/Documents/Publicacions/Catala%20llengua%20Europa/Arxius/cat_europa_an-gles_07.pdf[Accessed:11October2011]

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Generalitat de Catalunya. Informe de política lingüística, 2003. Available at:www20.gencat.cat/docs/Llengcat/Documents/InformePL/Arxius/IPL_2003.pdf[Accessed:11October2011]

Marí,I.ed.(1992).La llengua als països catalans. Barcelona:FundacióJaumeBofill.

Ministerio de Educación. Instituto de Evaluación (2011). “Eval-uación general de diagnóstico 2010. Educación Secundaria Obliga-toria. Segundo curso. Informe de resultados”. Available at: www.institutodeevaluacion.mec.es/dctm/ievaluacion/informe-egd-2010.pdf?documentId=0901e72b80d5ad3e[Accessed:11October2011]

Pueyo,M.(1996).Tres escoles per als catalans.Lleida:Pagèseditors.

Siguan,M. (1993).European Studies on Multilingualism.Amsterdam/Lisse:SwetsandZeitlinger.

Statistical Office of the Ministry of Education of Spain (2000). “Lascifras de la educación en España. Curso 1996-1997 (Edición 2000).”Available at: www.mecd.gob.es/horizontales/estadisticas/indicadores-publicaciones-sintesis/cifras-educacion-espana.html [Accessed: 11October2011]

Statistical Office of the Ministry of Education of Spain (2011). “Lascifras de la educación en España. Curso 2008-2009 (Edición 2011).”Available at: www.educacion.gob.es/horizontales/estadisticas/indicadores-publicaciones-sintesis/cifras-educacion-espana/2011.html [Accessed: 11October2011]

Vallverdú,F.ed.(2001).Enciclopèdia de la llengua catalana.Barcelona:Edicions62.

Xarxa Cruscat (2011). Informe sobre la situació de la llengua catalana (2010). Barcelona:ObservatoridelaLlenguaCatalana.Availableat:http://blocs.iec.cat/cruscat/publicacions/informe [Accessed:11October2011]

CataloniaArenasiSampera,J.(1986).La immersió lingüística. Escrits de divulga-ció. Barcelona:Lallardelllibre.

ArenasiSampera,J.(1992).Language and Education in Catalonia to-day.Barcelona:GeneralitatdeCatalunya,Departamentd’Ensenyament.

Arenas iSampera, J.&M.Muset (2008).La immersió lingüística. Vic:EumoEditorial.

Arenas,J.&E.Sabater(1982).Del català a l’escola a l’escola catalana. Barcelona:LaMagrana.

Arnau,J.(1980).Escola i contacte de llengües.Barcelona:Ceac.


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Arnau,J. (1997). “ImmersionEducation inCatalonia”. In:Encyclopedia of Language and Education, volume5:BilingualEducation,pp.297-303.Dordrecht/Boston/London:KluwerAcademicPublishers.

Arnau, J. et al. (1992).La Educación Bilingüe.CuadernosdeEduca-ción.Barcelona:UniversitatdeBarcelona.

Arnau J. & J.M.Artigal eds. (1998).Els programes d’ immersió: una perspectiva europea. Barcelona: Publicacions de la Universitat deBarcelona.

Artigal,J.M.(1989).La immersion a Catalunya. Consideracionspsico-lingüístiques i sociolingüístiques. Vic:EumoEditorial.

Artigal,J.M. (1995).Multiways Towards Multilingualism: The Catalan Immersion Programme Experience. Multilingualism for all. European Studies on Multilingualism. Lisse:Swets&Zeitlinger.

Corominas,L.&M.Sànchez(1999).Formació de mestres. Història del reciclatge. Una experiencia viscuda 1975-1988. Barcelona: GeneralitatdeCatalunya,Departamentd’Ensenyament.

Departamentd’Educació.(2007).“Plaperal’actualitzaciódelaMetodo-logiad’immersióenl’actualcontextsociolingüístic.2007-2013”.Availableat: www.xtec.cat/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/91738e79-a419-45fd-b4eb-358af62486f6/pil.pdf[Accessed:11October2011]

Departamentd’Ensenyament.(1998).Servei d’Ensenyament del Català 20 Anys. Barcelona:GeneralitatdeCatalunya.

