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A study by W. Burkert on the influence of Near East on the evolution of Anceitn Greek art.

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  • T H E O R I E N T A L I Z I N G

    R E V O L U T I O N

    Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in

    the Early Archaic Age

    Walter Burkert

    T R A N S L A T E D BY

    Margaret E. Pinder

    and Walter Burkert

    H A R V A R D U N I V E R S I T Y PRESS

    C a m b r i d g e , Massachusetts

    L o n d o n , England

  • Copyright 1992 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College

    All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America

    First Harvard University Press paperback edition, 1995

    Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

    Burkert, Walter, 1931-The orientalizing revolution: Near Eastern influence on Greek culture in the early archaic age / Walter Burkert; translated by

    Margaret E. Pinder and Walter Burkert. p. cm. (Revealing antiquity; 5)

    Translation of: Die orientahsierende Epoche in der griechischen Religion und Literatur.

    Includes bibliographical references and index. I S B N 0-674-64363-1 (cloth) I S B N 0-674-643 6 4 - X (pbk.)

    1. GreeceCivilizationto 146 B . C . 2. GreeceCiviliza-tionMiddle Eastern influences. I. Title. II. Series.

    DF78.B85 1992 92-8923 938dc20 C I P

  • C O N T E N T S

    Preface ix

    I n t r o d u c t i o n 1

    i . " W h o A r e P u b l i c W o r k e r s " : T h e M i g r a n t C r a f t s m e n g Historical Background g

    Oriental Products in Greece 14 Writing and Literature in the Eighth Century 23

    The Problem of Loan-Words 33

    2. " A Seer o r a Hea le r " : M a g i c and M e d i c i n e 41 "Craftsmen oj the Sacred": Mobility and [-'amity Structure 41

    Hepatoscopy 46 Foundation Deposits 33

    Purification 35 Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic 63

    Substitute Sacrifice 73 Asclepius and Asgelatas 73

    Ecstatic Divination 79 Lamashtu, Lamia, and Gorgo 82

    3. " O r A l s o a G o d l y S inger" : A k k a d i a n and Ear ly

    Greek L i t e r a t u r e 88 From Atrahasis to the "Deception of Zeus" 88 Complaint in Heaven: Ishtar and Aphrodite 96

    The Overpopulated Earth 100 Seven against Thebes 106

    v

  • C O N T E N T S

    Common Style and Stance in Oriental and Greek Epic Fables 120

    Magic and Cosmogony 124

    C o n c l u s i o n 128

    A b b r e v i a t i o n s 131 B i b l i o g r a p h y 133

    N o t e s 133 I n d e x o f Greek W o r d s 219

    General I n d e x 221

    V I

  • I L L U S T R A T I O N S

    Map T h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n and the N e a r East i n the early archaic p e r i o d

    Figure 1. B r o n z e t y m p a n o n f r o m the Idaean cave, Crete ; H e r a k l i o n M u s e u m ; d r a w i n g b y H i l d i Kee l -Leu

    Figure 2, N o r t h Sy r i an b r o n z e plaque f r o m horse har-ness, insc r ibed ; courtesy o f the Deutsches A r c h o -logisches I n s t i t u t , A u f n a h m e D A I A t h e n , N e g . N r . 88/1022

    Figure 3. L i v e r m o d e l s f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a and f r o m Piacenza, I t a l y : B r i t i s h M u s e u m , L o n d o n , and M u -seo A r c h e o l o g i c o , Florence; f r o m C. O . T h u l i n , Die etmskische Disziplin, v o l . I ( G t e b o r g , 1905), plate I I

    Figure 4. B a b y l o n i a n b r o n z e f i g u r i n e f o u n d i n the H e r a sanctuary at Samos; Samos M u s e u m ; courtesy o f the Deutsches A r c h o l o g i s c h e s I n s t i t u t , A u f n a h m e D A I A t h e n , N e g . N r . 78/600

    Figure 5. L a m a s h t u plate f r o m C a r c h e m i s h ; d r a w i n g b y

    H i l d i K e e l - L e u

    v u

  • I L L U S T R A T I O N S

    Figure 6. Seal i m p r e s s i o n f r o m N u z i and b r o n z e shield 86 strap f r o m O l y m p i a ; d r a w i n g s f r o m Journal of Near Eastern Studies 21 (1961), 115; courtesy o f the U n i -vers i ty o f C h i c a g o Press. Seal f r o m B a g h d a d : d r a w -i n g b y C o r n e l i u s B u r k e r t ; courtesy o f the V o r d e r a -siatisches M u s e u m , B e r l i n

    Figure 7. C y p r i o t e si lver b o w l f r o m the B e r n a r d i n i 103 t o m b , Praeneste; courtesy o f the M u s e o d i V i l l a G i u -l ia , R o m e

    Figure 8. O r t h o s t a t e re l i e f f r o m the palace at Guzana- 112 Tel l Halaf ; f r o m H . T. Bossert , Altsyrien ( T b i n g e n : E r n s t W a s m u t h Verlag , 1951), f i g . 472; courtesy o f Verlag E r n s t W a s m u t h , T b i n g e n

    v i i i

    N

  • P R E F A C E

    T h e o r i g i n a l ver s ion o f this b o o k was p u b l i s h e d i n 1984 i n Sit-zungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften. I a m grate fu l to G l e n B o w e r s o c k for p r o m o t i n g an E n g l i s h transla-t i o n . W i t h a v i e w t o a larger p u b l i c and i n order to reflect the c u r r e n t state o f scholarship , I have revised the b o o k t h r o u g h o u t and i n some places expanded the a r g u m e n t .

    M y thesis about the indebtedness o f Greek c i v i l i z a t i o n to east-ern s t i m u l i m a y appear less provocat ive today than i t d i d e ight years ago. T h i s change may be p a r t l y an effect o f the o r i g i n a l p u b l i c a t i o n , b u t m a i n l y i t reflects the fact that classics has been l o s i n g m o r e and m o r e its status o f a so l i ta ry m o d e l i n o u r m o d -ern w o r l d . Yet i t s t i l l seems w o r t h w h i l e to help b r i d g e the gaps between related fields o f scholarship and t o m a k e available m a -terials o f ten neglected b y one or another. Such an exercise may convey the e x c i t e m e n t o f unexpected discoveries even w h e n i t necessitates a fair a m o u n t o f a n n o t a t i o n .

    I o w e special thanks to Peter Frei , Paul H o s k i s s o n , Fr i tz Stolz, R o l f Stucky, and M a r k u s Wafler for their help o n matters o r i -ental , and to Peter B l o m e for detai led archaeological advice.

    I X

  • T H E O R I E N T A L I Z I N G

    R E V O L U T I O N

  • I N T R O D U C T I O N

    "God ' s is the O r i e n t , God's is the O c c i d e n t " says the K o r a n . 1

    Classical scholars have found i t d i f f i cu l t to m a i n t a i n such a ba l -anced perspective and have tended instead to t r a n s f o r m " o r i e n -t a l " and " o c c i d e n t a l " i n t o a po la r i t y , i m p l y i n g antithesis and conf l ic t . T h e Greeks had become aware o f their o w n i d e n t i t y as separate f r o m that o f the " O r i e n t " w h e n they succeeded i n re-p e l l i n g the attacks o f the Persian e m p i r e . B u t n o t u n t i l m u c h later, d u r i n g the crusades, d i d the concept and the t e r m Orient actual ly enter the languages o f the West . 2 T h i s fact h a r d l y ex-plains w h y even today i t s h o u l d be d i f f i cu l t t o undertake u n -p r e j u d i c e d discussion o f connect ions between classical Greece and the East. B u t w h o e v e r tries w i l l encounter entrenched p o -s i t ions , uneasiness, a p o l o g y i f n o t resentment . W h a t is f o r e i g n and u n k n o w n is he ld at a distance b y an a t t i tude o f w a r y defen-siveness.

    T o a large ex tent this is the result o f an inte l lectual develop-m e n t w h i c h began m o r e than t w o centuries ago and t o o k r o o t especially i n Germany . Increas ing special izat ion o f scholarship converged w i t h ideo log ica l p r o t e c t i o n i s m , and b o t h constructed an i m a g e o f a pure , classical Greece i n sp lendid i so la t ion . U n t i l w e l l i n t o the e ighteenth century , as l o n g as p h i l o l o g y was closely connected w i t h theo logy , the H e b r e w B i b l e n a t u r a l l y s tood next to the Greek classics, and the existence o f cross-connections d i d n o t present any p r o b l e m s . Jephtha's daughter and Iphigenia were interchangeable mode l s even i n the r e a l m o f opera; Iapetos

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  • T H E O R I E N T A L I Z I N G R E V O L U T I O N

    was traced to Japheth, the K a b e i r o i to a Semit ic des ignat ion for "great gods , " and the "Eas t " was f o u n d i n the name o f K a d m o s the Phoenic ian , the " W e s t " i n the name o f E u r o p a . 3 I n accord-ance w i t h the Odyssey and H e r o d o t u s , " P h o e n i c i a n s " were read-i l y accepted as the l i n k between East and West.

    T h e n three n e w trends erected their o w n boundar ies and c o l -lect ive ly f ractured the O r i e n t - G r e e c e axis. P h i l o l o g y b r o k e free o f t h e o l o g y F r i e d r i c h A u g u s t W o l f m a t r i c u l a t e d as studiosus philologiae at G o t t i n g e n i n 1777 4 and at the same t i m e , w i t h Johann J o a c h i m W i n c k e l m a n n , a n e w concept o f classicism, one w i t h rather pagan tendencies, asserted i t se l f and came to attract h i g h regard . Second, b e g i n n i n g w i t h the w o r k o f Johann G o t t -f r ied Herder , the i d e o l o g y o f r o m a n t i c n a t i o n a l i s m developed, w h i c h h e l d l i t e ra ture and s p i r i t u a l cu l ture to be i n t i m a t e l y c o n -nected w i t h an i n d i v i d u a l people , t r i b e , o r race. O r i g i n s and organ ic d e v e l o p m e n t rather than rec iproca l c u l t u r a l influences became the k e y t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g . I n his react ion to F r i e d r i c h Creuzer 's m o r e universa l m o d e l , C a r l O t f r i e d M u l l e r gained considerable inf luence w i t h his idea o f " G r e e k t r i b a l c u l t u r e . " 5

    Precisely at the t i m e w h e n Jews were b e i n g granted f u l l legal equa l i ty i n E u r o p e , n a t i o n a l - r o m a n t i c consciousness t u r n e d the t r e n d against " o r i e n t a l i s m " and thus gave a n t i - S e m i t i s m a chance. T h i r d , l ingu i s t i c s scholars ' d iscovery o f " I n d o -E u r o p e a n " t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f m o s t E u r o p e a n languages t o -gether w i t h Persian and Sanskr i t f r o m a c o m m o n a r c h e t y p e a t that t i m e re in forced the alliance o f Greek, R o m a n , and Ger-m a n i c and thus banished the Semit ic t o another w o r l d . 6 I t re-m a i n e d t o defend the independence o f the Greeks against the I n d i a n relatives w i t h i n the I n d o - E u r o p e a n f a m i l y 7 i n o rder t o establish the concept o f classical-national Greek i d e n t i t y as a se l f -conta ined and self-sufficient m o d e l o f c i v i l i z a t i o n w h i c h , at least i n G e r m a n y , was to d o m i n a t e the later n ineteenth c e n t u r y . 8

    U l r i c h v o n W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l l e n d o r f f ' s scornfu l assessment i n 1 8 8 4 " t h e peoples and states o f the Semites and the Egypt ians w h i c h had been decay ing for centuries and w h i c h , i n spite o f the a n t i q u i t y o f the i r c u l t u r e , were unable to c o n t r i b u t e a n y t h i n g to the Hel lenes o ther t h a n a f e w m a n u a l ski l ls , costumes , and i m -

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    plements o f bad taste, ant iquated o r n a m e n t s , repuls ive fetishes f o r even m o r e repuls ive fake d i v i n i t i e s " i s n o t representative o f his w o r k ; b u t even later he m a i n t a i n e d that the s p i r i t o f late a n t i q u i t y s t e m m e d " f r o m the O r i e n t and is the deadly e n e m y o f t rue H e l l e n i s m . " 9

    B e h i n d the i r a s c i b i l i t y a certain insecur i ty seems to l u r k . I n fact the i m a g e o f p u r e , se l f -contained H e l l e n i s m w h i c h makes its m i r a c u l o u s appearance w i t h H o m e r had been overtaken i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y b y three g roups o f n e w discoveries: the reemergence o f the ancient Near East and E g y p t t h r o u g h the d e c i p h e r m e n t o f c u n e i f o r m and h i e r o g l y p h i c w r i t i n g , the u n e a r t h i n g o f M y c e n a e a n c i v i l i z a t i o n , and the r e c o g n i t i o n o f an o r i e n t a l i z i n g phase i n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f archaic Greek art.

