canoes of tuvalu - digilib.library.usp.ac.fj

18
SURVEY OF SMALL FISHING CRA FISHERIES AND EFFECTS OF ENERGY CRISIS l�I THE SOH PACI<FJt,: REPORT 3 •·, . CANOES OF TUVALU LEON P, NN B,S,C, PH,D, INSTITE OF RINE RESOURCES UNIVERSITY OF THE SOUTH PACIFIC . SUVA, FIJI I A PROJECT UNDERTAKEN BY THE INSTITUTE OF RINE RESOURCES AND FUNDED . BY THE HANNS SEIDEL FOUNDATION FROM THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERNY

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Page 1: CANOES OF TUVALU - digilib.library.usp.ac.fj

SURVEY OF SMALL FISHING CRAFT FISHERIES AND EFFECTS OF ENERGY CRISIS l�I THE SOUTH PACI<FJt,: REPORT 3

•·, .

CANOES OF TUVALU

LEON P, ZANN B,S,C, PH,D,

INSTITUTE OF MARINE RESOURCES UNIVERSITY OF THE SOUTH PACIFIC

. SUVA, FIJI I

A PROJECT UNDERTAKEN BY THE INSTITUTE OF MARINE RESOURCES AND FUNDED . BY THE HANNS SEIDEL FOUNDATION FROM THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

Page 2: CANOES OF TUVALU - digilib.library.usp.ac.fj

C(l�ffF.MTS

P.RF:.PACE: & A CK!ITOWL.lsDGEJ1f.f.NTS

1. IMTROntlCTIOM

1.1 TUVl'-LLJl,?. sunsISTENCE FISHERIES

. J.:1 JM?ORTI\NCE OF CANOES

2, CAMOES

2,J. VOYAGING CANOES t.,2 FISHJNG CANOES

2,2,1 TYPES OF VAKA

2,2.2 GILBERTESE CANOE

3, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

3,1 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN 3,2 CONSTRUCTION

3.2.l TOOLS

3.2.2 TIMBER

3,2,3 SHAPING AND FABRICATION

3 .2 ,4 REPAIRS

3.2.5 MAINTENANCE

3,3 PROPULSION

3.3.1 PADDLING

3.3.2 SAILS

3 ,4 TERMINOLOGY

4, INTER-ISLAND VARIATIONS

4,1 NANUMEAN TYPE 4,2 VAITUPUA TYPE 4.3 NUKUFETAUN TYPE 4,4 ANALYSIS OF DESIGNS

5, THE MODERN CANOE

5,1 CHANGES OVER HALF CENTURY 5,2 CANOES AND MODERN TECHNOLOGY

6, EVALUATION OF CANOES V, OUTBOARDS

7, REFERENCES

Page 3: CANOES OF TUVALU - digilib.library.usp.ac.fj

FJf{i)FA(JE

This survey is part of a regional study of the small fishing craft o:f the South Pacific and the effects of the energy crisis.

Tuvalu's semi-commercial outboard fleet at Funafuti was outlined in Report 3. This report describes the Tuvaluan canoe which is the basis o:f the important subsistence fishing economy o:f the outer islands of Tuvalu.· The third paper of Tuvalu (Report 4) will desc�ibe the subsistence fishery.

While introduced mechanised fishing craft have largely replaced lhe traditional canoes of the more developed South Pacific nations, canoes are still important in rural Tuvalu. On a number of islands there are no outboards at all , on others only a handful.

Tuvalu 1 ·s economy remains a subsistence fishing one. Fuel is already prohibitively expensive and supplies on the outer islands are er-rat:j.c. For economic as well as cul tunal reasons it. is therefore important that the paddling canoe remains the basic water craft of 1'uvalq,

ACKNmrLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to the Government of Tuvalu for its cooperation and kind hospitality, in particular to Mr, Tom Sione, the Minister for Commerce and Natural Resources, Mr. Feue Tipu, the Secretary� Mr. Elisal Pita, Fisheries Officer, Mr. Sam Rawlins, Agriculture Officer, and Mr. Lotanu Taulau of the Fisheries Division who accompa­nied me to the outer islands and was patient with my palagi questions.

In Suva I am grateful for the support of the Director of �ine Resources, Dr. U. Raj, and Mr, Alfred Oppacher of the Hanns Seidel Foundation.