Institut d’Estadística de Catalunya (IDESCAT) (2011). “Enquesta d’usoslingüístics de la població (2008)”.Available at:www.idescat.cat/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&V0=3&V1=3&V3=3103&V4=4986&ALLINFO=TRUE&PARENT=25&CTX=B[Accessed:26June2011]

Generalitat de Catalunya. Consell Superior d’Avaluació del SistemaEducatiu(2011).Prova d’avaluació de sisè curs d’educació primària 2010. Available at: www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/ensenyament/menuitem.d9cf94acff010a2b74f751dab0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=298fb233a6d37210VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=298fb233a6d37210VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default[Accessed:11October2011]

Goot,A. Sj. van der (1996). Bilingual Education in Catalonia; Differ-ent Strategies in Primary Education. Leeuwarden/Ljouwert:Mercator-Education,FryskeAkademy.

MacInnes, J. (1999). “Consensus and Controversy in Language Nor-malisationinCatalunya:the1998Law”.In: Journal of Catalan Studies,1998,no.2.

Navarro,R.(1979).L’educació a Catalunya durant la Generalitat 1931-1939. Barcelona:Edicions62.


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Serra,J.M.(1997).Immersió Lingüística, rendiment acadèmic i classe social. Barcelona:Horsori.

Strubell, M. (1996). “Language Planning and Bilingual Education inCatalonia”. In: Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development,vol.17:2-4,p.262-275.Routledge.

Vila, I. (1993).La normalització lingüística a l’ensenyament no univer-sitari de Catalunya.Barcelona:GeneralitatdeCatalunya.Departamentd’Ensenyament.

Vila, I. (1995).El català i el castellà en el sistema educatiu de Cat-alunya. Barcelona:Horsori.

Vila,I.(coord.)(2006).Conclusions de la comissió Nova immersió i can-vis metodològics: els programes de canvi de llengua de la llar a l’escola: aspectes metodològics i organitzatius. Barcelona:Generalitat deCata-lunya,Departamentd’Educació.

Vila,I.etal.(2009).“LasaulasdeacogidadelaeducaciónprimariadeCatalunya el curso 2005-2006: sus efectos sobre el conocimiento decatalánylaadaptaciónescolar”.Infancia y Aprendizaje,32,Salamanca.

XarxaCruscat andFundacc (2011) “Coneixements i usos del català aCatalunyael2010:dadesdelBaròmetredelaComunicacióilaCultura”.Availableat:http://blocs.iec.cat/cruscat/2011/03/31/coneixements-i-usos-del-catala-a-catalunya-el-2010-dades-del-barometre-de-la-comunicacio-i-la-cultura/[Accessed:11October2011]

Balearic IslandsJoan,B.(1996).Acció Cívica per la Normalització Lingüística. ResPub-licaEdicions-Eivissa,SantJordideSesSalines.

Joan,B.(2001). Integració sociocultural a Eivissa i progres acadèmic. Eivissa:Mediterrània.

Melià,J.(1997).La llengua dels joves.PalmadeMallorca:UniversitatdelesIllesBalears.

MarchiCerdà,M.X.(dir.) Anuari de l’educació de les Illes Balears 2009. Palma:FundacióGuillemCifredeColonya.Availableat:http://dpde.uib.es/digitalAssets/220/220389_anuari09.pdf[Accessed:11October2011]

Institutd’EstadísticadelesIllesBalears(IBESTAT)(2010).“Enquestamodulard’hàbitssocials.Mòduldeconeixementsiusoslingüístics2010.”Availableat: www.ibestat.cat/ibestat/page?p=px_publicaciones&nodeId=3f0f1682-59ce-41a3-bb9e-acd8e57ae365&lang=ca[Accessed:11October2011]

Valencian CountryAlcaraz,M.,F.Isabel&J.Ochoaeds.(2005).VintanysdelaLlei d’Ús i Ensenyament del Valencià.Alzira:Bromera.


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Bodoque, A. (2009). La política lingüística dels governs valencians (1983-2008).València:PublicacionsUniversitatdeValència.

GómezLabrado,V.(1995).La mestra. València:EliseuClimentEditor.

Mayordomo, A., C. Agulló & G. Garcia (coord.) (2006). Valencià a l’escola. Memòria i testimoni. València:UniversitatdeValència.

Pascual,V.(2006).El tractament de les llengües en un model d’educació plurilingüe per al sistema educatiu valencià. València: GeneralitatValenciana.

Pascual,V.(2011).L’escola valenciana. Un model d’educació plurilingüe i intercultural per al sistema educatiu valencià. València:FederacióEs-colaValenciana.

Pascual,V.&Sala,V.(1991).Un model educatiu per a un sistema es-colar amb tres llengües. I Proposta organitzativa. València:GeneralitatValenciana.