    Classical p h i l o l o g y greeted these discoveries w i t h hesitancy. T h e M y c e n a e a n p e r i o d was g radua l l y accepted as Greek prehis -t o r y , 1 0 and the f ina l d e c i p h e r m e n t o f L inear B as Greek c o n -firmed this as fact. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f A s s y r i o l o g y w i t h the i n i t i a l di f f icult ies o f read ing c u n e i f o r m G i l g a m e s h made his entrance i n the guise o f I z d u b a r 1 1 c o u l d be v i e w e d f r o m a d i s -tance and w i t h some condescension b y an established branch o f scholarship. W h e n a f e w u n m e t h o d i c a l studies t r i e d to p r o m o t e the f u n d a m e n t a l i m p o r t a n c e o f B a b y l o n i a n l i te ra ture i n re la t ion t o w o r l d h i s tory , i t was left to the theologians to refute the " p a n -B a b y l o n i a n i s t s . " 1 2 O n l y outs iders w r o t e about " H o m e r and B a b y l o n . " 1 3 H i s t o r i a n s , o n the o ther hand , had less d i f f i c u l t y o p e n i n g themselves to the n e w d imens ions o f w o r l d his tory . E d u a r d M e y e r began t o p u b l i s h his m o n u m e n t a l History of An-tiquity i n 1884, a f u n d a m e n t a l and i n fact u n i q u e a c h i e v e m e n t . 1 4

    T h e p u r s u i t o f this universa l a i m was c o n t i n u e d b y the col lect ive u n d e r t a k i n g o f The Cambridge Ancient History.

    B y contrast , the a n t i - o r i e n t a l reflex was to preva i l i n the f ie ld w h i c h lay m u c h closer t o Hel lenis ts , i n the assessment o f the Phoenicians , w h o h a d o f o l d been regarded as the active i n t e r -mediaries be tween the O r i e n t and Hel las . Jul ius B e l o c h , a scholar o f genius flawed b y his idiosyncrasies and overt a n t i -S e m i t i s m , p r o m u l g a t e d the t h e o r y that the significance o f the Phoenicians i n ear ly Greece was close to zero, that the " P h o e -

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  • T H E O R I E N T A L I Z I N G R E V O L U T I O N

    n i c i a n " Herakles o f Thasos was no less o f a fantasy than the m y t h i c a l P h o e n i c i a n K a d m o s . 1 5 Instead, ancient As ia M i n o r was f o u n d t o be o f special i m p o r t a n c e , w h e r e soon I n d o - E u r o p e a n s were to appear, w i t h the d e c i p h e r m e n t o f the H i t t i t e language. A barr ier was erected against the Semit ic .

    Yet the m a r k e d i m p a c t o f " t h e o r i e n t a l " o n Greek art between the g e o m e t r i c and the archaic p e r i o d s a n i m p a c t made ev ident b y i m p o r t e d objects as w e l l as b y n e w techniques and character-ist ic m o t i f s o f art is t ic i m a g e r y c o u l d n o t be disregarded, at least after F r e d r i k Poulsen's b o o k was pub l i shed i n 1912. 1 6 Even expert archaeologists , however , somet imes appear t o feel u n -c o m f o r t a b l e about th is fact and indeed advise against us ing the express ion " t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d . " 1 7 T h e f o r e i g n elements re -m a i n subject to a p o l i c y o f c o n t a i n m e n t : T h e r e is h a r d l y a stan-dard t e x t b o o k that has o r i enta l and Greek objects depicted side b y side; m a n y o f the o r i e n t a l f inds i n the great Greek sanctuaries have l o n g r e m a i n e d a n d some s t i l l r e m a i n u n p u b l i s h e d . T h e fact that O l y m p i a is the m o s t s igni f icant l o c a t i o n for f inds o f eastern bronzes , r icher i n this respect than all the M i d d l e Eastern sites, is s e l d o m m e n t i o n e d .

    I n G e r m a n y i n the p e r i o d between the t w o w o r l d wars a n e w h e r m e n e u t i c approach p r o m o t e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n the i n d i v i d -ua l , " i n t e r n a l " f o r m and style i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l achievements, t o the d e t r i m e n t o f o u t w a r d inf luence. A r c h a e o l -o g y thus achieved a deeper u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the archaic style and i n fact discovered afresh the g e o m e t r i c style; h is tor ians such as H e l m u t Berve w i s h e d to renounce " u n i v e r s a l " h i s t o r y i n fa-v o r o f H e l l e n i s m . 1 8 T h e j o i n t w o r k o f Franz B o l l and C a r l B e -z o l d i n the arcane field o f a s t ro logy r e m a i n e d a h a p p y b u t i so-lated p h e n o m e n o n . A n o t h e r specialty w h i c h failed to attract general not ice was the discovery b y O t t o Neugebauer that the " P y t h a g o r e a n t h e o r e m " had been k n o w n and used i n B a b y l o -n i a n mathemat ics a thousand years before P y t h a g o r a s . 1 9 A m o n g G e r m a n p h i l o l o g i s t s o n l y Franz D o r n s e i f f t o o k a close l o o k at eastern c u l t u r e f r o m Israel t o A n a t o l i a , b u t i n d o i n g this he had the air o f an outsider .

    D o r n s e i f f was one o f the first to g ive credi t to the n e w d i m e n -

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    s ion o f the i m p a c t o f the Near East o n classical Greece, w h i c h was discovered w i t h the d e c i p h e r m e n t o f H i t t i t e m y t h o l o g i c a l t e x t s . 2 0 H o w e v e r , the first announcements and studies o f " I l l u -yankas and T y p h o n " m e t w i t h o n l y a s l ight response. T h e break-t h r o u g h came w i t h the text o f Kingship in Heaven, publ i shed i n 1946, the m y t h w h i c h has the castrat ion o f the g o d o f heaven b y K u m a r b i , so s i m i l a r t o Hesiod's tale about U r a n o s and K r o n o s ; since t h e n the K u m a r b i - K r o n o s paral lel has been established and, l a rge ly as a result o f the efforts o f A l b i n Lesky, Kumarbi has become a standard reference t e x t for classical p h i l o l o g i s t s . 2 1 A n i m p o r t a n t factor o f acceptance, b r o u g h t o u t b y sympathet ic I n d o - E u r o p e a n i s t s , was that w i t h the H i t t i t e s an " I n d o -E u r o p e a n " people had e m e r g e d t o represent the " O r i e n t . " B u t i n the w a k e o f H i t t i t e epic and m y t h o l o g y s imi la r texts o f Se-m i t i c U g a r i t came to the a t t e n t i o n o f classical scho lars , 2 2 and the Greek f ragments o f P h i l o n o f B y b l o s deal ing w i t h Phoenic ian m y t h o l o g y attracted fresh i n t e r e s t . 2 3 I n a d d i t i o n to m y t h o l o g i c a l m o t i f s the narra t ive techniques and the l i t e rary style o f epic be-came the subject o f c o m p a r a t i v e study, t o o . Since t h e n , H o -m e r i c epic can n o l o n g e r be he ld to have existed i n a v a c u u m ; i t stands o u t against a b a c k g r o u n d o f comparable eastern l i t e r a r y f o r m s .

    H o w e v e r , a n e w l ine o f defense q u i c k l y developed. I t is gen-eral ly and freely accepted that i n the B r o n z e A g e there were close contacts between A n a t o l i a , the Semit ic East, E g y p t , and the Mycenaean w o r l d , that some "Aegean koine'' can be f o u n d to characterize the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y B . C . 2 4 O n e can refer to M y c e n a e a n i m p o r t s i n U g a r i t ; A l a s i a - C y p r u s is m e n t i o n e d as a nexus o f East-West connect ions ; H e s i o d and H o m e r are also v i e w e d f r o m this perspective. W h a t is m u c h less i n focus is the " o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d " o f the c e n t u r y between a p p r o x i m a t e l y 750 and 650 B . C . t h a t is, the H o m e r i c epoch, w h e n , as w e l l as eastern ski l ls and images , the Semit ic art o f w r i t i n g was trans-m i t t e d to Greece and made the r e c o r d i n g o f Greek l i terature possible for the first t i m e . G e r m a n scholars i n part icu lar had a strange tendency t o lean t o w a r d an earlier d a t i n g o f the Greek s c r i p t , 2 5 thereby s h i e l d i n g H o m e r i c Greece f r o m the influence o f

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  • T H E O R I E N T A L I Z I N G R E V O L U T I O N

    the East w h i c h was so notab le i n m a t e r i a l cu l ture a r o u n d 700. I t s h o u l d be clear a n y h o w that b o t h poss ibi l i t ies , B r o n z e A g e and later a d o p t i o n s , are n o t m u t u a l l y exclusive; the i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f always m a k i n g c lear-cut d i s t i n c t i o n s cannot be used to refute the hypothes i s o f b o r r o w i n g i n b o t h areas to an equal degree.

    I n the m e a n t i m e , archaeological research has rendered the " d a r k ages" increas ing ly l eg ib le and has cast the e i g h t h c e n t u r y i n par t i cu lar i n ever-sharper relief . W h a t p r o v e d decisive were the discoveries o f Greek sett lements i n Syria and o n Ischia i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the excavations at L e f k a n d i and Ere t r ia o n E u -boea. T h e A s s y r i a n expans ion t o the M e d i t e r r a n e a n together w i t h the spread o f trade i n m e t a l ores i n the w h o l e area provides a persuasive h i s t o r i c a l f r a m e w o r k f o r the m o v e m e n t o f eastern craf tsmen t o the West, as w e l l as for the spread o f the Phoenic ian-Greek a l p h a b e t . 2 6 We n o w seem w i t h i n reach o f a balanced p i c t u r e o f that decisive epoch i n w h i c h , under the i n -fluence o f the S e m i t i c East, Greek cu l ture began its u n i q u e flow-e r i n g , soon t o assume c u l t u r a l h e g e m o n y i n the M e d i t e r r a -n e a n . 2 7

    T h i s v o l u m e pursues the hypothes i s that , i n the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d , the Greeks d i d n o t m e r e l y receive a f e w m a n u a l ski l ls and fetishes a l o n g w i t h n e w crafts and images f r o m the L u w i a n -A r a m a i c - P h o e n i c i a n sphere, b u t were inf luenced i n the i r r e l i -g i o n a n d l i t e ra ture b y the eastern m o d e l s t o a s igni f icant de-g r e e . 2 8 I t w i l l be a rgued that m i g r a t i n g " c ra f t smen o f the sacred," i t i n e r a n t seers and priests o f p u r i f i c a t i o n , t r a n s m i t t e d n o t o n l y the i r d i v i n a t o r y and p u r i f i c a t o r y ski l ls b u t also ele-ments o f m y t h o l o g i c a l " w i s d o m . " Indeed H o m e r , i n an o f t e n -q u o t e d passage o f the Odyssey, enumerates var ious k i n d s o f m i -grant cra f t smen " w h o are p u b l i c w o r k e r s " : f i rs t , "a seer or a healer," o n l y t h e n the carpenter, a n d , i n a d d i t i o n , the " g o d l y s i n g e r . " 2 9 W h i l e the second chapter tries to f o l l o w the tracks o f "seers" and "healers , " the t h i r d chapter t u r n s t o the r e a l m o f these singers, p resent ing correspondences between eastern and Greek l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h m a k e i t p r o b a b l e to assume connect ions , even d i rect l i t e r a r y inf luence o f h i g h eastern c i v i l i z a t i o n s o n the

    6

  • I N T R O D U C T I O N

    final phase o f H o m e r i c epic, that is, the b e g i n n i n g o f Greek l i t -eracy, w h e n w r i t i n g t o o k over f r o m ora l t r a d i t i o n .