Page 4: CANOES OF TUVALU - digilib.library.usp.ac.fj

1. INTROnl ICTI ON

J..J. TUVt\LU

Tuvalu (formerly the Ellice Islands in the British Gilbert and Ellice Colony) comprises nine small coral islands and atolls scattered along a 570 km. chain in the north of the South Pacific (Fig. 1, and rear cover). Independent since 1978, Tuvalu's small land area and vast territorial waters (total lanqmass of 26 sq. km, in 1.3 million sq. km. of sea), its remoteness from industrial cent res and shipping routes, and its lack of natural resources pose special problems in development, even by Pacific standards.

Tuvalu's population is small (7,500 permanent residents; 2000 working overseas) yet its meagre land resources -:re cvcrt-:xcd: the infertile coral soil supports the ubiquitous coconut palm and pandanus palm, but breadfruit, bananas and other fruit crops must be carefully cultivated, · A swamp taro known as pulah:a is cultivated in pits dug into the shallow water table but being slow growing it is reserved for only special occasions. The .flesh o.f brown coconuts and fish are the Tuvalans' staples.

fish is of paramount importance in Tuvalu's subsistence economy and daily life centres around fishing and the sea.

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TUVALU (INSET) AND MAIN ISLANDS VISITED (NOT TO SCALE)

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Page 5: CANOES OF TUVALU - digilib.library.usp.ac.fj

1,2 SURSl�NC� FISHERIES

The majority, perhaps 5,000 of 7,500, of Tuvaluans have a subsis­tence fishing economy.

The most important fisheries are those of the open sea. Flying fisp, captured with scoop nets at night, are the staple. Bonito, other �mas, kingfish, bill fish and other open water pelagics follow in importance. Bottom fish, deepwater and lagoonal, make up most of the rern_ainder. Shellfish comprise an insignificant part of the diet: Tuvalu's subsistence fishery is described in detail in Report 4 of this series,

13 IMPORTANCE OF THE CANOE.

With the exception of reef foraging, inter-tidal gill-netting, spear-fishing and rockpool pole-and-line fishing, a canoe is necessary for ;fishing,

A canoe, followed by a plot of land for a garden, is a TuvalU<'ln's most valuable possession, Suitable timbers for hulls are uncommon and constrµction by an expert takes several months. Canoes are well cared �or and maintained, and are always stored ashor� under mats. Though well cared for in TUV8../-U, the canoe does not receive the adoratioA given by their neighbours, the I-Kiribati, to their canoes. Tuva]uan canoes are rarely named today, though the practice was common in the past,

2. CANOES

2",1 LITERATURE

The traditional Tuvaluan outrigger canoe or vaka has been quite well documented in the anthropological literature. The first descrip­tions were made by Haddon (1897) on Funafuti. A� excellent description of the Vaitupu canoe and an outline of the Nariumea canoe is con�ained in Kennedy's {1931) Oulture of Vaitupu; Haddon 1 s {1937) dess,iptions are based largely on this paper but some information on the NJ'i canoe is added. More recently, Keck's (1961) book (in German) on the material culture of the Elliceislands included a.brief account of the oo.ka, while Chambers (1974) conducted a census of canoes in Tuvalu and described �spects of canoe making on Nanumea. Additional information, including a documentation of the inter-island variations in design, is presented in the following description.

2.2 VOYAGING CANOES

In pre-European times large canoes (lualua and foulua), constructed of planks laced together, were used for inter-atoll travel. Lfttle is known o;f t)1eir size and construction, but 1;;hey must have been seaworthy craft to have made the long voyages, and the TuvallB!ls must have been skilled navigators. These canoes were soon replaced by the larger sailing craft of the British colonialists, and had long vanished by the time of Hedley's visit to Funafuti i� 1896.

According to Chambers, there were 675 mkas in Tuvalu in 1974, plus 59 imported Gilbertese canoes, te l,Xl,. Co�versely, the author noted a number o� vaka.s in Kiribati, formerly the Gilberts, in 1979. Details are presented in Table I,

Page 6: CANOES OF TUVALU - digilib.library.usp.ac.fj

TABLE I - NUMBER OF CANOES IN TUVALU (1974)*

TUVALU CANOES TOTAL CANOES/ NON-ISLAND Large Med. Small GILBERTESE CANOES 100 TRADITIONAL

BOATS (1980 NUMBERS)*

NANUMEA 51 73 60 34 218 22 6 (8+) NANUMANGA 14 14 23 4 55 9 0 0

NIIJTAO 22 13 45 14 94 10 0 -

NUI 34 22 21 4 81 14 2 -

\(AITUPU 25 17 21 0 63 6 0 (6)

NUKUFETAU 77 21 4 2 104 17 6

FUNAFUTI 3 19 24 0 46 5 12 (57) NUKULAELAE 40 22 9 1 72. 21 u -

NIULAKITA 1 0 0 0 1 2 0 -

TOTAL 267 201 207 59 734 AV. 26 11.7/100

* From Chambers, A. (1974)** This study (1980) estimate.

