campbell - weebly · 2019. 2. 1. · © 2014 pearson education, inc. figure 22.2 1812 cuvier...
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CAMPBELL
BIOLOGY Reece • Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
TENTH
EDITION
22 Descent with Modification:
A Darwinian View of Life
Lecture Presentation by
Nicole Tunbridge and
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
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Endless Forms Most Beautiful
A new era of biology began in 1859 when Charles
Darwin published The Origin of Species
The Origin of Species focused biologists’ attention
on the great diversity of organisms
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Darwin noted that current species are
descendants of ancestral species
Evolution can be defined by Darwin’s phrase
descent with modification
Evolution can be viewed as both a pattern and a
process
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Figure 22.1
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Figure 22.1a
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Concept 22.1: The Darwinian revolution challenged traditional views of a young Earth inhabited by unchanging species
Darwin’s ideas had deep historical roots
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Figure 22.2
1812 Cuvier publishes his extensive studies of vertebrate fossils.
1809 Charles Darwin
is born.
1809
Lamarck publishes his
hypothesis of evolution.
1798 Malthus publishes
“Essay on the Principle of Population.”
1795 Hutton proposes
his principle of gradualism.
1790 1870 1831–1836
Darwin travels around the world on HMS Beagle. 1844
Darwin writes his essay on descent with modification.
1859 On the Origin of Species is published.
1830 Lyell publishes Principles of Geology.
Sketch of a flying frog by Wallace
1858 While studying species in the Malay Archipelago, Wallace (shown above in 1848) sends Darwin his hypothesis of natural selection.
Marine iguana in the
Galápagos Islands
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Figure 22.2a
1812 Cuvier publishes his extensive studies of vertebrate fossils.
1809 Charles Darwin is born.
1790
1809 Lamarck publishes his
hypothesis of evolution.
1798 Malthus publishes
“Essay on the Principle of Population.”
1795 Hutton proposes
his principle of gradualism.
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Figure 22.2b
1858 While studying species in the Malay Archipelago, Wallace sends Darwin his hypothesis of natural selection.
1830 Lyell publishes Principles of Geology.
1870 1859 On the Origin of Species is published.
1844 Darwin writes his essay on descent with modification.
1831–1836 Darwin travels
around the world on HMS Beagle.
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Figure 22.2c
1812 Cuvier publishes his extensive studies of vertebrate fossils.
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Figure 22.2d
1831–1836 Darwin travels around the world on HMS Beagle.
Marine iguana in the
Galápagos Islands
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Sketch of a flying frog by Wallace
Figure 22.2e
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Figure 22.2f
1858 While studying species in the Malay Archipelago, Wallace (shown above in 1848) sends Darwin his hypothesis of natural selection.
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Figure 22.2g
1859 On the Origin of Species is published.
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Scala Naturae and Classification of Species
The Greek philosopher Aristotle viewed species as
fixed and arranged them on a scala naturae
The Old Testament holds that species were
individually designed by God and therefore perfect
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Carolus Linnaeus interpreted organismal
adaptations as evidence that the Creator had
designed each species for a specific purpose
Linnaeus was the founder of taxonomy, the branch
of biology concerned with classifying organisms
He developed the binomial format for naming
species (for example, Homo sapiens)
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Ideas About Change over Time
The study of fossils helped to lay the groundwork
for Darwin’s ideas
Fossils are remains or traces of organisms from
the past, usually found in sedimentary rock, which
appears in layers called strata
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Figure 22.3
Sedimentary rock layers (strata)
Younger stratum with more recent fossils
Older stratum with older fossils
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Video: Grand Canyon
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Paleontology, the study of fossils, was largely
developed by French scientist Georges Cuvier
Cuvier speculated that the boundaries between
strata represent catastrophic events
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Geologists James Hutton and Charles Lyell
perceived that changes in Earth’s surface can
result from slow continuous actions still operating
today, and at the same rate
This view strongly influenced Darwin’s thinking
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Lamarck’s Hypothesis of Evolution