    T h e results w h i c h can be reached w i t h any degree o f certa inty r e m a i n l i m i t e d . T h e b r i d g e that once p r o v i d e d the direct c o n -tact, the l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e o f ancient Syria , has i r r e v o c a b l y disap-peared. O n the o ther h a n d we have the u n i q u e o p p o r t u n i t y to c o m p a r e c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s texts f r o m b o t h the Greek and the or i enta l sides. T h i s task b o t h enables and demands prec i s ion . B y contrast , i n the case o f the m o r e sensational connect ions be-t w e e n K u m a r b i or I l luyankas and H e s i o d a t i m e gap o f five or six centuries has to be b r i d g e d , i n a d d i t i o n to the geographic distance between East and West. T h e Hes iod ic p r o b l e m s , w h i c h have been the subject o f m u c h scholar ly a t t e n t i o n i n recent de-cades, w i l l n o t be discussed i n detail h e r e . 3 0 T h e y c o m p l e m e n t the perspectives u n d e r cons iderat ion , especially i n v i e w o f the clear l i n k between H e s i o d and Euboea.

    T h e studies presented i n this b o o k m a y s t i l l r u n up against a final and perhaps insuperable l ine o f defense, the tendency o f m o d e r n c u l t u r a l theories to approach cu l ture as a system e v o l v -i n g t h r o u g h its o w n processes o f i n t e r n a l e c o n o m i c and social d y n a m i c s , w h i c h reduces a l l o u t w a r d influences to neg l ig ib le parameters . T h e r e is n o d e n y i n g the inte l lectual acumen and achievement o f such theories . B u t they m a y s t i l l represent j u s t one side o f the c o i n . I t is equa l ly va l id to see cu l ture as a c o m -plex o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h c o n t i n u i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s for l e a r n -i n g afresh, w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l yet penetrable f ront iers , i n a w o r l d o p e n t o change and expans ion . T h e i m p a c t o f w r i t t e n as o p -posed t o o r a l c u l t u r e is perhaps the m o s t d r a m a t i c example o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w r o u g h t f r o m the outs ide , t h r o u g h b o r r o w i n g . I t m a y s t i l l be t rue that the mere fact o f b o r r o w i n g s h o u l d o n l y p r o v i d e a s t a r t i n g p o i n t for closer i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , that the f o r m o f selection and adapta t ion , o f r e w o r k i n g and r e f i t t i n g t o a n e w system is reveal ing and in teres t ing i n each case. B u t the "creative t r a n s f o r m a t i o n " b y the Greeks , 3 ' however i m p o r t a n t , s h o u l d n o t obscure the sheer fact o f b o r r o w i n g ; this w o u l d a m o u n t to yet another strategy o f i m m u n i z a t i o n designed to c l o u d w h a t is f o r e i g n and d i s q u i e t i n g .

    7

  • T H E O R I E N T A L I Z I N G R E V O L U T I O N

    T h e modest a i m o f this b o o k is to serve as a messenger across b o u n d a r i e s , 3 2 to d i rect the a t t e n t i o n o f classicists to areas to w h i c h they have pa id t o o l i t t l e regard , and to m a k e these fields o f s tudy m o r e accessible even t o nonspecial ists . I t m a y also e n -courage or ienta l i s ts , h a r d l y less p r o n e to i s o l a t i o n , t o keep o r r e n e w the i r contacts w i t h n e i g h b o r i n g f i e l d s . 3 3 M y emphasis is de l iberate ly o n p r o v i d i n g evidence for correspondences and for the l i k e l i h o o d o f b o r r o w i n g s . I f i n certain cases the materials themselves do n o t p r o v i d e i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e evidence o f c u l t u r a l transfer, the establ i shment o f s imi lar i t i e s w i l l s t i l l be o f value, as i t serves to free b o t h the Greek and the or i enta l p h e n o m e n a f r o m the i r i s o l a t i o n and t o create an arena o f possible c o m p a r i -sons.

    T h i s is n o t to prec lude m o r e subtle in te rpre ta t ions o f Greek achievements as a consequence. Yet i n the p e r i o d at about the m i d d l e o f the e i g h t h century , w h e n direct contact had been es-tabl ished between the Assyr ians and the Greeks, Greek cu l ture m u s t have been m u c h less self-conscious and therefore m u c h m o r e malleable and open t o f o r e i g n influence than i t became i n subsequent generat ions. I t is the f o r m a t i v e epoch o f Greek c i v i -l i z a t i o n that exper ienced the o r i e n t a l i z i n g r e v o l u t i o n .

    8

  • C H A P T E R O N E

    " W H O A R E P U B L I C W O R K E R S " The Migrant Craftsmen

    Historical Background

    A f t e r the upheaval a n d devastat ion w h i c h prevai led f r o m Greece t h r o u g h A n a t o l i a to Syria and Palestine about 1200 B . C . and w h i c h is general ly a t t r i b u t e d , o n the basis o f E g y p t i a n texts, to "peoples o f the s e a " a m o n g w h o m the Phil ist ines are the m o s t t a n g i b l e t h e k i n g d o m s , palaces, art ist ic ski l ls , and w r i t i n g sys-tems w h i c h had made the g l o r y o f the B r o n z e A g e had largely disappeared. 1 I n the eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n , outs ide E g y p t , u r -ban c i v i l i z a t i o n and l i teracy s u r v i v e d o n l y i n the area o f C i l i c i a -Syria-Palestine. A s t r o n g t r a d i t i o n o f H i t t i t e c i v i l i z a t i o n c o n t i n -ued t o d o m i n a t e C i l i c i a and extended as far as n o r t h e r n Syria. H i t t i t e style is m o s t d i s t inc t ive i n m o n u m e n t a l sculpture and other art o b j e c t s i m p o r t a n t sites are Tel l Hala f -Guzana, Car -c h e m i s h , M a l a t y a - M i l i d , Sam^al -Z inc i r l i , K a r a t e p e 2 a n d par-t i c u l a r l y i n the H i t t i t e h i e r o g l y p h i c scr ipt , w h i c h persisted at Karatepe u n t i l near ly the end o f the e i g h t h century ; i t was used for a language o f the H i t t i t e f a m i l y w h i c h is n o w called H i e r o -g l y p h i c L u w i a n . C o n q u e r i n g A r a m a i c tr ibes , speaking a Se-m i t i c language and us ing alphabetic w r i t i n g , w o n supremacy i n some places, f o u n d i n g p r i n c e d o m s such as Guzana and Sam'al . S o u t h e r n Syr ia , i n c l u d i n g the cities o f B y b l o s , S i d o n , and Tyre , h a d l o n g been affected b y E g y p t i a n style and influences. T h e

    9

  • " W H O A R E P U B L I C W O R K E R S "

    western Semites based i n this area, called Phoinikes b y the Greeks, were c o n t i n u i n g t o expand the i r sea trade. E a r l y c o n -nect ions reached n o t o n l y t o C y p r u s b u t also t o C r e t e . 3 Increas-i n g l y i m p o r t a n t i n these act iv it ies was the search for copper and i r o n ores . 4

    T h e m o s t p o r t e n t o u s achievement i n Syria-Palestine was the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the alphabetic scr ipt , w h i c h , t h r o u g h its i n g e -n ious s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , m a d e reading and w r i t i n g m o r e w i d e l y ac-cessible for the first t i m e . I t was used equal ly b y H e b r e w s , Phoenicians , and A r a m a e a n s . 5 T h e i n v e n t i o n goes back t o the B r o n z e A g e , b u t i t ga ined its u n i q u e p o s i t i o n o n l y w i t h the c o l -lapse o f the B r o n z e A g e , w h i c h made m o s t o f the other w r i t i n g systems disappear.

    T h e expans ion o f A s s y r i a i n t o this heterogeneous assemblage o f cities, k i n g d o m s , and t r i b a l centers f r o m the n i n t h century o n w a r d s b r o u g h t d y n a m i c change o f w o r l d - h i s t o r i c a l p r o p o r -t ions . For the Assyr ians , t o o , the search for r a w materials , par-t i c u l a r l y metals , seems t o have been a d r i v i n g force. I n any event Assur b u i l t u p the strongest a r m y o f the t i m e , e m p l o y e d i t i n increas ing ly far - reaching raids w i t h ruthless demands for sub-m i s s i o n and t r i b u t e , a n d thus f o u n d e d the first w o r l d power. A s h u r n a s i r p a l (884-858) and Shalmaneser I I I (858-824) led the first successful advances t o Syria; i n 877 an A s s y r i a n a r m y s t o o d o n the shores o f the M e d i t e r r a n e a n for the first t i m e . I n 841 Tyre and S i d o n w e r e forced t o pay t r i b u t e , and i n 834 so was Tarsos i n C i l i c i a . T h e H i t t i t e city-states were forced t o f o l l o w suit or were destroyed. T h e Greeks m u s t have been aware o f this east-ern power , at least o n C y p r u s , because i t was a r o u n d this t i m e about 8 5 0 t h a t Phoenicians f r o m T y r e were se t t l ing o n C y -prus ; K i t i o n became a Phoenic ian c i t y . 6 Phoenic ian c o l o n i z a t i o n was also reaching b e y o n d to the far West: 814 is the t r a d i t i o n a l date for the f o u n d i n g o f Carthage .