2.3.1 TUVALU\N VAKA

Unlike the rakish, carvel-planked Gilbertese canoe, the Tuvaluan · vaka is a dugout, decked fore and aft 1 and built amidships by a wash­strake or freeboard-strake.

The canoes are finely hewn to a thin hull trom soft timbers and four men can carry a large 7m. canoe with ease. (A Fijian dugout or takia of similar size might weigh three or four times as much.)

Canoes range in si�e from small, rather roughly made pao-pao

used in lagoons, to the four-man canoe of the open sea. Names for the

various si�es of vaka vary from island-to-island, as does th�r design

(Section 3). �

On Nanumea a small one-man canoe is called a tataei, a two-man canoe a tabuo., and a four-man canoe a tafa. On Nukufetau the large canoes are called alo-lima, the small, pao-pao.

2.3.2 GILBERTESE FISHING CANOE

The imported Gilbertese p�ddling canoe( te ltXt, te T'(JJTll1,) . (Fig.2) is widespread in Tuvalu: 59 in 1974, according to Chambers, but

increasing since then. It is popular because of its light weight but the carvel planked construction involves consta�t bailing. These canoes were brought back from Kiribati by T�valuans who had worked in the Tarawa administration prior to 1976, or on Ocean Island (Banaba) prior to its closure in 1979. Although a number of I-Kiribati reside permanently in Tuvalu they do not build Gilbertese canoes.

I

Page 7: CANOES OF TUVALU - digilib.library.usp.ac.fj

The Gilbertese canoe, among the finest of Oceania, is the subject o:f a later report in this series.

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3. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

3,1 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN •

Canoe design and construction is an art, the inherited prov�ce of specialised master craftsmen or tufunga. Today others are beginning to make their own canoes, but the tufungs's craft is unmatched.

The tuf-qnga, strive for a smooth, elegant hull shape. On Nanumea the ideal shape is inspired by the whale ( tafola) with a rounded fore­section, tapering aft. Elsewhere the sharper lines of the bonito (atu) or kingfish (pa.lu) provide the inspiration.

The theory of outrigger design differs radically :from that of monohulls or catamarans. The addition of a float, (always on the port side), gives the narrow canoe hull'a greater stability by increasing the effective beam. The greater the beam, the greater the stability, but the more the canoe tends to v·eer to port, towards the float.

The tufunga have overcome this in several ways:

(a) The outrigger beam is kept to the safest possible minimum,(Beams vary from island-to-island, Fig. 3).

(b) The longitudinal.mid-line of the float may be placed at a slightangle to the mid-line of the hulJ, giving the float a slightly starboard directional tendencv. (Fig. 4).

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Page 8: CANOES OF TUVALU - digilib.library.usp.ac.fj

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Page 9: CANOES OF TUVALU - digilib.library.usp.ac.fj

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Page 10: CANOES OF TUVALU - digilib.library.usp.ac.fj

3. 2 CONSTRIICTI ON

-Kennedy (1931) contains an excellent des cri p t ion of t he construc­tion of a vaka,

3.2.1. TOOLS

Traditionally clamshell adzes ( toko) were used to shape the hull but today adzes made from t he blades of s teel gauge chisels, steel axes, ctrills and bits, rasps and planes and even chai nsaws are used.

3.2.2 TIMBER

Trees for the canoe hull are greatl y valued. Timber i s sparse and of poor qual i ty on the atolls but occas i onally the sea bri ngs a drift log treasure from another country , po::; ::; j_ i.,ly Llie Sulurnum; l J.L" ;.;.,w Guln c:,a .

On Nanwnea the fetau. tree ( Cal iphyllum i nophyllum) is used for the hull, but elsewhere the softer pu.lf;a ( Herna,ndia Peltata) i s generally used. On Nukufetau the puka is also used: the puka va.i (Herno.ndia) i s used for the float and the puka vaka (Pisonia gran.dis) for · the hull.