Pellicer, J. E. (2006).Història d’un desig insatisfet. L’en senyament del valencià fins a 1939.Catarroja: Perifèricedicions.

Pitarch,V.(1984).Reflexió crítica sobre la Llei d’ús i ensenyament del valencià. València:EliseuClimentEditor.

ServiceofResearchandStudiesinSociolinguistics(Servicid’InvestigacióiEstudisSociolingüístics)(SIES).“ConeixementiússocialdelValencià.Enquesta2010”.Availableat:www.cefe.gva.es/polin/docs/sies_docs/en-cuesta2010/index.html[Accessed:26June2011]

STEPVIntersindicalValenciana(2011). De l’entrebanc a la involució. In-forme sobre l’ensenyament en valencià.Availableat: www.intersindical.org/stepv/polival/informevalencia2011.pdf[Accessed:11October2011]

The FranjaAlcover, C.& A. Quintana (2000). Plans reguladors d’ensenyament de l’aragonès i el català a l’Aragó. Saragossa:GobiernodeAragón.

Huguet,À.(1995).El coneixement lingüístic dels escolars de la Franja: conclusions de la seva avaluació. SantaMargaridadeMontbui: Institutd’EstudisdelBaixCinca/UniversitatdeLleida.

Martínez,J.(1995).Bilingüismo y Enseñanza. Saragossa:Edicionsdel’Astral.

El CarxeLimorti,E. (1997). “Lasituaciósociolingüísticaa lacomarcamurcianadelCarxe”.In:Actes de la cinquena trobada de sociolingüistes catalans.Barcelona:GeneralitatdeCatalunya,DepartamentdeCultura.


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Addresses

official bodies Centre de Terminologia(TERMCAT,CentreforTerminology)Mallorca,272,1r08037BarcelonaT+34934526161F+34934516437Einformacio@termcat.catWwww.termcat.cat

Centre Internacional Escarré per a les Minories Ètniques i les Nacions (CIEMEN, International Escarré Centre for EthnicMinoritiesandNations)Rocafort242,bis08029BarcelonaCataloniaT+34934443800F+34934443809Eciemen@ciemen.catWwww.ciemen.cat

Fundació Ramon Llull (FRL,RamonLlullFoundation)Casa-MuseuAreny-PlandolitCarrerMajorAD300Ordino,[email protected]

Institut d’Estudis Catalans(IEC,InstituteofCatalanStudies)CarrerdelCarme,4708001Barcelona,CataloniaT+34932701620F+34932701180Einformacio@iec.catWwww.iec.cat

Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE,NationalStatisticsInstitute)PaseodelaCastellana,183(accessbyEstébanezCalderón,2)28071–MadridT+34915839100F+34915839158Wwww.ine.es/en

Institut Ramon Llull(RamonLlullInstitute)CarrerDiputació,279baixos08007Barcelona,CataloniaT+34934678000F+34934678006Einfo@llull.catWwww.llull.catand


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C/delaProtectora,10,local1107012Palma,[email protected]

Ministerio de Educación(MEC,MinistryofEducationofSpain)CalleAlcalá,3428014MadridT+34917018000Wwww.mecd.gob.es/portada-mecd/en

Xarxa d’Universitats Institut Joan Lluís Vives (UniversitiesNetworkInstitutJoanLluísVives)EdificiÀgoraUniversitatJaumeICampusdelRiuSec12071CastellódelaPlana,ValencianCountryT+34964728993F+34964728992Exarxa@vives.orgWwww.vives.org

CataloniaConsorci per a la Normalització Lingüística(ConsortiumforLinguis-ticNormalisation)C/deMallorca,272,8è08037BarcelonaT+34932723100F+34934872167Wwww.cpnl.cat

Departament d’Ensenyament de la Generalitat de Catalunya (Re-gionalMinistryofEducation)ViaAugusta,[email protected](ServiceofImmersionandLinguisticWelcomingoftheCatalanMinistryofEducation)Wwww.gencat.cat/ensenyament

Direcció General de Política Lingüística de la Generalitat de Cat-alunya(DGPL,GeneralDirectorateforLanguagePolicyoftheGener-alitatofCatalonia)CarrerdelPortaldeSantaMadrona,6-808001BarcelonaT+34935671000F+935671001Wwww.gencat.cat/llengua


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Institut d’Estadística de Catalunya (IDESCAT,Statistical Institute ofCatalonia)ViaLaietana,5808003BarcelonaT+34935573000F+34935573001Wwww.idescat.cat/en