    A f t e r Shalmaneser, A s s y r i a n forces d i d n o t appear o n the M e d i t e r r a n e a n for a w h i l e . D u r i n g th is p e r i o d Greek traders first reached Syria . Greek merchants are present i n A l M i n a o n the O r o n t e s estuary f r o m the end o f the n i n t h c e n t u r y ; 7 f r o m there the connect ions reach to N o r t h Syria, t o U r a r t u , and

    11

  • T H E O R I E N T A L I Z I N G R E V O L U T I O N

    a long the shortest caravan r o u t e to M e s o p o t a m i a . I n a p p r o x i -m a t e l y the same p e r i o d the Greeks are i n evidence at Tarsos 8 and s o m e w h a t later at Tel l Sukas. 9 T h e r e are also Greek f inds f r o m Rash-al-Basid (Poseidonia) , Te l l Tainat , Tyre , and H a m a . C o n -nect ions go to nearby C y p r u s , b u t above a l l to Euboea, w h e r e excavations at L e f k a n d i have b r o u g h t to l i g h t relics o f a rela-t i v e l y affluent c o m m u n i t y i n the t e n t h and n i n t h centuries w h i c h was open t o trade w i t h the E a s t . 1 0 I n the e i g h t h c e n t u r y Eretr ia a l o n g w i t h C h a l k i s reached its peak; b u t A t h e n s was n o t n e g l i -g ib le either. F r o m C h a l k i s the Greeks reached the West even be-fore the m i d d l e o f the e i g h t h century , as can be seen f r o m the set t lement o f traders and cra f tsmen discovered at P i thekoussa i -I s c h i a . " H e r e , t o o , the trade i n ores was c ruc ia l , above al l w i t h the Etruscans; the Phoenic ian r o u t e v ia C y p r u s to Carthage and then to Sardinia had t o compete w i t h that o f the Greeks f r o m Euboea via Ithaca t o Pi thekoussai . I t is i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h these routes that the f irst examples o f Greek scr ipt appear, in Euboea, N a x o s , P i thekoussa i , and A t h e n s . 1 2 Place-names l i k e So lo i , " m e t a l i n g o t s " a t t e s t e d b o t h i n C i l i c i a and o n C y p r u s C h a l k i s , " b r o n z e - h o m e , " and Tarshish, " f o u n d r y , " 1 3 m a r k the e c o n o m i c interests, as does that verse o f the Odyssey w h i c h has the Taphian M e n t e s t r a v e l l i n g overseas to trade for bronze w i t h a cargo o f i r o n . 1 4

    T h e renewed and strongest advance o f the Assyr ians began under T ig la th-p i l e se r I I I (745-727) , w h o crushed the p o w e r o f U r a r t u , made vassals o f T y r e and B y b l o s , and p e r m a n e n t l y an-c h o r e d the A s s y r i a n forces i n the West. I t was i n his t i m e s h o r t l y after 7 3 8 t h a t a r e p o r t f i rst m e n t i o n s I o n i a n s t h a t is, Greeks; an officer is r e p o r t i n g a counterat tack o n Syria: " T h e Ionians came. T h e y attacked . . . the cities . . . [ N . N . pursued them?] i n his ships . . . i n the m i d d l e o f the sea . " 1 5

    I t has l o n g been a m a t t e r o f c o m m e n t and discussion that the easterners came to call the Greeks I o n i a n s 1 6 J a w a n i n H e b r e w ,

    Junan i n A r a b i c and T u r k i s h . T h e A s s y r i a n f o r m is Iawan(u) or, w i t h an i n t e r n a l change o f consonants , Iaman(u); i n the text q u o t e d above the des ignat ion is " ( c o u n t r y ) la-u-na-a-a"that is, Iaunaia. I t has been established that this is n o t the name o f C y -

    12

  • " W H O A R E P U B L I C W O R K E R S "

    prus , w h i c h the Assyr ians i n fact called ladnana.11 Greeks o n C y p r u s never called themselves Ionians . Nevertheless a refer-ence a r o u n d the m i d d l e o f the e i g h t h century can h a r d l y be t o Ionians f r o m Asia M i n o r either, to M i l e t o s or Ephesos. Those Ionians c o m i n g b y sea w h o encountered the Assyr ians m u s t rather have been Greeks f r o m Euboea, A t h e n s , or b o t h , as the archaeological evidence and the spread o f w r i t i n g s u g g e s t n o t e x c l u d i n g islands such as Samos or N a x o s . T h i s conc lus ion is c o n f i r m e d b y the Iliad: I n the one passage i n w h i c h Iacmes are referred t o , they are f i g h t i n g alongside the O p u n t i a n L o k r i a n s , and the A t h e n i a n s are g iven p r o m i n e n c e i m m e d i a t e l y after t h e m . Clear ly , n e i g h b o r i n g tribes are referred t o ; i t is a p p r o -pr iate that Iaones f r o m Euboea s h o u l d be placed between the O p u n t i a n s and the A t h e n i a n s . 1 8

    Assyr ia reached the h e i g h t o f its p o w e r under Sargon I I ( 7 2 2 -705). N o t o n l y the smal l H i t t i t e states o f C a r c h e m i s h and Z i n -c i r l i , b u t also C i l i c i a became provinces o f Assyr ia . I n 708 the k ings o f C y p r u s , i n c l u d i n g those o f Greek cities such as Salamis and Paphos, pa id h o m a g e t o Sargon. I n K i t i o n Sargon left a stele attest ing his deeds. B u t w h e t h e r the usurper I a m a n i o f A s h d o d , w h o was d r i v e n o u t by Sargon i n 711, was " t h e I o -n i a n , " as his n a m e w o u l d suggest, has been d i s p u t e d ; 1 9 and the c o m m o n v i e w that M i t a , k i n g o f the " M u s h k i , " w h o pa id h o m -age t o Sargon i n 709, was k i n g M i d a s o f Phryg ia , celebrated by the Greeks, and hence that the Assyrians were i n contact w i t h a great P h r y g i a n k i n g d o m i n the e i g h t h century , seems n o longer t e n a b l e . 2 0

    Sennacherib (705-681) p u t d o w n an u p r i s i n g i n Tarsos i n 696. A c c o r d i n g t o Greek accounts t r a n s m i t t e d b y Berossos the Greeks f o u g h t the Assyr ians at sea and were defeated. 2 1 Even A l M i n a was destroyed a r o u n d 700, b u t was a lmost i m m e d i a t e l y r e b u i l t anew. O n the w h o l e the n u m e r o u s v i o l e n t inc idents and catastrophes d i d n o t destroy East-West connect ions , b u t rather intens i f ied t h e m , perhaps because n o w streams o f refugees were m i n g l i n g w i t h the traders. I n any event o r i enta l i m p o r t s and domest i c i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e m appear m o r e and m o r e i n Greece a r o u n d 700, and a l i t t l e later i n E t r u r i a . B y then c u n e i f o r m w r i t -

  • T H E O R I E N T A L I Z I N G R E V O L U T I O N

    i n g is f o u n d i n Tarsos a longs ide ceramics f r o m Rhodes , Samos, and C o r i n t h . O n C y p r u s the p e r i o d o f A s s y r i a n d o m i n a t i o n is also a m a r k e d l y " H o m e r i c " epoch .

    Essarhaddon (681-669) also treated the k i n g s o f C y p r u s as his u n d e r l i n g s . 2 2 H i s successor A s h u r b a n i p a l ( 6 6 9 - 6 2 9 ) , the m o s t s p l e n d i d k i n g o f N i n e v e h , e n d u r e d forever i n the m e m o r y o f the Greeks as " S a r d a n a p a l l o s . " 2 3 Essarhaddon and A s h u r b a n i p a l f o u g h t the C i m m e r i a n s i n As ia M i n o r , as d i d the Greeks. B u t the centers o f g r a v i t y were s h i f t i n g b y t h e n . S i d o n , w e l l k n o w n to the Greeks as a center o f P h o e n i c i a n trade, was t o t a l l y de-s t royed b y the Assyr ians i n 6 7 7 . 2 4 B y 663, however , K i n g Psam-m e t i c h u s had been able to ent rench his forces i n E g y p t and to shake o f f the A s s y r i a n y o k e at last. W i t h the e n r o l l m e n t o f Greek mercenaries i n t o his service E g y p t became m o r e i m p o r t a n t f r o m the Greeks ' p o i n t o f v i e w t h a n the r u i n e d cities o f Syria . A t near ly the same t i m e K i n g Gyges , i n his s t rugg le against the C i m m e r i a n s , had f o u n d e d the k i n g d o m o f the Lydians w i t h its center i n Sardis and established d i rect contact w i t h Assyr ia b y 6 6 5 . 2 5 T h u s the " R o y a l R o a d " was opened u p w h i c h led f r o m Sardis t o the E a s t . 2 6 I t was this above al l w h i c h b r o u g h t Ionians i n t o d i rec t contact w i t h the eastern trade, and thus ensured the r a p i d rise o f the Ionians o f As ia M i n o r . M e a n w h i l e , o n Euboea, C h a l k i s and E r e t r i a los t the i r forces i n the Le lant ine war, h a v i n g been o u t s t r i p p e d i n the western trade b y the rise o f C o r i n t h , w h i c h c o l o n i z e d K e r k y r a i n the e i g h t h century . I n this n e t w o r k o f c h a n g i n g in ter re la t ions Greek c u l t u r e gained supremacy and eclipsed the o r i e n t a l i z i n g inf luence.

    Oriental Products in Greece

    I t is n o t Greek texts , b u t rather archaeological f inds w h i c h offer a so l id f o u n d a t i o n for t r a c i n g Eastern c u l t u r a l influences i n Greece i n the e i g h t h and early seventh centuries and for eva lu-a t i n g the i r s ignif icance. O b j e c t s o f o r i e n t a l provenience appear at Greek sites i n increas ing n u m b e r s , especially i n the r a p i d l y e v o l v i n g Greek sanctuaries, and at the same t i m e Greek repre-sentat ional style is u n d e r g o i n g basic m o d i f i c a t i o n s b y t a k i n g u p ,

    14

  • " W H O A R E P U B L I C W O R K E R S "

    i m i t a t i n g , and t r a n s f o r m i n g the m o t i f s o f eastern art . T h i s is n o t the place for a deta i led s t u d y o f sites and objects, contexts and proveniences. A f t e r F r e d r i k Poulsen and T. J . D u n b a b i n , J o h n B o a r d m a n has p r o v i d e d a comprehens ive t rea tment ; a w e a l t h o f m a t e r i a l has also been presented b y H a n s - V o l k m a r H e r r m a n n and b y W o l f g a n g H e l c k , and a r i c h survey has recently been added b y G u n t e r K o p c k e . 1 T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f local styles and hence the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the o r i g i n o f i n d i v i d u a l pieces is s t i l l i n progress. M a n y sites i n the N e a r East r e m a i n u n e x p l o r e d o r p a r t i a l l y e x p l o r e d , and archaeologists are c u r r e n t l y o p e r a t i n g i n the m o s t unfavorable c ircumstances amidst incessant t u r m o i l , warfare , and p l u n d e r i n g . Nevertheless the out l ines o f c u l t u r a l and e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t seem to be f i r m l y established, w h i l e the central c o n n e c t i n g r o l e o f Syria between the Late H i t t i t e , U r a r t i a n , A s s y r i a n , and E g y p t i a n c u l t u r a l influences has be-c o m e increas ing ly clear.