Other timbers have specialized uses: kanaoo (Cordia subcordata) I~or stringers and pegs; the coconut nui (Coco nicifera) for s tringers; mangrove tango (Rhizophora) for beams; hibiscus fautuu (Hibiscus til iaceus) for twine; tauhun.a (ft!essersohmidia argentea) for t he forked rack for the flying fish scoop etc.

3,2,3 SHAPING AND CONSTRUCTION

The canoe builder begins shaping the log while it i s sti ll green. Branches are t rimmed and knots and faults are studied to determine the best orientation of the hull. The exter i or of the hull is initiall y roughly shaped, then the log is turned and sheer is shaped . The long process of hollowing out then begins, section by section. A special rotatatie adze is used for trimmi ng to a uni form hull t h ickness of about 6cm. -The fore and aft deck pieces are carved from another~log, care being taken to make them fit snugly onto the hull. Th e t wo washstrakes, todaY. cut by chainsaws, are then added amidsh i ps to raise the f reeboard. These pi eces are caulked and firmly l ashed or sewn together wi th coconut sinnet (Plate 1).

Y-forked branches are selected for the outri gger beams qr stays. One arm of the fork is removed, the other is attached t o the float. An angled beam thereby gives a level platform storage and a good clearance from the water in choppy seas. The beam is notched into the washstrakes and firmly lashed into position.

The float is hewn from a l ight, dry timber into a streamll ned shape symmetrical fore and aft. The beams are attached, as illustrated in Plate 8, to three pegs set into the float (or occasi onal l y two), or on Nukufetau and Funafuti, are directly lashed (Plate 7},

A gunwhale or capping piece of Gilbertese derivation is added t o the Nanumean and Vaitupu canoes, and longitudinal stri ngers are lashed onto the outrigger beams to give t he structure rigidity,

Page 11: CANOES OF TUVALU - digilib.library.usp.ac.fj

Seats and thwarts, lashed into position in the hull, help to stiffen and strengthn the canoe's washstral<:es and hull sides.

Last to be added are accessoriep such as a rack which is lashed onto the beams, .forks -for holding the scoop nets and cradles f"or the bonito rod. The canoes are usually painted with co9-l tar or a house paint. Paddles and scoop hailers are usually made by the owner out of fetau.

Construction time depends on the commitments of the tufanga, but usually lasts between two and six months depending also on the amount of help he receives. It is customary for the canoe owner to provide fish and other food to the builder and his family during

,the period of construction.

3.2.4 REPAIRS

Logs invariably contain cracks and knots which must be repaired dul:'ing constr-u~tion. Cracks are filled with a sealant, traditionally breadfruit sap but today a tar compound or putty, and sewn together wi t.h lashings •

Knots and other weak areas are removed and replaced by a snugly :titting plug o:f timber which is sewn into position. Cracks and other damage incurred during the life of the canoe are similarly repaired.

3.2.5 MAINTENANCE

Canoes are invariably stored ashore when not in actual use because of the lack of suitable anchorages and the problems of marine borers and rot.

On shor.e they are placed upright on chocks to keep them off the ground and support the weight uni:forml y. Several mats of coconut fronds are plaeed over the canoe to keep rain and sunlight off.

Some owners keep their canoes dry but it i s the usual pract:i;le to keep some water in the hull to cool it by evaporative coolillf and probably to keep the timber moist and seams closed. Smaller canoes rnay be stored up-side-down.

The life span of a canoe depends on how well it is looked after. If not looked after it may last only two years; if cared for it may last ten or more. Lashing tend to rot and r~quire regular renewal.

3 ,3 PROPULSION

The canoes are usually paddled but small Oceanic lateen sails :may be rigged for voyages across lagoons on those islands with ~arge lagoons.

3.3,1 PADDLING

Canoes are paddled with a light paddle (foe) with a large handle (lfaµ)about twice "!;he length of the tapering bl ade (lapafoe), Kennedy -illustrates the various shapes of paddles. Small one or two-man canoes _are paddled from the stern, more commonly on the port side to offset the drag of the float. On :four-man canoes three paddlers paddle on the port side while the canoe captain aft steers by paddling at the port.

Page 12: CANOES OF TUVALU - digilib.library.usp.ac.fj

Seats and thwarts, lashed l.nto position in the hull, help to stiffen e.nd strengthn the canoe's washstrakes and hull sides.