Secretaria d’Universitats i Recerca (Secretariat forUniversities andResearch)ViaLaietana,208003BarcelonaT+34935526700F+34935526701Esecretaria.sur@gencat.catWwww.gencat.cat/economia/ur/sur/index.html

Balearic IslandsConselleria d’Educació, Cultura i Universitats (RegionalMinistryofEducation,CultureandUniversities)C/d’AlfonselMagnànim,2907004PalmaT+34971176500F+34971177531Eweib@educacio.caib.esWeducacioicultura.caib.es/weib.caib.es(Teachersandeducationstaff)www.caib.es/govern/organigrama/area.do?coduo=1784&lang=ca(CatalanTeachingService)

Institut d’Estadística de les Illes Balears (IBESTAT,StatisticalInstitu-teoftheBalearicIslands)Av.GabrielAlomariVillalonga,núm.3307006Palma·[email protected]

Institut d’Estudis Baleàrics (InstituteofBalearicStudies)C/d’AlfonselMagnànim,29,[email protected]://ieb.caib.es

Valencian CountryAcadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua(ValencianAcademyofLanguage)MonestirdeSantMiqueldelReisAvingudadelaConstitució,28446019ValènciaT+34963874023F+34963874036Wwww.avl.gva.es


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publications

Conselleria d’Educació Cultura i Esport(RegionalMinistryofEduca-tion,CultureandSport)AvingudadelCampanar,3246015Valè[email protected](teachinglanguages)Wwww.cefe.gva.es / www.cefe.gva.es/ocd/sedev/val/sedev.htm (teachinglanguages)

Institut Valencià d’Estadística(IVE,StatisticalInstituteofValencia)Pl.NápolesySicilia1046003ValenciaT+34963869400F+34963869420Edifusion_ive@gva.esWwww.ive.es

pedagogical Articles de Didàctica de la llengua i de la Literatura C/d’Hurtado,2908022Barcelona,CataloniaT+34934080464F+34933524337Eeditorial@grao.comWwww.grao.com/revistes/articles

Departament d’Ensenyament de la Generalitat de Catalunya (Re-gionalMinistryofEducation)Wwww.xtec.cat(Teachersandeducationstaffwebsite)www.edu365.cat(Websitecontaininglearningresourcesforpupils)

Escola Catalana(MagazineofÒmniumCultural)C/delaDiputació,276,pral.08009Barcelona,CataloniaT+34933198050F+34933106900Eescolacatalana@omniumcultural.catWwww.omnium.cat/www/omnium/ca/omnium/publicacions/escola-catalana.html

Guix d’Infantil C/d’Hurtado,2908022Barcelona,CataloniaT+34934080455F+34933524337Eeditorial@grao.comWwww.grao.com/revistes/guix-infantil

Guix. Elements d’Acció EducativaC/d’Hurtado,2908022Barcelona,CataloniaT+34934080464F+34933524337


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and associations

[email protected]/revistes/guix

Infància(MagazineofRosaSensatAssociation)AvingudadelesDrassanes,308001Barcelona,CataloniaT+34934817380F+34933017550Eredaccio@revistainfancia.orgWwww.revistainfancia.org/catal/menu/menu.htm

Perspectiva escolar (MagazineofRosaSensatAssociation)AvingudadelesDrassanes,308001Barcelona,CataloniaT+34934817392F+34933017550Eassociacio@rosasensat.orgWhttp://www.rosasensat.org/perspectiva/

cultural centres CataloniaCoordinadora d’Associacions per la Llengua–CALC/deMuntades,24-26baixos08014Barcelona,[email protected]://www.cal.cat/

Òmnium CulturalC/rdelaDiputació,276,pral.08009Barcelona,[email protected]://www.omnium.cat

Plataforma per la LlenguaViaLaietana,48A.Principal2a08003Barcelona,CataloniaT+34933211803F+34933211271Einfo@plataforma-llengua.catWhttp://www.plataforma-llengua.cat/

Balearic IslandsAcció Cultural de [email protected]://accioculturalmenorca.blogspot.com/


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Associació Vuit d’Agost C/delBisbeGonzàlezAbarca,65è2a07800Eivissa,BalearicIslandsT+34971310117F+34971310117Einfo@vuitdagost.catWhttp://www.vuitdagost.cat/

Institut d’Estudis EivissencsPereFrancès12,1r,2aApartat57807800Eivissa,BalearicIslandsT+34971312775F+34971312775Einfo@estudiseivissencs.catWhttp://www.estudiseivissencs.cat/