    As for Greece, trade w i t h the East never c o m p l e t e l y s topped. T h e r e are i n d i v i d u a l i m p o r t e d pieces f r o m the t e n t h and n i n t h centuries ; the i r n u m b e r s increase s ign i f i cant ly i n the e i g h t h cen-tury , and even m o r e so i n the first h a l f o f the seventh. T h e exot ic o r i g i n is clear i n the case o f i v o r y c a r v i n g a l t h o u g h this s k i l l was subsequent ly adopted b y the G r e e k s 2 a n d even m o r e so i n the case o f o s t r i c h eggs or the tr idacna shells f r o m the Red Sea, w h i c h appear i n the seventh c e n t u r y . 3 J ewe l ry is m o r e f requent ly f o u n d , g o l d i n m a n y f o r m s , faience beads, and also beads o f glassHera's ear o r n a m e n t s as described b y H o m e r , " t h r e e -eyed and m u l b e r r y l i k e , " are ident i f iab le as such a set. 4 T h e use and spread o f gems and seals offer even m o r e s igni f icant e v i -dence o f the connect ions w i t h the East . 5 N e a r l y one h u n d r e d S y r i a n - C i l i c i a n seals have been f o u n d at Pithekoussai- Ischia ; 6

    a m u l e t - t y p e o r n a m e n t s o f Syr ian and E g y p t i a n style occur i n the t o m b s o f L e f k a n d i , and the pr ince w h o was i n t e r r e d i n the H e r o o n at E r e t r i a was c a r r y i n g a Phoenic ian scarab i n a g o l d s e t t i n g . 7 C y l i n d e r seals, the t y p i c a l M e s o p o t a m i a n f o r m o f seal, have been unear thed at O l y m p i a as w e l l as o n Samos and D e l o s . 8

    T h e evidence i n m e t a l w o r k is m o r e impress ive . Phoenic ian

    '5

  • T H E O R I E N T A L I Z I N G R E V O L U T I O N

    bronze and silver b o w l s were w i d e l y t raded as special cost ly o b -jects . As w e l l as o n C y p r u s , they have been f o u n d i n A t h e n s , O l y m p i a , and D e l p h i , i n s o u t h e r n Italy , Praeneste, and E t r u r i a . T h e y have l o n g been i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the krateres f r o m S i d o n m e n t i o n e d b y H o m e r ; 9 the i r t echnique and style also appear to present the closest analogy to the shie ld o f Achi l les as described i n the Iliad. A t least three o f these b o w l s , f o u n d i n O l y m p i a , s o u t h e r n Italy , a n d Praeneste, carry A r a m a i c - P h o e n i c i a n i n -scr ipt ions ; one , f r o m Faler i i , has an i n s c r i p t i o n i n c u n e i f o r m . 1 0

    A t O l y m p i a i n about 670 B . C . bronze re l i e f vessels f r o m the Late H i t t i t e c i t y Tabal were r e w o r k e d to f o r m the drapery o f large statues fabricated f r o m b r o n z e f o i l . 1 1 O t h e r m e t a l objects a r r ived i n Greece f r o m the same r e g i o n , or f r o m N o r t h Syria , or even f r o m U r a r t u v ia N o r t h Syria: embossed stands and above al l a n e w f o r m o f large t r i p o d cauldrons , decorated w i t h sirens o r snakes. Greek craf tsmen were q u i c k to adopt the technique and to create the i r o w n masterp ieces . 1 2 A u n i q u e set o f o r i e n t a l i z i n g w o r k s o f art is the b r o n z e t y m p a n o n and the b r o n z e shields f r o m the Idaean cave o n Crete ; the t y m p a n o n i n par t i cu lar ( F i g -ure 1) has a p l a i n l y A s s y r i a n l o o k . A g r e e m e n t o n the d a t i n g o f these objects has yet t o be achieved, b u t i t is h a r d l y t o be d o u b t e d that they served the cu l t o f Zeus i n the sacred cave o f I d a . 1 3 F inal ly , there are pieces o f horse harness s k i l l f u l l y w o r k e d i n m e t a l , prest ige objects for the ar istocracy l i k e m a n y other i t e m s . 1 4 O u t s t a n d i n g a m o n g these are the beaut i fu l bronze plates i d e n t i f i e d b y the i r i n s c r i p t i o n s as g i v e n t o K i n g Hazael o f Damascus b u t subsequent ly dedicated t o A p o l l o o f Ere t r ia and to H e r a o f Samos, at w h o s e sanctuaries they were f o u n d (Figure 2). K i n g Hazael is k n o w n t o have been active t o w a r d s the end o f the n i n t h century , and the d e d i c a t i o n at Ere t r ia can be dated ar-chaeologica l ly to the m i d d l e o f the e i g h t h a rare case o f p r e c i -s ion as to the provenience and c h r o n o l o g y o f the o r i e n t a l i m -pact.

    C y p r u s and also C r e t e are i n a special p o s i t i o n ; they have been " o r i e n t a l i z i n g " al l the t i m e . Rhodes becomes i m p o r t a n t i n the e i g h t h c e n t u r y as w e l l . I n contrast t o Beloch's theses there is

    16

  • " W H O A R E P U B L I C W O R K E R S "

    Figure 1. Bronze tympanon from the Idacan cave, Crete, eighth century B.C.: "Master of Animals" holding up a lion, two demons: Zeus

    and kouretes?

    n o w clear evidence that Phoenicians were m a n u f a c t u r i n g per-fumes o n Rhodes even before 7 0 0 . 1 5 O n Samos, t o o , the i n f l u x o f o r i e n t a l goods seems t o beg in before 7 0 0 . 1 6 A l l the great sa-cred sites w h i c h came t o flourish by the e i g h t h century, Delos , D e l p h i , and above al l O l y m p i a , have p r o d u c e d substantial f inds o f o r i enta l objects ; and n e x t to Eretr ia A t h e n s deserves special n o t i c e . 1 7 E t r u r i a started its o w n o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d t h r o u g h i n -dependent contacts w i t h Phoenic ian trade w h i c h spread t o

    17

  • THE ORIENTALIZING REVOLUTION

    Figure 2 . North Syrian bronze plaquefrom horse harness, ninth century B. c., found in the Hera sanctuary at Samos . Aramaic inscription:

    "What (god) Hadad has given to Lord Hazael from Umqi il1 the year whel1 the Lord crossed the ri vel'. "

    . 18 .

  • " W H O A R E P U B L I C W O R K E R S "

    n e i g h b o r i n g I ta ly , i n c l u d i n g L a t i u m ; 1 8 i t f inds marve l lous express ion i n the rich t o m b s o f Praeneste excavated l o n g a g o . 1 9

    D o m e s t i c cra f t smanship and p r o d u c t i o n developed f r o m these i m p o r t s , i n i v o r y c a r v i n g as w e l l as i n m e t a l w o r k . 2 0 O r i -ental p i c t o r i a l m o t i f s also appear i n other f o r m s o f manufacture , above a l l i n the m o s t e n d u r i n g and therefore the best preserved k i n d o f p r o d u c t s , ce ramics . 2 ' A g a i n a few references m u s t suf-fice: T h e t h e m e o f the Mistress o f the A n i m a l s and the Mas te r o f the A n i m a l s , w h i c h goes back to B r o n z e A g e t r a d i t i o n s , is g iven a n e w lease o n l i f e ; 2 2 i n a d d i t i o n there are characteristic representations o f a n i m a l h u n t i n g and , i n part icular , the l i o n f i g h t . 2 3 F e w Greeks w o u l d ever have actual ly seen a l i ve l i o n : I t was f r o m pictures that the l i o n became such a f ami l i a r concept t o al l (even i f l ions and panthers were occasional ly confused i n the images) . A n older, H i t t i t e style o f represent ing l ions is superseded i n the seventh c e n t u r y b y an A s s y r i a n m o d e l . T h e m o r e exot i c ga l le ry o f c o m p o s i t e beastsgri f f ins , sphinxes, and s i r e n s l i k e w i s e has B r o n z e A g e ancestors, b u t was rev ived and adapted to the n e w f a s h i o n . 2 4 T h e chimaera can clearly be l i n k e d t o H i t t i t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , 2 5 w h i l e the T r i t o n a m a n w i t h fish's ta i lseems t o c o m e s t ra ight f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a . 2 6 F i n a l l y the m o t i f o f the Tree o f L i f e s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d , and i n general the a n i m a l friezes, the lo tus and the p a l m e t t e f r iezes . 2 7 B u t the prothesis scenes and the representations o f the s y m p o s i u m w i t h revellers r e c l i n i n g o n couches also have an or i enta l pedigree, as the c u s t o m i t s e l f apparent ly evo lved i n the East . 2 8

    Rel ig ious i c o n o g r a p h y p r o p e r shows c o r r e s p o n d i n g changes: T h e M y c e n a e a n heritage gives w a y before the eastern examples. T h u s i n d i v i d u a l b r o n z e statuettes o f the w a r r i o r g o d b r a n d i s h -i n g his w e a p o n i n his r i g h t h a n d , o r i g i n a t i n g i n the S y r o - H i t t i t e r e g i o n , had appeared i n Greece already i n the Late Mycenaean p e r i o d ; m o r e are f o u n d n o w , and they are cop ied i n the e i g h t h c e n t u r y . 2 9 W h e t h e r gods o r h u m a n w a r r i o r s are be ing repre-sented i n the Greek c o n t e x t is a m a t t e r o f d ispute ; b u t there is n o d o u b t that those later " t y p i c a l l y G r e e k " images o f Zeus and Poseidon, b r a n d i s h i n g respectively t h u n d e r b o l t or t r i d e n t , are u l t i m a t e l y der ived f r o m these statuettes. T h e representat ion o f

    19

  • T H E O R I E N T A L I Z I N G R E V O L U T I O N

    the t h u n d e r b o l t i n the h a n d o f the weather g o d , i n part icular , remains clearly dependent o n the eastern m o d e l . 3 0 Q u i t e di f fer-ent is the i m a g e o f a n a k e d goddess, s tand ing , o f ten t o u c h i n g her breasts, w h i c h had been c o m m o n i n Syria for a l o n g t i m e ; i t is presented to the Greeks b o t h i n the f o r m o f m e t a l reliefs, es-pec ia l ly o f g o l d j e w e l r y , and o f s i m p l e clay tablets made f r o m m o l d s . She is usual ly called A s t a r t e - A p h r o d i t e , t h o u g h o n s l ight ev idence . 5 1 O t h e r types o f d i v i n e images were occasional ly i m -p o r t e d , t o o . 3 2 I n Greece the goddess was q u i c k l y p r o v i d e d w i t h c l o t h i n g , b u t the i m a g e o f the s tanding goddess c o n t i n u e d to pro l i fe ra te ; and the statues o f goddessesnow of ten made o f local w o o d t o f i n d the i r place i n the n e w l y erected t e m p l e s were c l o t h e d i n robes that s t i l l i m i t a t e d the l u x u r y o f the East, j u s t as Hera's ear o r n a m e n t s i n the Iliad d i d . A s ignal example is A r t e m i s o f Ephesos, w i t h the rectangular d iv i s ions o f her robe , the f i l l e t at the back o f her headdress, and the w o o l l e n r i b b o n s i n her h a n d s . 3 3 Even closer t o cu l t i c act ivit ies seem to be those cur ious masks w h i c h w e find dedicated i n Greek sanctuaries, o n Samos and, above a l l , at Orthe ia ' s p r e c i n c t i n Sparta. T h e g r o -tesque f o r m o f some o f t h e m e v i d e n t l y imitates o r i e n t a l H u m -baba m a s k s . 3 4 B u t even the f o r m o f the o m p h a l o s b o w l w h i c h became universa l l y e m p l o y e d for l i b a t i o n i n Greek w o r s h i p is o f o r i enta l t ype . M o s t o f a l l , f rankincense, genera l ly i n t r o d u c e d d u r i n g this t i m e i n t o the w o r s h i p o f the gods, r e m a i n e d an o r i -ental i m p o r t , as its names, libanos and myrrha, c o n t i n u e d t o i n -d i c a t e . 3 5

    O n e area o f m o r e p r o f o u n d eastern influence o n the practice o f Greek r e l i g i o n at the t i m e can o n l y be t o u c h e d u p o n : the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f large altars for b u r n t offerings and above al l the b u i l d i n g o f temples t o serve as houses for d i v i n i t i e s , represented b y cu l t statues. T h e r e seems t o be n o Greek t e m p l e p r o p e r an-t e d a t i n g the e i g h t h century , the p e r i o d o f the i m p e t u s o f eastern cra f tsmanship . A m o s t pecul iar i n t e r m i n g l i n g o f i n d i g e n o u s , Phoenic ian , and Greek c u l t is attested at K o m m o s , o n the s o u t h coast o f C r e t e . 3 6 T h i s was e v i d e n t l y a place w h e r e passing ships used to anchor, t o take o n p r o v i s i o n s and t o do h o m a g e to local d i v i n i t i e s . Use o f the cu l t site is d o c u m e n t e d f r o m the tenth

    20

  • " W H O A R E P U B L I C W O R K E R S "

    century o n , w i t h var ious structures s t i l l ident i f iab le , remains o f ritual meals and v o t i v e figurines; b u t i n the later n i n t h century there is a d i s t i n c t i v e l y Phoenic ian shr ine , w i t h three pi l lars represent the sacred center, between w h i c h offerings were c r a m m e d . I t is in tegra ted later w i t h m o r e G r e e k - l o o k i n g s t ruc-tures. K o m m o s thus is one o f the m o s t remarkab le m e e t i n g po int s o f Phoenic ian and Greek re l ig ious practice.