Last to be added are accessoriei, such as a rack which is lashed onto the beams, forks ·for holding the scoop nets and cradles for the bonito rod. The canoes are usually painted with co;=i.l tar or a house paint. Paddles and scoop bailers are usually made by the owner out of fetaii.

Construction time depends on the commitments of the tufanga, but usually lasts between two and six months depending also on the amount of help he receives. It is customary for the canoe owner to provide fish and other food to t he builder and his family during

.the period of construction.

3.2.4 REPAIRS

Logs invariably contain cracks and knots which must be repaired during constru~tion. Cracks are filled with a sealant, tradit i onally breadfruit sap but today a tar compound or putty, and sewn together with lashings.

Knots and other weak areas are removed and replaced by a snugly fitting plug of timber which is sewn into position. Cracks and other damage incurred during the life of the canoe are similarly repaired.

3.2,5 MAINTENANCE

Canoes are invariably stored ashore when not in actual use because of the lack o:f suitable anchorages and the problems of marine borers and rot.

On shol'le they are placed upright on chocks to keep them off the ground and support the weight uniformly. Several mats of coconut fronds are placed over the canoe to keep rain and sunlight off.

Some owners keep their canoes dry but it is the usual practi~e to keep some water in the hull to cool it by evaporative cooling and probably to keep the timber moist and seams closed. Smaller canoes may be stored up-side-down.

The life span of a canoe depends on how well it is looked after, If not looked after it may last only two years; if cared for it may last ten or more. Lashing tend to rot and r~quire regular renewal.

3,3 PROPULSION The canoes are usually paddled but small Oceanic lateen sails

may b~ rigged for voyages across l agoons on those islands wi th large lagoons.

3.3.1 PADDLING

Canoes are paddle.d with a light paddle (foe) with a large handle (lro~)about twice the length o:f the tapering blade (lapafoe). Kennedy illustrates the various shapes of paddles. Small one or two-man canoes are paddled from the stern, more commonly on the port side to offset the drag of the float. On four-man canoes three paddlers paddle on the port side while the canoe captain aft stee~s by paddling at the port.

Page 13: CANOES OF TUVALU - digilib.library.usp.ac.fj

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-----·- -· --·-- .

RF.MO\'/\Bll: DECK COVER

� '� �-Jl____JL,_lu.,.,,·_ =-',.._!! __

DECK LASH I �IGSV

u

FIG, 6, VARIATION IN Hl!.L SHAPES OF TUVALUAN �ANOES, L·To R:. .

BOW ON VIEW; SIDE ELEVATION OF FOREDECK; PLAN OF

FOREDECK: SECTION OF FOREDECK,

--

CB) \If\ IHlPU ~ -MAN

~ -......!.____~ --·'--\

l ,-~ ,.':;:"°! :t.l 1 ', I I . 1··14·-t- ·· ·I t ··· i . -!. _j_

--- ··-+

V

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(fl) t!M·l'J�t1 2-r-w,

CL=-___ ([_ . u

-- .....---z"'55,:� ----rT C ------ · ______ I_ � ··-

··· ----�-\ I

......----�

�---0_ 0

CK} r/Ui 2-1w1

{L) NU! 4�AN

FIG, 6 CONT, VARIATION IN HULL SHAPES _OF TWALUAN CANOES,

-----~::> ! 0 ~ __ _j __ _

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4, INTER-ISLAND VARIATIONS

Kennedy ( 1931), Haddon ( 1937) an.d Chambers (1974) all mention that the canoe designs vary from island to island but these differences, with the exception of Kennedy I s comparison of the Vai tupu and Nanumea . designs,· have not been adequately documented.

Today the differences are less obvious because of the regular transport o:f canoes (and ideas) between islands vi a the i nter-island vessel. The Nanumea or northern design is gaining popularity .else­where, particularly in Funafuti where it is now difficult to find an indigenous design.

According to Kennedy the Nanumea type is the traditional canoe of the northern atolls of Tuval u while the Vaitupu type is the traditional design of tl').e south. However, the author believes there are three distinct designs of 4-man canoes: Nanumea; Vaitupu (Nanumanga, Nui, Niutao); Nukufetau (Funafuti and Nukulaelae).