Lamarck hypothesized that species evolve through
use and disuse of body parts and the inheritance
of acquired characteristics
The mechanisms he proposed are unsupported by
evidence
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Figure 22.4
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Concept 22.2: Descent with modification by natural selection explains the adaptations of organisms and the unity and diversity of life
Some doubt about the permanence of species
preceded Darwin’s ideas
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Darwin’s Research
As a boy and into adulthood, Charles Darwin had
a consuming interest in nature
Darwin first studied medicine (unsuccessfully), and
then theology at Cambridge University
After graduating, he took an unpaid position as
naturalist and companion to Captain Robert
FitzRoy for a 5-year around the world voyage on
the Beagle
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The Voyage of the Beagle
During his travels on the Beagle, Darwin collected
specimens of South American plants and animals
He observed that fossils resembled living species
from the same region, and living species
resembled other species from nearby regions
He experienced an earthquake in Chile and
observed the uplift of rocks
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Darwin was influenced by Lyell’s Principles of
Geology and thought that the earth was more than
6,000 years old
His interest in geographic distribution of species
was kindled by a stop at the Galápagos Islands
west of South America
He hypothesized that species from South America
had colonized the Galápagos and speciated on
the islands
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Figure 22.5
HMS Beagle in port
Darwin in 1840, after his return from the voyage
EUROPE
Great
Britain
AFRICA
Equator
Brazil
Malay
Archipelago
Cape of
Good Hope
AUSTRALIA
Tasmania New
Zealand
PACIFIC OCEAN
PACIFIC
OCEAN
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Argentina
Cape Horn
SOUTH
AMERICA
Chile
NORTH
AMERICA
Florenza
Equator
Española
San Cristobal
Santa Fe
Santa Cruz
Daphne Islands
Genovesa
Marchena
Pinta
Santiago
Pinzón Fernandina
Isabela
Kilometers
0 20 40
The Galápagos Islands
PACIFIC
OCEAN
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Figure 22.5a
PACIFIC
OCEAN
PACIFIC
OCEAN
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
NORTH AMERICA
EUROPE
AFRICA
SOUTH AMERICA
AUSTRALIA
Great Britain
Equator
Brazil Chile
Cape of Good Hope
Argentina
Cape Horn New Zealand
Tasmania
Malay Archipelago
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Figure 22.5b
Darwin in 1840, after
his return from the
voyage
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Figure 22.5c
PACIFIC OCEAN
The Galápagos Islands
Equator
Pinta
Marchena
Santiago
Genovesa
Fernandina
Daphne Islands
Santa Fe San
Cristobal
Isabela
Pinzón
Florenza Española
Santa Cruz
Kilometers
0 20 40
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Figure 22.5d
HMS Beagle in port
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Video: Albatross Courtship Ritual
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Video: Blue-footed Boobies Courtship Ritual
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Video: Galápagos Islands Overview
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Video: Galápagos Marine Iguana
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Video: Galápagos Sea Lion
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Video: Galápagos Tortoise
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Video: Soaring Hawk
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Video: Snake Ritual Wrestling
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Darwin’s Focus on Adaptation
In reassessing his observations, Darwin perceived
adaptation to the environment and the origin of
new species as closely related processes
From studies made years after Darwin’s voyage,
biologists have concluded that this is what
happened to the Galápagos finches
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Figure 22.6
(c) Seed-eater
(a) Cactus-eater (b) Insect-eater
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Figure 22.6a
(a) Cactus-eater
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Figure 22.6b
(b) Insect-eater
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Figure 22.6c
(c) Seed-eater
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In 1844, Darwin wrote an essay on natural selection
as the mechanism of descent with modification, but
did not introduce his theory publicly
Natural selection is a process in which individuals with
favorable inherited traits are more likely to survive and
reproduce
In June 1858, Darwin received a manuscript from
Alfred Russel Wallace, who had developed a theory of
natural selection similar to Darwin’s
Darwin quickly finished The Origin of Species and
published it the next year
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The Origin of Species
Darwin explained three broad observations
The unity of life
The diversity of life
The match between organisms and their
environment
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Descent with Modification