    T h e Phoenic ian merchants had always been regarded as the car-riers o f o r i e n t a l c u l t u r e , the suppliers o f o r i enta l i m p o r t s t o the Greeks, i n accordance w i t h the image presented b y the Odyssey: H o m e r m e n t i o n s Phoinikes, m e n o f S idon , as producers o f cost ly m e t a l vessels, t r a d i n g b y sea and occasional ly i n d u l g i n g i n piracy. B e l o c h t r i e d t o force the Phoenicians o u t o f the A e -gean p i c t u r e , asserting a lack o f clear archaeological p r o o f o f the i r presence, especially the lack o f Phoenic ian ceramics. B y n o w , however , Phoenicians are clearly attested even t h r o u g h their ceramics o n K o s and Rhodes , and traces o f the i r presence have been f o u n d at Ephesos, t o o . 3 7 B u t w i t h the excavations at A l M i n a , the spontaneous advance o f the Greeks t o the East has been w i d e l y recognized . T h e expansion o f the Greeks and the Phoenicians i n the M e d i t e r r a n e a n appears f r o m early o n t o de-velop i n m u t u a l c o m p e t i t i o n . B o t h seem t o start b y establ ishing f o r e i g n t r a d i n g faci l i t ies , f o l l o w i n g earlier Assyr ian practice, b u t subsequent ly b e g i n t o f o u n d independent cities, colonies as we call t h e m ; for the Phoenicians these were p r i m a r i l y K i t i o n o n C y p r u s and Car thage i n A f r i c a , w h i l e Greek cities came i n t o be ing i n s o u t h e r n I t a l y and S ic i ly ; these deve lopments led to n e w f o r m s o f c o m p e t i n g p o w e r p o l i t i c s .

    H o w e v e r , the t r a d i n g connect ions set i n m o t i o n , first b y the Phoenicians and t h e n b y the Euboeans, were n o t the o n l y chan-nels f o r m u t u a l contact . M o r e i n t i m a t e c u l t u r a l contacts and ex-changes t o o k place o n the level o f sk i l l ed craf tsmanship . I t has l o n g been suggested that , f r o m the end o f the n i n t h century, eastern craf tsmen m i g r a t e d t o Greek cities and passed o n the i r ski l ls t o the Greeks. I n the h a r d t imes o f the A s s y r i a n conquests, m i g r a t i o n s o f refugees m a y readi ly be assumed. J o h n B o a r d m a n

    21

  • T H E O R I E N T A L I Z I N G R E V O L U T I O N

    has d e m o n s t r a t e d this m o v e m e n t i n deta i l , especially i n the case o f Crete . H e po int s t o three g r o u p s o f evidence: A f a m i l y o f g o l d s m i t h s and g e m cutters i n Knossos began to reuse a M i n o a n T h o l o s t o m b and consecrated i t b y a f o u n d a t i o n deposi t i n o r i -ental style , a r o u n d 800 B . C . ; a special w o r k s h o p o f b r o n z e s m i t h s p r o d u c e d the t y m p a n o n w i t h p l a i n l y A s s y r i a n i c o n o g r a p h y and the b r o n z e shields for the Idaean cave; f inal ly , Syr ian-sty le t o m b s c o m p a r a b l e to those near C a r c h e m i s h are f o u n d at A f r a t i , i n centra l Crete , i n the f i rs t h a l f o f the seventh century . These t o m b s as w e l l as the ha l f - f in i shed goods i n the T o m b o f the G o l d s m i t h s at Knossos are c o n v i n c i n g indicators that i m m i g r a -t i o n had taken place; and the t w o phases o f i m m i g r a t i o n , before 800 and again a r o u n d 700, c o r r e s p o n d closely t o the A s s y r i a n c a m p a i g n s . 3 8

    T h e actual p r o o f that , connected w i t h the appearance o f east-ern p r o d u c t s , there was n o t j u s t trade t h r o u g h var ious i n t e r m e -diate contractors b u t also l e a r n i n g a n d teaching t h r o u g h direct contact , lies i n the a d o p t i o n o f n e w technical ski l ls w h i c h d o n o t arise f r o m s i m p l y b u y i n g f in ished p r o d u c t s . T h i s applies t o the art o f g o l d s m i t h s and g e m c u t t e r s 3 9 as w e l l as to i v o r y c a r v i n g and, i n part icular , to the var ious f o r m s o f b r o n z e w o r k i n g , be i t h a m m e r i n g (sphyrelaton) o r casting w i t h the " los t c o r e " m e t h o d ; the replacement o f the asphalt core o f eastern technique w i t h one o f resin and b r a n shows j u s t h o w craf tsmen adapted crea-t i v e l y to n e w r e q u i r e m e n t s . 4 0 E v e n the s i m p l e yet e x t r e m e l y p r o d u c t i v e t e c h n i q u e o f m a k i n g clay f igures i n m o l d s came f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a and Syria; i t appears at G o r t y n and C o r i n t h s h o r t l y after 7 0 0 . 4 1 I t w o u l d o f course be possible t o assume that some Greeks entered i n t o apprenticeships under native crafts-m e n i n the East, w h e t h e r at A l M i n a i n Syria or at Tarsos; this w o u l d , i n p r i n c i p l e , lead t o the same results. N e i t h e r case i n -volves distant contacts , b u t rather intens ive c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h detai led c o m m u n i c a t i o n at least for the p e r i o d o f an apprent ice-ship . T h e C r e t a n f inds t i p the scale m o r e towards the l i k e l i h o o d o f i m m i g r a n t cra f tsmen i n the Greek s p h e r e w h i c h does n o t ru le o u t the p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l j o u r n e y s i n the oppos i te d i r e c t i o n .

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  • " W H O A R E P U B L I C W O R K E R S "

    T h e p r e s u m p t i o n o f the existence o f m i g r a n t or ienta l crafts-m e n occasional ly meets w i t h c r i t i c i s m b o t h f r o m classical ar-chaeologists and f r o m or iental is ts . Whereas the former , b y rea-son o f m e t h o d , t e n d t o be re luctant t o consider o p p o r t u n i t i e s for personal , a l m o s t anecdotal c o i n c i d e n c e , 4 2 to the latter the image o f free enterprise pro jected i n t o the " d a r k ages" appears i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the roya l p o w e r and bureaucracy that char-acterized eastern c i v i l i z a t i o n s . 4 3 H e r e indeed is a clear d i s t i n c t i o n between western and eastern t r a d i t i o n s . T h a t craftsmen are n o -table for m o b i l i t y , thanks to the i r ski l ls , i n contrast to resident peasants or l a n d o w n i n g n o b i l i t y , is clearly stated i n that verse o f H o m e r o n the " p u b l i c w o r k e r s , " demioergoi (Od. 17.383-385). S o l o n , a c c o r d i n g t o P l u t a r c h , realized this and encouraged the i m m i g r a t i o n o f cra f t smen to A t h e n s : " t o change residence for the sake oftechne" is the t e r m used here for such m i g r a t i o n . 4 4 A t the same t i m e the tyrants o f C o r i n t h had sought after such craftsmen; later T h e m i s t o k l e s attracted technitai w i t h the offer o f i m m u n i t y f r o m taxes "so that as m a n y people as possible s h o u l d take up re s idence . " 4 5 To j u d g e b y the i r names-such as Amas i s , Lydos , and B r y g o s p o t t e r s and vase painters o f the s i x th cen-t u r y seem to have i m m i g r a t e d f r o m E g y p t , L y d i a , o r P h r y g i a . 4 6

    For A r i s t o t l e i t is pract ica l ly the ru le that craftsmen are i m m i -grant nonc i t izens ; he also speaks o f slaves as c r a f t s m e n , 4 7 b u t i t is certain that w h e r e h i g h l y qual i f ied craft ski l ls are concerned there can be n o q u e s t i o n o f slavery. I n He l len i s t i c t imes " m i g r a n t c r a f t s m e n " is a c o m m o n t e r m . 4 8 A t least b y this t i m e they were taken for g ranted i n the Semit i c East, t o o . Jesus Sirach wr i tes o f cra f tsmen: " a n d even w h e n they l ive i n a fo re ign place, they do n o t need to s t a r v e . " 4 9 A t e n t m a k e r f r o m Tarsos became one o f the h i s t o r i c a l l y m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l o f these travellers: the apostle Paul .

    To r e t u r n to the archaic epoch: A s s y r i a n craftsmen are pre-s u m e d to have been present i n U r a r t u ; 5 0 and i n the same w a y m e t a l w o r k spread to the Scythians and thence far o n i n t o Asia . A n c i e n t t r a d i t i o n traces the encroachment o f Greek cra f tsman-ship i n t o E t r u r i a to D e m a r a t o s o f C o r i n t h , the p u r p o r t e d father o f K i n g T a r q u i n i u s Priscus; he was f o l l o w e d , i t is said, b y a host

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    o f c r a f t s m e n . 5 1 E v e n w i t h o u t the s u p p o r t o f this anecdotal t r a -d i t i o n i t is certa in that Greek potters and vase painters estab-l i shed themselves i n var ious n o n - G r e e k areas i n Italy. I n the East, o n the o ther h a n d , g o o d craftsmen had l o n g been m u c h s o u g h t after and h i g h l y va lued . I t was precisely f o r th is reason that the rulers a t t e m p t e d t o keep c o n t r o l over t h e m as far as was possible b y bureaucrat ic means. S o l o m o n had a w h o l e t r o o p o f cra f tsmen, w h o were e m p l o y e d i n the service o f K i n g H i r a m o f Tyre , sent t o h i m for t e m p l e c o n s t r u c t i o n . 5 2 I n a s i m i l a r ve in the Ahiqar n o v e l recounts that the k i n g o f E g y p t o r d e r e d an a r c h i -tect f r o m the ru le r o f N i n e v e h . 5 3 W h e n K i n g Sargon b u i l t his palace i n K h o r s a b a d after the m o d e l o f a " H i t t i t e H i l a n i , " as he states i n his i n s c r i p t i o n s , 5 4 he p r o b a b l y d i d n o t hesitate to r e q -u i s i t i o n the a p p r o p r i a t e cra f tsmen f r o m N o r t h Syria . D o c u -ments f r o m M a r i s h o w that cra f tsmen were organ ized b y k i n g s as m o b i l e teams and k e p t ready f o r d e p l o y m e n t as r e q u i r e d . 5 5 I n M e s o p o t a m i a n m y t h , the hero o f the f l o o d d i d n o t fai l t o reserve a place for cra f t smen i n the a r k . 5 6 A H i t t i t e t reaty expressly s t i p -ulates that f u g i t i v e cra f t smen are t o be e x t r a d i t e d . 5 7 Yet even this c lear ly demonstrates the l i m i t s o f the centra l o r g a n i z a t i o n : a cra f tsman w h o deserted w o u l d have calculated his chance o f be-c o m i n g i n d e p e n d e n t l y e m p l o y e d i n any n e w place. Letters f r o m M a r i speak o f an archi tect o r a s m i t h s i m p l y " g o i n g a w a y " ap-p a r e n t l y o f his o w n free w i l l and w i t h the state t a k i n g n o steps against h i m . 5 8 T h i s is notab le p r o o f that , de facto, qua l i f i ed spe-cialists c o u l d n o t be denied a certain m o b i l i t y a lready i n the B r o n z e A g e O r i e n t . N o t t o o di f ferent are the adventures o f the phys ic ian D e m o k e d e s i n the t i m e o f D a r i u s , as related b y H e -r o d o t u s : he r e t u r n e d to his h o m e l a n d against the w i l l o f the Great K i n g , and the k i n g was n o t able t o get h i m b a c k . 5 9 B y that t i m e other Greek specialists, cra f tsmen o f a l l k i n d s as w e l l as m e r c e n -aries, h a d l o n g f o u n d the i r w a y t o the or i enta l courts , t o N e b u -chadnezzar i n B a b y l o n 6 0 as w e l l as to D a r i u s i n Persepol is . 6 1

    T o s u m u p : For cra f t smen i n the East, at least the chance for free m o v e m e n t h a d existed for some t i m e , since the influence o f the despots was l i m i t e d i n extent . I n the West this m o b i l i t y was f u l l y deve loped b y the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d . I t can be presumed

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  • " W H O A R E P U B L I C W O R K E R S "

    that precisely this factor c o u l d act as a s t r o n g incent ive for e m i -g r a t i o n to the freer West. We f i n d the eastern craftsmen o r g a -nized i n the f o r m o f f a m i l y gu i lds , as Sons o f the Cra f t smen (mare ummani) i n B a b y l o n i a , as Sons o f the F o u n d r y m e n (bn nsk) i n S y r i a . 6 2 Such organ iza t ions guarantee f o r m s o f m u t u a l sup-p o r t w h i c h m u s t have operated very m u c h to the benefit o f emigres . E v e n i f free enterprise i n craftsmanship was an i n v e n -t i o n o f the early o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d , the " o r i e n t a l s " were cer-t a i n l y i n v o l v e d t o o .

    A n o t h e r m o b i l e e lement that s h o u l d n o t be o v e r l o o k e d is the t r o o p s o f mercenaries w h o c o u l d make a pro f i tab le l i fe amidst the rise and fall o f empires . We k n o w o f the I o n i a n and the Car -ian mercenaries o f P s a m m e t i c h u s ; 6 3 A n t i m e n i d a s the b r o t h e r o f Alcaeus served as a mercenary for B a b y l o n , as d i d Sappho's brother , Charaxos , for E g y p t . 6 4 W h e t h e r Krethi and Plethi i n Dav id ' s b o d y g u a r d means Cretans s e r v i n g together w i t h P h i l i s -tines is less c e r t a i n . 6 5 I t is m o r e l i k e l y that the Karim attested i n the n i n t h c e n t u r y at Jerusalem were i n fact Carians f r o m Asia M i n o r ; at any rate C a r i a n soldiers subsequently played an i m -p o r t a n t ro le i n seventh- and s i x t h - c e n t u r y E g y p t . 6 6 N o r w o u l d there have been a shortage o f Greeks t r y i n g the i r l u c k i n the East at that t i m e , even i f the case o f the I a m a n i o f A s h d o d remains u n c e r t a i n . 6 7 T h e h o p l i t e w e a p o n r y w h i c h came i n t o use at the end o f the e i g h t h c e n t u r y i n Greece is closely l i n k e d to A s s y r i a n and U r a r t i a n arms. T o i l lus t rate a G o r g o n shie ld such as is de-scr ibed i n the Iliad, one can use an example f r o m O l y m p i a side b y side w i t h one f r o m C a r c h e m i s h o n the E u p h r a t e s . 6 8

    Writing and Literature in the Eighth Century

    For the general h i s t o r y o f c u l t u r e , b y far the m o s t i m p o r t a n t achievement o f the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d is the a d o p t i o n o f the Phoenic ian scr ipt b y the Greeks and its s k i l l f u l adaptat ion to Greek p h o n e t i c s . ' I t can a l m o s t stand as a m o d e l for c u l t u r a l t rans-m i s s i o n at the t i m e : A s the b o r r o w i n g f r o m the Semit ic is be-y o n d a l l d o u b t , the creative d e v e l o p m e n t b y Greek inventors is n o less clear; and a date s i g n i f i c a n t l y after the collapse o f M y c e -

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    naean c u l t u r e , b u t n o later t h a n the m i d d l e o f the e i g h t h century , is n o w w e l l established.

    For us, the Greek scr ipt is the f irst perfect w r i t i n g system, be ing the earliest a lphabetic scr ipt t o use signs for b o t h vowels and consonants consistently , whereas Semit ic w r i t i n g was, and is, basically concerned w i t h consonants . Its per fec t ion is c o n -f i r m e d b y its success i n the West. Nevertheless the apparent i n -v e n t i o n , the n o t a t i o n o f vowels , arose i n fact f r o m m i s u n d e r -s tanding i n a di f ferent p h o n o l o g i c a l system: As the alphabetic sequence o f the Semit ic system was learned and the acrophonic p r i n c i p l e u n d e r s t o o d b y Greeks, they f o u n d a w o r d such as al-pha t o beg in w i t h an a s o u n d and n o t w i t h a g u t t u r a l g l o t t a l s t o p d e n o t e d b y Semit i c aleph.2 Just the del iberate creat ion o f an a d d i t i o n a l letter f o r the f i f t h v o w e l , Y , w h i c h is n o t present i n the Semit ic m o d e l and thus was placed at the end o f the series, is evidence o f a conscious creat ion b y some Greek " i n v e n t o r . " T h e letter Y appears i n al l Greek alphabets and all alphabets de-rived f r o m t h e m , i n c l u d i n g P h r y g i a n 3 and L a t i n .

    For the t i m e and place o f the a d o p t i o n o f the Phoinikeia, as H e r o d o t u s says the letters were o r i g i n a l l y ca l l ed , 4 there are m a n y clues b y n o w , b u t n o fewer o p e n quest ions ; n e w f inds c o u l d s t i l l alter the p i c t u r e . T h e earliest Greek letters recognized to date o r i g i n a t e i n N a x o s , Ischia, A t h e n s , and Euboea and ap-pear a r o u n d or a l i t t l e before 750 . 5 T h i s date fits per fect ly the t r a d i n g connect ions o f the lawones f r o m Syria v ia Euboea to the West. O n Ischia Greek gra f f i t i are f o u n d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c gra f f i t i so that i n one case even the l i n g u i s -t ic i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is d i sputed ; and finally a Greek graf f i to has been discovered o n an e i g h t h - c e n t u r y sherd f r o m A l M i n a . 6

    C o m p l i c a t i o n arises w i t h the a d d i t i o n a l letters inserted i n Greek alphabets after Y ; i t is precisely Cha lk i s /Euboea and A t h e n s that differ i n this r e s p e c t t h e letter X conveys the s o u n d kh i n A t t i c , b u t x at C h a l k i s and hence i n the western colonies and f ina l l y i n L a t i n ; i t seems n a t u r a l that b o t h the C h a l c i d i a n and the A t t i c alphabets s h o u l d have been preceded b y one o f those " r e d " ones w h i c h have n o n e o f the a d d i t i o n a l letters , w h i c h is the case o n Crete , M e l o s , and T h e r a ; b u t there are no e i g h t h - c e n t u r y d o c -

    26

  • " W H O A R E P U B L I C W O R K E R S "

    uments o f w r i t i n g f r o m these places so far, and the inference can be called i n t o q u e s t i o n . 7 T h e r e is m u c h t o substantiate the idea that C y p r u s had a ro le to play as an i n t e r m e d i a r y s tat ion i n the t ransmiss ion o f w r i t i n g : T h e d i s t inct ive des ignat ion o f the Greek letters as Phoinikeia seems to presuppose that o ther " s c r i b b l i n g s " (grammatd) were k n o w n f r o m w h i c h the P h o e n i -cian were di f ferent . T h i s was the case o n l y o n C y p r u s , w h e r e a l inear scr ipt o f Mycenaean type had been adapted t o the Greek and persisted to He l len i s t i c t imes ; the f irst d o c u m e n t n o w k n o w n for its use i n w r i t i n g Greek dates f r o m the eleventh cen-t u r y . 8 I t is r e m a r k a b l e that the l inear scripts had taken the direc-t i o n f r o m left t o r i g h t , the d i r e c t i o n that was to preva i l i n Greek and subsequent w r i t i n g , i n contrast to Semit ic use; however, the change o f d i r e c t i o n f r o m l ine to l ine , called bustrophedon, as often pract iced i n early Greek w r i t i n g , is also f o u n d i n some P h o e n i -cian d o c u m e n t s and is c o m m o n i n Late H i t t i t e h i e r o g l y p h s . 9 O f course the Greek scr ipt c o u l d also have been developed i n Syria, a l t h o u g h there is j u s t one g r a f i t t o f r o m A l M i n a so far. We m i g h t s t i l l l o o k to Crete , n o t so m u c h because o f the Phoenic ian i n s c r i p t i o n o n a b o w l that ended up i n a t o m b i n Knossos a r o u n d 900, b u t rather because o f the p a r t i c u l a r l y close connec-t ions w i t h o r i e n t a l craf tsmanship and craftsmen f r o m a r o u n d 800; i t was also o n Crete that laws were recorded i n w r i t i n g earlier than elsewhere i n Greece. 1 " Nevertheless there is n o e v i -dence f r o m Crete so far to r i v a l the early gra f f i t i f r o m the sphere o f the Iaones. I n any case, the a r g u m e n t e m p l o y e d w i t h great success at one t i m e , that the great differences w h i c h appear f r o m the start a m o n g local Greek alphabets presuppose a " l o n g devel-o p m e n t " s t r e t c h i n g over m a n y decades, i f n o t centuries, has been f i r m l y re futed b y L i l i a n Jeffery. 1 1 T h e so-called deve lop-m e n t , or rather the process o f t ransmiss ion , i n c l u d i n g some er-rors i n c o p y i n g , idiosyncrasies o f "hands , " and some i n t e n t i o n a l add i t ions d i d happen e x t r e m e l y fast, w i t h i n a f e w decades, i f n o t years, reaching even the Phryg ians i n one d i r e c t i o n and the Etruscans i n the o ther near ly s imultaneous ly .

    Some Semitists s t i l l t e n d t o plead that the Greek alphabet is s ign i f i cant ly older, o n the basis o f certain details o f the letter

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    formations.12 T h e f inds o f P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c i n s c r i p t i o n s i n Syr ia , h o w e v e r a n d one s h o u l d p r o b a b l y l o o k t o N o r t h Syria rather t h a n to Palest ineare s t i l l t o o scanty to p e r m i t a def ini te sequence o f let ter f o r m s t o be established; every n e w f i n d m a y change the p i c t u r e . 1 3 F r o m the Greek side, o n the o ther h a n d , the argumentum ex silentio has become ever m o r e o v e r w h e l m i n g : I n the increasing q u a n t i t y o f Greek g e o m e t r i c ceramics w h i c h can be classified and dated w i t h a reasonable degree o f prec i s ion , n o t a s ingle s c r i b b l i n g has so far been discovered that l o o k s l i k e a Greek letter before, say, 770, w h i l e i n the decades f r o m 750 t o about 700 there are n o w dozens and dozens o f d o c u m e n t s . A c u l t u r a l e x p l o s i o n has happened here; there is n o t h i n g t o suggest that the Greek alphabet had been i n h i d i n g for centuries before that date. T h u s the existence o f Greek scr ipt i n the t e n t h and even i n the n i n t h c e n t u r y appears, f r o m the state o f t h i n g s , to be v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e . T h e place o f a d o p t i o n c u r r e n t l y remains open . T h e Greek reference t o " P h o e n i c i a n s " cannot be taken t o mean that Phoenicians i n the n a r r o w e r sensethat is, the i n h a b -itants o f B y b l o s , S i d o n , a n d T y r e m u s t have been the source. Phoenicians o r Aramaeans f r o m N o r t h Syr ia r e m a i n an equ iva -lent o p t i o n .

    For the m a n n e r i n w h i c h the t ransmiss ion o f w r i t i n g o c c u r r e d there is an inva luable clue, even i f i t is o f ten o v e r l o o k e d : the Greek names o f the letters (alpha, beta, gamma, and so on) w i t h the i r unalterable order . These are Semit ic w o r d s b u l l , house, and so o n w h i c h have n o sense at al l i n Greek. T h e y were preserved for one par t i cu la r reason: A l l teaching o f read ing and w r i t i n g began w i t h l e a r n i n g this sequence b y heart . T h i s ex-plains also w h y m u c h earlier the standardized sequence appears i n t w o c o m p l e t e l y di f ferent Semit ic alphabetic scripts , i n the U g a r i t i c c u n e i f o r m alphabet attested i n the t h i r t e e n t h cent ury and i n the " P h o e n i c i a n " alphabet, evidence o f w h i c h has n o w been uncovered f r o m as early as the t w e l f t h c e n t u r y . 1 4 E v e n across language barr iers , the same m n e m o n i c sequence was learned b y r o t e i n the same way. W i t h the alphabetic scr ipt , for the first t i m e a sys tem o f w r i t i n g had c o m e i n t o b e i n g w h i c h was so s i m p l e that i t c o u l d be used b y al l people o f n o r m a l i n -

    28

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    tel l igence even outs ide the circles o f learned professional scribes; they need to be t a u g h t for o n l y a shor t t i m e and to get some practice i n h a n d w r i t i n g . We m a y f o r m some p ic ture o f the teaching o f w r i t i n g i n the Syro-Palest inian r e g i o n . 1 5 W h e n m u c h later w e read i n Josephus that " o f all those w h o dealt w i t h the Greeks, the Phoenic ians used w r i t i n g the m o s t , for pr ivate business as w e l l as for the i r p u b l i c a f f a i r s , " 1 6 he was re fe r r ing to a school t r a d i t i o n g o i n g back a thousand years. T h e inference is that the " i n v e n t o r " w h o f irst used these letters for the n o t a t i o n o f the Greek language had par t i c ipated i n at least one school lesson, w h e t h e r o f the A r a m a i c or the Phoenic ian t y p e , w h e t h e r i n Syria or o n C y p r u s , perhaps even s o m e w h e r e else w i t h some e m i g r a n t w h o h a d received an e lementary educat ion . T h i s gives cause to reflect o n the sheer coincidence that rules the evidence available to us: T h e Semit i c letter names alpha, beta, and so o n occur i n Greek l i t e r a t u r e i n the f i f t h century at the ear l ies t , 1 7 b u t they m u s t have been i n c u r r e n t use ever since the e i g h t h century, as they had been adopted a l o n g w i t h the o r i g i n a l alphabet; that those meaningless w o r d patterns s h o u l d have been i n t r o d u c e d i n t o Greek at any later t i m e is q u i t e imposs ib le . T h e L a t i n a l -phabet can serve as a c o u n t e r p r o o f : Wr i ters o f L a t i n d i d n o t adopt the ancient Phoenic ian m n e m o n i c sequence; rather, they let the vowels s o u n d for themselves and added an e-vowel to the consonants , as the Greeks had already done w i t h their a d d i t i o n a l letters Y O o n the one hand and $ X f , p r o n o u n c e d "phee, " " k h e e , " "psee," o n the o t h e r ; b u t even so the Lat ins and the R o -mans started school b y l ea rn ing their a be ceas we s t i l l d o t o -day. I t is r e m a r k a b l e that i n this respect the Greek practice has r e m a i n e d closer t o P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c school t r a d i t i o n than the L a t i n d i d t o the Greek .

    T h u s i t is clear that the a d o p t i o n o f the Phoenic ian scr ipt b y the Greeks was m o r e t h a n the c o p y i n g o f letter f o r m s ; i t i n -c luded the t ransmiss ion o f the technique o f teaching and learn-i n g h o w t o read and w r i t e . T h i s presupposes a certain i n t i m a c y o f contacts , as is also ind ica ted b y those objects w h i c h a lmost never s h o w u p i n the archaeological d o c u m e n t a t i o n and yet are m u c h m o r e s ign i f i cant for the t r a d i t i o n o f w r i t i n g than i n d i v i d -

    29

  • T H E O R I E N T A L I Z I N G R E V O L U T I O N

    ua l g ra f f i t i : w r i t i n g tablets and leather scrolls together w i t h the appropr ia te w r i t i n g too l s . These indeed m u s t have accompanied the use o f the Greek scr ipt f r o m the start. T h e w r i t i n g tablet , deltos i n Greek, has even k e p t its Semit ic name, daltudaleth i n H e b r e w t o g e t h e r w i t h the name o f the special w a x w i t h w h i c h i t is covered, malthe. Daltu o r i g i n a l l y means d o o r b u t is used for a w r i t i n g tablet already i n t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y U g a r i t , as i t is i n H e b r e w later o n . 1 8 W o o d e n w r i t i n g tablets were i n use i n M e s o p o t a m i a as w e l l as i n Syria and Palestine; the f i n d o f one e x e m p l a r i n the f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y w r e c k at U l u B u r u n near K a , T u r k e y , is cons idered sensational, even i f n o trace o f the w r i t i n g for w h i c h i t was used has been preserved; some w r i t i n g tablets o f i v o r y f r o m Sargon's palace i n N i m r u d have been k n o w n for a l o n g t i m e . 1 9 I n Greek the " f o l d i n g t a b l e t " o n w h i c h t o w r i t e makes its appearance w i t h the Be l l e rophontes s t o r y i n H o m e r , i n the c o n t e x t o f the " fatal l e t t e r " m o t i f . 2 0 I t is t rue that the oldest d i rect test imonies f o r the w o r d deltos occur i n A e s c h y -lus, b u t the reference to " b r o n z e deltoi" as a t e r m for ancient sacral laws s h o u l d p o i n t back to the seventh o r s i x t h c e n t u r y . 2 1

    W h a t is r e m a r k a b l e is that the w o r d deltos cons is tent ly carries the v o w e l e i n n o r m a l Greek, as opposed to a i n Semit ic daltu; s l ight d i s t o r t i o n s o f v o w e l c o l o r i n g are n o t s u r p r i s i n g w i t h b o r -r o w e d w o r d s , b u t the e is equa l ly characteristic o f the Greek letter name delta, w h i c h reproduces the same Semit ic w o r d . I n contrast , i n the C y p r i o t sy l labic scr ipt , w h i c h remains unaware o f the s tandard Greek alphabet, the expected f o r m for the w r i t -i n g tablet is attested, daltos, closer to the Semit ic , j u s t as the Phoenicians were so close o n C y p r u s . 2 2 T h a t the n o r m a l Greek t e r m for the w r i t i n g tablet and the letter n a m e s h o w exact ly the same m e t a m o r p h o s i s indicates that b o t h b e l o n g together f r o m the s t a r t i n o ther w o r d s , that the deltos i n Greece is as o l d as the Greek alphabet.

    B o o k s were i n general use i n the P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c r e g i o n i n the f o r m o f leather scrolls ; i n the special case o f the Israelite T o r a h , this f o r m has r e m a i n e d m a n d a t o r y . A r a m a i c " s c r o l l scribes" made the i r way t o M e s o p o t a m i a and became v i r t u a l l y indispensable to the A s s y r i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , even w h e n the

    30

  • " W H O A R E P U B L I C W O R K E R S "

    " tab le t scribes" o f the m u c h less pract ical yet o l d and venerable c u n e i f o r m scr ipt ins isted o n the i r pr iv i leges and s t i l l enjoyed h i g h e r rank . T h u s the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f the Assyr ian e m p i r e was based o n t w o languages, or rather, t w o s c r i p t s . 2 3 A r a m a i c as an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e language came de f in i te ly to the fore w i t h the Achaemenids o f Persia; b y t h e n i t is called " i m p e r i a l A r a -m a i c " (Reichsaramaisch) b y m o d e r n specialists. B u t even Dar ius deferred to the o lder t r a d i t i o n and deemed i t necessary to have Persian c u n e i f o r m created. For pract ical purposes the Persians c o n t i n u e d to use the scrol ls ; there was a l i b r a r y o f leather scrolls i n Persepolis, b u r n t d o w n b y A l e x a n d e r . 2 4 I n Greece the leather scro l l , w r a p p e d a r o u n d a w o o d e n st ick , is already referred to i n the seventh c e n t u r y b y A r c h i l o c h u s , as he introduces his o w n p o e m w i t h the cur ious t e r m skytale, s t i c k a d m i t t e d l y this t e r m was obscure even for Greek readers i n later a n t i q u i t y . 2 5 We have the w o r d o f H e r o d o t u s that the Ionians s t i l l called papyrus b o o k s diphtherai, skins, as this w o r d had become established to designate books i n the beg inn ings o f l iteracy. For c o n f i r m a t i o n even m o r e ancient evidence has c o m e u p : I n s i x t h - c e n t u r y b u s i -ness letters f r o m the M i l e s i a n c o l o n y O l b i a , diphtherion as the "master b o o k " is seen to contrast w i t h single lead sheets used as letters , molibdion.26 T h u s i t is h a r d l y a coincidence that , i n the f i f t h century , oracle b o o k s are referred to as diphtherai,27 as these p r o b a b l y c o n t i n u e one o f the earliest uses o f w r i t i n g . As c o n -tacts w i t h E g y p t became m o r e f requent , papyrus , be ing so m u c h cheaper and l i ghter , became the d o m i n a n t w r i t i n g m a t e -r i a l . I t was called byhlos f r o m the Phoenic ian t r a d i n g post Gubla/ B y b l o s , o r chartes, a fo re ign w o r d o f u n k n o w n o r i g i n . I t seems that papyrus became available at the earliest i n the era o f Psam-m e t i c h u s , about 660, or m o r e p r o b a b l y o n l y w h e n the Greeks settled at N a u k r a t i s a r o u n d 600. T h e b r e a k t h r o u g h to l i teracy precedes this date even i n Ion ia ; this is reflected i n the local d i a -lect w h i c h adhered t o the t e r m for leather scro l l , diphthera.

    A k k a d i a n c u n e i f o r m side b y side w i t h A r a m a i c , Phoenic ian , and Greek alphabetic scr ipt produces a c o n t i n u u m o f w r i t t e n c u l t u r e i n the e i g h t h c e n t u r y w h i c h stretches f r o m the Euphrates t o Italy . C u n e i f o r m tablets are f o u n d n o t o n l y as far as Syria b u t

    3 i

  • T H E O R I E N T A L I Z I N G R E V O L U T I O N

    also o n C y p r u s and i n Tarsos, w h e r e the Greeks were de f in i te ly present. A l i t t l e farther east, at Guzana-Te l l Hala f , a business-m a n w o u l d c o n d u c t his correspondence p a r t l y i n c u n e i f o r m , p a r t l y i n A r a m a i c , whereas an A r a m a i c - s p e a k i n g c o m m u n i t y such as H u z i r i n a - S u l t a n t e p e near H a r r a n k e p t a l i b r a r y o f cune-i f o r m l i te ra ture . T h e practice o f w r i t t e n contracts can be f o l -l o w e d f r o m c u n e i f o r m t h r o u g h A r a m a i c and H e b r e w d o w n t o the Greeks o f the classical and H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d s . 2 8 C a r l Wendel has d r a w n a t t e n t i o n to connect ions that go b e y o n d business d o c u m e n t s ; I t is the practice o f the subscriptio i n par t i cu la r that connects the l a y o u t o f later Greek b o o k s w i t h c u n e i f o r m prac-tice, the i n d i c a t i o n o f the n a m e o f the w r i t e r / a u t h o r and the t i t l e o f the b o o k r i g h t at the e n d , after the last l ine o f the text ; this is a detai led and exclusive correspondence w h i c h proves that Greek l i t e r a r y pract ice is u l t i m a t e l y dependent u p o n M e