4.1 NANUMEA TYPE

Large canoes (4-man, B-9m L.O.A.) with rounded bulbous bows; rounded hull ::1ection; pronounced asymmetry of. hull r:iection and S-twist in· keel line; maximum beam greater than Vaitupu-type; hull and float mid-lines converging i.e. not parallel; fore-deck piece slightly concave in side elevation, and rounded in section; outrigger float always attached by three pegs (Fig. p aj Plate 2).

Smaller canoes bullet shaped with cut-off bows; reduced asymmetry and keel twist; wider maximum beam than small Vaitupu type; hull and float mid-lines parallel (Fig. 6 b),

4,2 VAITUPU TYPE

Large canoes (3-4 man, 8-9.5m) with rounded hull or angular chine­type surfaces; obviously pointed bows in top elevati on view (ro~nded or straight entry in side elevation); less pronounced asymmetry ani keel twist; maximum beam less than Nanumea-type; hull and float mid-lines converging; straight or concave deck pieces in side elevation; outrigger attached by three pegs (rarely two - Fig. 6 g and h, Plate 5).

Smaller canoes as above but with no apparent asymmetry of hull or keel twist; often hull of "single chine 11 appearance, but may be rounded.

The Nanumanga type of canoes (Fig. 6 a and d) have a pronounced angular or chine appearance; the foredeck piece is straight in side elevation with an inverted V cross-section; in top elevation the smooth lines at the bow are cut with a V to a sharp stem; maximum beam is greater than Vaitupu canoes but less than Nanumea's.

The Nui canoes (Fig. 6 e and f, Plate 4) have a distinctively pronounced concave (side elevation) fore-dee~ piece with an inverted V deck in cross section, Maximum beam is similar to the Vaitupu type.

The Niutao type was not seen. Informants place them with the above.

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4,3 NllKUFETA.t.i TYPE

Large canoes (4 man, llm.), longer than all others; rounded hull section; finely tapering prows with a straight sterri entry in side elevation; asymmetry and keel twist not apparent; maximum beam very large, greatest proportionately of all types; hull-float-convergence not measured; deck pieces removable, rounded with fork-shaped mast steps; outrigger float lashed directly on to beams: no pegs used (Fig 6 i; Plate 3).

Smaller canoes more like Vaitupu-type (and should strictly be included with them) with angular 11 chine'' section; tapering prows cut off to blunt point; no apparent hull asymmetry or keel twist; moderate �aximum beam, (hull-float-convergence not measured); fixed deck pieces flat profile and section; outrigger floats tied directly onto beams without pegs (Fig 6 j).

No traditional 18.l"'ge Funafuti canoes were located but informants stated that they resemble the Nukufetau-type. A single small Funafuti canoe was examined and this was identical with the small Nukufetau­type (Fig. 6 k).

Nukulaelae was not visited but informants stated that the design was distinct from the others. A single photograph of the prow of a large canoe showed a straight prowed "stem", extending above the deck line as if it were not an integral part of the dug-out hull piece. A distinctive rounded mast step is visible in the photo. No deck pieces are present (Fig. 6 1).

4.4 ANALYSIS OF DESIGNS

The various designs are illustrated �n RJ6 a to l, and dimensions of a sample are given in Table m. The basic design types could also be differentiated by their hull length (LOA) and maximum beam ratios. Vaitupu and Nui had the lowest ratio, followed by Nanumanga (data limited), then Nanumea, with Nukufetau (data limited) with t�e highest length/beam ratio. r

Variations in design depended on the use of the canoe (e.g. sailing, paddling, lagoons, open sea) as well as local aesthetic tastes.

5. THE MODERN CANOC

5,1 The fishing canoe has changed little frqm Kennedy's descrip­tions. However, none of the traditional serrated end-price decorations were seen,. al though th.ey are often shown on canoe models. Nor was a type of direct lashing through a hole drilled in the float, described by Kennedy, seen: direct lashings completely encircled the float. Kennedy also described a lashing.using two pegs: this was .i;;een only ina model of unknown origin. Tuval�n. informants say these details are occasionally seen, but their rarity indicates that they are going out of fashion.

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5,2 CANOl::S AND MOOl:RN TECHNOtOGV

Introduced western technology has been incorporated in the traditional canoe. Metal adzes, drills and bits, and planes are used i n construction.