Darwin never used the word evolution in the first
edition of The Origin of Species
The phrase descent with modification summarized
Darwin’s perception of the unity of life
The phrase refers to the view that all organisms
are related through descent from an ancestor that
lived in the remote past
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In the Darwinian view, the history of life is like a
tree with branches representing life’s diversity
Darwin reasoned that large morphological gaps
between related groups could be explained by this
branching process and past extinction events
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Figure 22.7
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Figure 22.8
Hyracoidea
(Hyraxes)
Sirenia
(Manatees and relatives)
†Moeritherium
†Barytherium
†Deinotherium
†Mammut
†Platybelodon
†Stegodon
†Mammuthus
Elephas maximus (Asia)
Loxodonta africana (Africa)
Loxodonta cyclotis (Africa)
Years ago Millions of years ago
60 34 24 5.5 2 104 0
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Figure 22.8a
†Moeritherium
†Barytherium
†Deinotherium
†Mammut
Hyracoidea (Hyraxes)
Sirenia (Manatees and relatives)
Years ago Millions of years ago
60 34 24 5.5 2 104 0
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Figure 22.8b
†Platybelodon
†Stegodon
†Mammuthus
Elephas maximus (Asia)
Loxodonta africana (Africa)
Loxodonta cyclotis (Africa)
Years ago Millions of years ago
60 34 24 5.5 2 104 0
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Artificial Selection, Natural Selection, and Adaptation
Darwin noted that humans have modified other
species by selecting and breeding individuals with
desired traits, a process called artificial selection
Darwin drew two inferences from two observations
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Figure 22.9
Broccoli
Selection for
flowers and stems
Selection
for stems
Kohlrabi Wild mustard Kale
Cabbage
Brussels
sprouts
Selection
for leaves
Selection for apical (tip) bud
Selection for axillary (side) buds
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Figure 22.9a
Wild mustard
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Figure 22.9b
Kale
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Figure 22.9c
Brussels
sprouts
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Figure 22.9d
Cabbage
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Figure 22.9e
Broccoli
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Figure 22.9f
Kohlrabi
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Observation #1: Members of a population often
vary in their inherited traits
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Figure 22.10
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Observation #2: All species can produce more
offspring than the environment can support, and
many of these offspring fail to survive and
reproduce
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Figure 22.11
Spore cloud
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Inference #1: Individuals whose inherited traits
give them a higher probability of surviving and
reproducing in a given environment tend to leave
more offspring than other individuals
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Inference #2: This unequal ability of individuals to
survive and reproduce will lead to the
accumulation of favorable traits in the population
over generations
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Darwin was influenced by Thomas Malthus, who
noted the potential for human population to
increase faster than food supplies and other
resources
If some heritable traits are advantageous, these
will accumulate in a population over time, and this
will increase the frequency of individuals with
these traits
This process explains the match between
organisms and their environment
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Natural Selection: A Summary
Individuals with certain heritable traits survive and
reproduce at a higher rate than other individuals
Natural selection increases the match between
organisms and their environment over time
If an environment changes over time, natural
selection may result in adaptation to these new
conditions and may give rise to new species
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Figure 22.12
A leaf mantid in Borneo
A flower mantid in Malaysia
A flower-eyed mantid in
South Africa
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Figure 22.12a
A flower mantid in Malaysia
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Figure 22.12b
A flower-eyed mantid in
South Africa
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Figure 22.12c
A leaf mantid in Borneo
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Video: Sea Horses
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Note that individuals do not evolve; populations
evolve over time
Natural selection can only increase or decrease
heritable traits that vary in a population
Adaptations vary with different environments
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Concept 22.3: Evolution is supported by an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence
New discoveries continue to fill the gaps identified
by Darwin in The Origin of Species
There are four types of data that document the
pattern of evolution
Direct observations
Homology
The fossil record
Biogeography
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Direct Observations of Evolutionary Change
Two examples provide evidence for natural
selection: natural selection in response to
introduced plant species, and the evolution of
drug-resistant bacteria
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Natural Selection in Response to Introduced Species
Soapberry bugs use their “beak” to feed on seeds
within fruits
Feeding is most effective when beak length is
closely matched to seed depth within the fruit
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In southern Florida soapberry bugs feed on the
native balloon vine with larger fruit; they have
longer beaks
In central Florida they feed on the introduced
goldenrain tree with smaller fruit; they have shorter
beaks
Correlation between fruit size and beak size has
also been observed in Louisiana, Oklahoma, and
Australia
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In all cases, beak size has evolved in populations
that feed on introduced plants with fruits that are
smaller or larger than the native fruits
These cases are examples of evolution by natural
selection
In Florida this evolution in beak size occurred in
less than 35 years
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Figure 22.13
Soapberry bug with beak inserted in balloon vine fruit
Field Study
Results
Beak On native species, balloon vine (southern Florida)
Average for museum specimens
On introduced species, goldenrain tree (central Florida)
Nu
mb
er
of
ind
ivid
uals
0
2
4
6
8
10
0
2
4
6
8
10
6 7 8 9 10 11
Beak length (mm)
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Figure 22.13a
Soapberry bug with beak inserted in balloon vine fruit
Field Study
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The Evolution of Drug-Resistant Bacteria
The bacterium Staphylococcus aureus is
commonly found on people
One strain, methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA)
is a dangerous pathogen
Resistance to penicillin evolved in S. aureus by
1945, two years after it was first widely used
Resistance to methicillin evolved in S. aureus by
1961, two years after it was first widely used
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Methicillin works by inhibiting a protein used by
bacteria to produce cell walls
MRSA bacteria use a different protein in cell wall
production
When exposed to methicillin, MRSA strains are
more likely to survive and reproduce than
nonresistant S. aureus strains
MRSA strains are now resistant to many
antibiotics
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Figure 22.14
250,000 base pairs
500,000
750,000
1,000,000
1,250,000 1,500,000
1,750,000
2,000,000
2,250,000
2,500,000
2,750,000
Chromosome map
of S. aureus clone USA300
Key to adaptations
Methicillin resistance
Ability to colonize hosts
Increased disease severity
Increased gene exchange (within species) and toxin production
1
Year A
nn
ual
ho
sp
ital
ad
mis
sio
ns
wit
h M
RS
A (
tho
usa
nd
s)
’93 ’94 ’95 ’96 ’97 ’98 ’99 ’00 ’01 ’02 ’03 ’04 ’05 0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
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Figure 22.14a
250,000 base pairs
500,000
750,000
1,000,000
1,250,000 1,500,000
1,750,000
2,000,000
2,250,000
2,500,000
2,750,000 1
Chromosome map
of S. aureus clone USA300
Key to adaptations
Methicillin resistance
Ability to colonize hosts
Increased disease severity
Increased gene exchange
(within species) and
toxin production
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Figure 22.14b
Year
An
nu
al
ho
sp
ita
l ad
mis
sio
ns
wit
h M
RS
A (
tho
us
an
ds
)
’93 ’94 ’95 ’96 ’97 ’98 ’99 ’00 ’01 ’02 ’03 ’04 ’05 0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
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Natural selection does not create new traits, but
edits or selects for traits already present in the
population
The current, local environment determines which
traits will be selected for or selected against in any
specific population
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Homology
Homology is similarity resulting from common
ancestry
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Anatomical and Molecular Homologies
Homologous structures are anatomical
resemblances that represent variations on a
structural theme present in a common ancestor
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Figure 22.15
Human Cat Whale Bat
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Carpals
Metacarpals
Phalanges
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Comparative embryology reveals anatomical
homologies not visible in adult organisms
For example, all vertebrate embryos have a post-
anal tail and pharyngeal arches
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Figure 22.16
Chick embryo (LM)
Pharyngeal arches
Post-anal tail
Human embryo
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Figure 22.16a
Chick embryo (LM)
Pharyngeal arches
Post-anal tail
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Figure 22.16b
Pharyngeal arches
Post-anal tail
Human embryo
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Vestigial structures are remnants of features that
served important functions in the organism’s
ancestors
Examples of homologies at the molecular level are
genes shared among organisms inherited from a
common ancestor
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Homologies and “Tree Thinking”
Evolutionary trees are hypotheses about the
relationships among different groups
Homologies form nested patterns in evolutionary
trees
Evolutionary trees can be made using different
types of data, for example, anatomical and DNA
sequence data
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Figure 22.17
Branch point
Lungfishes
Amphibians
Mammals
Lizards and snakes
Crocodiles
Ostriches
Hawks and other birds
Digit-bearing limbs
Amnion
Homologous characteristic
Feathers
Tetra
po
ds
Am
nio
tes
Bird
s
1
2
3
4
5
6
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A Different Cause of Resemblance: Convergent Evolution
Convergent evolution is the evolution of similar,
or analogous, features in distantly related groups
Analogous traits arise when groups independently
adapt to similar environments in similar ways
Convergent evolution does not provide information
about ancestry
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Figure 22.18
Sugar glider
Flying squirrel
AUSTRALIA
NORTH AMERICA
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Figure 22.18a
Sugar glider
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Figure 22.18b
Flying squirrel
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The Fossil Record
The fossil record provides evidence of the
extinction of species, the origin of new groups, and
changes within groups over time
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Figure 22.19
(a) Canis (dog) (b) Pakicetus (c) Sus (pig) (d) Odocoileus (deer)
Most mammals Cetaceans and even-toed ungulates
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Figure 22.19a
(a) Canis (dog)
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Figure 22.19b
(b) Pakicetus
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Figure 22.19c
(c) Sus (pig)
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Figure 22.19d
(d) Odocoileus (deer)
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Figure 22.UN01
Diacodexis, an early
even-toed ungulate
20 cm
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Fossils can document important transitions
For example, the transition from land to sea in the
ancestors of cetaceans
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Figure 22.20
Other even-toed
ungulates
Hippopotamuses
†Pakicetus
†Rodhocetus
†Dorudon
Living
cetaceans
Key Pelvis Tibia
Femur Foot
Common ancestor of cetaceans
Millions of years ago
60 50 40 30 0
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Biogeography
Biogeography, the scientific study of the
geographic distribution of species, provides
evidence of evolution
Earth’s continents were formerly united in a single
large continent called Pangaea, but have since
separated by continental drift
An understanding of continent movement and
modern distribution of species allows us to predict
when and where different groups evolved
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Endemic species are species that are not found
anywhere else in the world
Islands have many endemic species that are often
closely related to species on the nearest mainland
or island
Darwin explained that species from the mainland
colonized islands and gave rise to new species as
they adapted to new environments
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What Is Theoretical About Darwin’s View of Life?
In science, a theory accounts for many
observations and data and attempts to explain and
integrate a great variety of phenomena
Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection
integrates diverse areas of biological study and
stimulates many new research questions
Ongoing research adds to our understanding of
evolution
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Figure 22.UN02a
Guppies transplanted
Pools with pike-cichlids and guppies
Pools with killifish, but no guppies prior to transplant
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Figure 22.UN02b
Source population
Transplanted population
Source population
Transplanted population
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Nu
mb
er
of
co
lore
d s
po
ts
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Are
a o
f co
lore
d
sp
ots
(m
m2)
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Figure 22.UN03
Observations
Individuals in a population
vary in their heritable
characteristics.
Organisms produce more
offspring than the
environment can support.
Inferences
Individuals that are well suited
to their environment tend to leave more
offspring than other individuals.
Over time, favorable traits
accumulate in the population.
and
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Figure 22.UN04
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Figure 22.UN05