Joves de Mallorca per la LlenguaC/deJaumeFerran,6007004Palma,BalearicIslandsT+34971723299F+34971719385Einfo@jovesllengua.catWhttp://jovesllengua.cat

Obra Cultural BalearC/deJaumeFerran,6007004Palma,[email protected]://www.ocb.cat

Valencian CountryAcció Cultural del País ValenciàEdificiOctubreCentredeCulturaContemporàniaCarrerdeSantFerran,1246001Valè[email protected]://acpv.cat/web/

Escola Valenciana / Federació d’Associacions per la Llengua(FEV,ValencianSchool-FederationofAssociationsfortheLanguage)C/deJosepGrollo,91-baix.46025Valè[email protected]://www.escolavalenciana.com/


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Fundació Sambori(AssociationpromotingliteraryprizesinCatalanforstudents)C/del’arquitecteArtal,3Abaix46450Benifaió[email protected]

The FranjaAssociació Cultural del Matarranya-ASCUMAC/Major,[email protected]://www.ascuma.org/

Centre d’Estudis Ribagorçans –CERibC/delsSenyorsd’Entença,[email protected]://cerib.blogspot.com.es/

Institut d’Estudis del Baix Cinca -IEBCEstaciód’autobusos–[email protected]://www.iebc.cat


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Other websites on minority languages

Mercator www.mercator-network.euGeneral site of theMercator EuropeanNetwork of LanguageDiversity Centres. It gives information about the network andleadsyoutothehomepagesofthenetworkpartners.

Mercator www.mercator-research.euHomepage of the Mercator European Research Centre onMultilingualism and Language Learning.Thewebsite containstheseriesofRegionaldossiers,adatabasewithorganisations,abibliography,informationoncurrentactivities,andmanylinkstorelevantwebsites.

European http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages -of-europe/doc139_en.htm

The website of the European Commission gives informationabouttheEU’ssupportforregionalorminoritylanguages.

Council of http://conventions.coe.intEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (1992)andFramework Convention for the Protection of National Minor-ities(1995).EuropeanTreatySeries148and157,Strasbourg.

Eurydice http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/index_en.phpEurydiceistheinformationnetworkoneducationinEurope.Thesitesprovides informationonallEuropeaneducationsystemsandeducationpolicies.

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What can the Mercator Research Centre offer you?

mission & goals The Mercator European Research Centre on MultilingualismandLanguageLearningaddressesthegrowinginterestinmulti-lingualismandtheincreasingneedoflanguagecommunitiestoexchangeexperiencesandtocooperateinaEuropeancontext.The centre is based in Ljouwert/Leeuwarden, the capital ofFryslân–thebilingualprovinceoftheNetherlands–andhostedat the FryskeAkademy (FrisianAcademy). TheMercator Re-searchCentre focusesonresearch,policy,andpractice in thefieldofmultilingualismandlanguagelearning.Thecentreaimstobeanindependentandrecognisedorganisationforresearch-ers, policymakers, and professionals in education.The centreendeavours to promote linguistic diversity within Europe. Thestartingpointliesinthefieldofregionalandminoritylanguages.Yet,immigrantlanguagesandsmallerstatelanguagesarealsoatopicofstudy.Thecentre’smainfocusisthecreation,circula-tion,andapplicationofknowledgeinthefieldoflanguagelearn-ingatschool,athome,andthroughculturalparticipation.

partners In1987MercatorEducationstartedcooperationwith twopart-nersinanetworkstructure:MercatorMediahostedattheUni-versityofWalesinAberystwythandMercatorLegislationhostedat the Ciemen Foundation in Barcelona. This network hasdeveloped into the Mercator European Network of LanguageDiversityCentres,which consists of the three aforementionedpartners as well as Stockholm University in Sweden and theResearchInstituteforLinguisticsoftheHungarianAcademyofSciences inHungary.Besides, theMercatorResearchCentre,the successor of Mercator Education, expands its network inclosecooperationwithanumberofotherpartnerorganisationsworkinginthesamefield.ThiscooperationincludespartnersinFryslân,aswellaspartners intheNetherlandsandinEurope.TheprovincialgovernmentofFryslânisthemainfundingbodyof the Mercator Research Centre. Projects and activities arefundedbytheEUaswellasbytheauthoritiesofotherregionsinEuropewithanactivepolicytosupporttheirregionalorminoritylanguageanditsculture.


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research TheMercatorResearchCentredevelopsaresearchprogrammeonthebasisofthedatacollectionsavailable.Researchactivitiesfocuson variousaspects of bilingual and trilingual education,such as interaction in multilingual classrooms, language pro-ficiency indifferent languages,and teachers’qualifications forthemultilingualclassroom.Wheneverpossible,researchwillbecarriedout inacomparativeEuropeanperspective.ResearchresultsaredisseminatedthroughpublicationsandconferencesincollaborationwithEuropeanpartners.

conferences The Mercator Research Centre organises conferences andseminars on a regular basis. Themes for the conferencesinclude: measurement & good practice, educational models,developmentofminimumstandards, teacher training,and theapplicationoftheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReference.ThemaintargetgroupsfortheMercatorResearchCentreareprofessionals,researchers,andpolicymakersfromallmemberstatesoftheCouncilofEuropeandbeyond.

q&a ThroughtheQuestionandAnswerserviceavailableonourweb-site (www.mercator-research.eu)wecan informyouaboutanysubjectrelatedtoeducationinminorityorregionallanguagesinEurope.Theexperts inourextensivedatabaseofexpertscanalsoproviderelevantinformation.

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This document was published by the Mercator European Research Centre on Multilingualism and Language Learning with financial support from the Fryske Akademy, the Province of Fryslân, and the municipality of Leeuwarden.

© Mercator European Research Centre on Multilingualism and Language Learning, 2013

ISSN: 1570 – 12392nd edition

The contents of this dossier may be reproduced in print, except for commercial purposes, provided that the extract is proceeded by a complete reference to the Mercator European Research Centre on Multilingualism and Language Learning.

This Regional dossier was originally compiled in 2000 by Maria Areny (SEDEC) and Alie van der Schaaf (Mercator-Education). Important contributions were provided by Miquel Strubell (UOC) and Joaquim Arenas i Sampera (SEDEC). It only contained data on Catalonia.

This second version has been compiled in 2012 by Maria Areny, Pere Mayans and David Forniès (CIEMEN). It updates the contents of the first version on Catalonia and adds all the contents on the Valencian Country, Balearic Islands, Aragon and Murcia.

Unless otherwise stated academic data refer to the 2010/2011 school year.

From August 2012 onwards Ineke Rienks and Saskia Benedictus-van den Berg havebeen responsible for the publication of the Mercator Regional dossiers series.

Albanian; the Albanian language in education in ItalyAsturian; the Asturian language in education in SpainBasque; the Basque language in education in France (2nd ed.)Basque; the Basque language in education in Spain (2nd ed.)Breton; the Breton language in education in France (2nd ed.)Catalan; the Catalan language in education in France Catalan; the Catalan language in education in Spain (2nd ed.)Cornish; the Cornish language in education in the UKCorsican; the Corsican language in education in France (2nd ed.)Croatian; the Croatian language in education in AustriaFrisian; the Frisian language in education in the Netherlands (4th ed.)Gaelic; the Gaelic language in education in the UKGalician; the Galician language in education in SpainGerman; the German language in education in Alsace, France (2nd ed.)German; the German language in education in BelgiumGerman; the German language in education in South Tyrol, ItalyHungarian; the Hungarian language in education in SlovakiaHungarian; the Hungarian language in education in SloveniaIrish; the Irish language in education in Northern Ireland (2nd ed.)Irish; the Irish language in education in the Republic of IrelandItalian; the Italian language in education in SloveniaKashubian; the Kashubian language in education in PolandLadin; the Ladin language in education in ItalyLatgalian; the Latgalian language in education in LatviaLithuanian; the Lithuanian language in education in PolandMeänkieli and Sweden Finnish; the Finnic languages in education in SwedenNorth-Frisian; the North Frisian language in education in Germany (2nd ed.)Occitan; the Occitan language in education in FrancePolish; the Polish language in education in LithuaniaRomani and Beash; the Romani and Beash languages in education in HungarySami; the Sami language in education in SwedenScots; the Scots language in education in ScotlandSlovak; the Slovak language in education in HungarySlovene; the Slovene language in education in Austria (2nd ed.)Slovene; the Slovene language in education in Italy (2nd ed.)Sorbian; the Sorbian language in education in GermanySwedish; the Swedish language in education in Finland Turkish; the Turkish language in education in GreeceUkrainian and Ruthenian; the Ukrainian and Ruthenian language in education in PolandVõro; the Võro language in education in EstoniaWelsh; the Welsh language in education in the UK

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