Almost all canoes are painted to prolong the life of the dugo~t hull under a hot, wet enviro~ment. On most islands a black pitch paint is used but on Nanumea bright house paints are more common. Paints are not often correctly applied: a finishing enamel house paint may be applied over the raw t imber without suitable primers and under­coats. On Funafuti one canoe had been painted with duplicating ink. The coal tar paint i s probably a good simple choice for the bare timber.

Tuval,uandugouts suffer from environmental cracking and splitting of the timber, and rot. Few logs are perfect and during construction major faults are repaired with plugs sewn with sinnet and cracks are stitched together and sealed often with an i.mported putty or even melted thermoplastics.

Nylon fishing line has replaced coconut sinnet on 10-20% of canoes because it is unaffected by rot and is readily available. Instead of the traditional wooden pegs used to attach the .float large steel bolts, large nails or steel spikes are occasionally used, although these tend to crack the float timber. No nails are used in construction, although they are used in all modern Lauan dugout outriggers, takia, in Fiji to attach end pieces, wash strokes and crossing outrigger beams and stringers. Then nails also tend t o crack timbers, possibly why they are not used in the Tuvalan ~aka.

Synthetic sail cloth material s (of rice and flour bags) and imported light canvas have replaced the traditional woven pandanus mat sails. Tarred hemp ropes from wrecked tuna f ishing boats ·or stranded long-lines, and modern synthetic ropes are the usual cordage,

Small outboards (Seagull 2,5 and 3.5 H.P.; O.M.C. Johnsons or Evinrude 2.5 or 4 HP) may · be bolted onto a bracket on the stern out­rigger beam of Tuvalµan or Gilbertese canoes, giving the lightweight canoes a speed of 3,5 knots. It is estimated that 30-50 canoes i n Tuvalu are thus mechanized.

On the outer islands only the few salaried workers (policemen, teachers), or fishermen with a family member working abroad, can afford to run outboards, An outboard is a definite advantage for those old men with small canoes who act as family providers, presumably because their sons are working elsewhere.

5, EVALUATION Cf CANOE V, OUlBOARDS The canoe in Tuvalu is an essential unit for the subsistence

fishery and an important part of the traditional culture. It is designed for local conditions and fi~heries, and built from l ocally available materials. Paddled or sailed, it is independent of imported fuels.

Because of high :fuel costs and low incomes of the fishermen out­board powered cra£t have not been widely used outs i de Funafuti. (Report 2 discusses tne µse and economics of outboards in Funafuti )

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Chamberi=: (1975) commented on their use on Nanumea, pointing out that they could be responsihle for overfishing in the lagoons and sea. Their use in chasinr:;; down turtles "could seriously deplete or exter­minate tnrtle popula.ti ons as has already happened in many Pacific terri tori.es after the intr-odu.ction of power boats. 11

Continuing, Chambers says "and of oou.rse another negative aspect is that power boats and motors replace a completely self-suffici.ent local industry by a totally imported one which is extremely expensive to equip and maintain."

Isakal Paeniu (1980 in Save the Children Fed. Report) discussed the use of' outboards on his island, Nukulaelae. "More recently a

'po1,1er boat with an outboard engine has added itself to the island fleet. Three other people on the island own outboard engines used for powering canoes, Apart from its contribution to con,tamin::,te the ooters around the island, oil and fuel costs are astronomical compared with cash earning capacity. Maintenance facilities do not exist. A cost/benefit analysis of this means of transport will certainly resu.7.t in the negative."

Paeniu stressed the value o,f canoes: 11 Under no cicwnstance.s TtW,Bt canoes be undermined. A canoe is a multi-purpose craft which is

wiique."

7, REFERENCES

Chambers, A. (1975). Nanurnea Report. Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand.

Hedley, c. {1897). The atoll of Funafuti. Australian �s., Meus. Vol. 3; 229-304.

Kennedy, D.E. (1931). The Culture of' Vaitupu. Memoirs of Polynesian Society. Vol. 9. Wellington, The Polynesian Society.

Kock, G. (1961). Die materielle Kultur der Ellice Inseln. Berlin, Museum fur Volkerkunde.

Save the Children Federation Inc. (1980). An implementation plan for a co7/1111Ll,nity based integrated island development progr(JJ'!I, in fuvalu. Report, Newton, Maryland.

Zann, L.P. (1980). Tavalu 1s fishing fleet: The energy c1sis and fisheries development. Survey of small fishing craf� outboards and effects of energy crisis in the South Pacific. �eport 2. University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji.