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Journal of Archival Organization, 7:188–213, 2009Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 1533-2748 print / 1533-2756 onlineDOI: 10.1080/15332740903535068

Bringing Bertillon Back: The Preservation andResearch Application of Bertillon Materials

in Museums, Archives, and Historical Societies

PAIGE “B” GRIDACKNew York University, New York, New York, USA

Bertillon cards are underutilized resources, often regarded as theremnants of an antiquated nineteenth century police identificationsystem. Through the application of computer search techniques,data manipulation, and outreach, not only can institutions pro-vide their patrons access to this unique information, these collec-tions can in turn help revitalize their respective repositories. Thisarticle begins with a brief history of Alphonse Bertillon and hissystem (Bertillonage). The remainder describes the results from asurvey submitted to eleven institutions that hold Bertillon materialsand compares their preservation, storage, and accessibility; com-piles common research subjects; and examines the added value oftechnology to these documents.

KEYWORDS Alphonse Bertillon, Bertillonage, photographs, his-torical research, genealogy

INTRODUCTION

Arguably, the most important record in some people’s lives might be neithertheir birth certificate nor their college transcript. One particularly critical doc-ument can also become the record a person most fears: the criminal record.All arrestees must eventually face processing, which will record their offensesfor posterity. Once this record appears in the criminal justice system, a cleanstart is nearly impossible. But something more can come of these records thatbind offenders to infamy. Though current criminal records are unavailable toresearchers, “Bertillon cards” from the turn of the twentieth century provideviews of thousands of convicts, chronicling the lives of an underrepresented

Address correspondence to Paige “B” Gridack, P.O. Box 311, Pala, CA 92059. E-mail:gridack21@gmail.com

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group often forgotten by historians. Throughout the United States, tens ofthousands of Bertillon cards exist, but they are underutilized in repositoriesand archives. After working with a collection of these materials at the NewYork City Police Museum, I was struck by not only the richness of the infor-mation they contain but also the difficulty in extracting and organizing thisinformation in a cohesive and relevant way.

BERTILLONAGE

In order to understand the scope of the problem, I created and submitteda survey to eleven institutions that hold Bertillon materials asking them todescribe their preservation and access policies, user groups, and possibleresearch subjects. Their responses along with my own experience led toboth exciting and workable conclusions. Bertillon materials are minimallyexploited historical records, which, with the help of modern search tech-nology, can provide invaluable information to researchers and genealogists.Instead of remaining “damning” evidence, these qualitatively rich materialscan now help a relative find a forgotten family member, or allow researchersto synthesize certain criminal statistics by date, area, crime, and more. Fi-nally, these Bertillon cards contain some rare photographic evidence of thetime. Many of the mug shots are the only photograph ever taken of particularindividuals. (To label all offenders as “criminals” may be inaccurate, but forthis article, the term is used to refer to those with a physical criminal record.)

This article begins with a brief biographical sketch of Alphonse Bertillon,the scientist and bureaucrat who developed the first scientific system of crim-inal identification, Bertillonage, which produced the Bertillon cards. Thisis followed by a literature review, which places Bertillon materials in thecontext of published works and exhibitions. The latter part of this articledescribes each institution’s response to the survey and the exciting possibili-ties that derived from these descriptions. By taking better advantage of theircollections, archives can breathe new life into these dormant documents.

The process of Bertillonage produced numerous records, mainly theBertillon card. Measuring approximately 3.5 × 5.5 inches, this prisoner recordwas the heart of Bertillon’s system. One side contained a mug shot: twophotographs of the individual’s face and neck from the front and profile(see Figure 1). The other side was filled with identifying information, in-cluding eleven body measurements, name, and crime (see Figure 2). Thesecards were accessed through “Bertillon cabinets” and were used for morethan thirty years in some places. By his death in 1914, Alphonse Bertillon’ssystem was no longer considered viable—dactyloscopy, the study of fin-gerprints, had quickly replaced the cumbersome measurements Bertillon’ssystem required. But history had not seen the last of Bertillonage. Ly-ing in archives, museums, and historical societies across the country are

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FIGURE 1 Example of Bertillon Mug Shot.

collections of Bertillon cards with unrealized potential. By focusing a discus-sion on Bertillon, expounding some research possibilities, and suggestinghow technological advancements might increase access to the collections, Ihope to give exposure to Bertillon collections for the amazing genealogicaland historical resources that they are and to encourage their widespread use.Bertillon materials provide information on a class of people rarely recorded,and they should be highly valued as dense multimedia historical records.These collections may be the only chance to know anything about thesefrequently unmentioned members of society, and they may possibly offerinsights for our own family histories.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF BERTILLON

Alphonse Bertillon was born April 24, 1853, in Paris, France, to Dr. Louis-Adolphe and Zoe Bertillon. According to his biographer Henry Rhodes,Bertillon was a difficult child who never seemed interested in institutionallearning. After rejecting several tutors, being rejected from several schools,and the devastating death of his mother, he went to England in January1874.1 There, he worked as a tutor, gaining a sense of independence andorganization. In early 1875 Bertillon was conscripted into the French armyand was quickly promoted through the clerical ranks. The routine work al-lowed him to be look for new inspiration. Bertillon was always interested in

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FIGURE 2 Bertillon Card. Photograph taken by author at the New York City Police Museum.March 15, 2008.

the pioneering anthropological and statistical work of his father and grand-father, well-regarded statisticians. He began reading about anthropology andanatomy. At this point, as Rhodes noted, “He became devoted to and almostobsessed with a specialized problem. This was the dimensions of the humanskeleton.”2 He performed experiments in his spare time, and after his militaryservice ended, Bertillon’s father helped him obtain a low-ranking position atthe Prefecture of Police in Paris in March 1879.

It is important to note that before Bertillon’s time the main method ofdetection was the police informant or “agent provocateur” initiated in Franceby the famous “father of modern criminology” Eugene Francois Vidocq.3

This system was based on the principle that criminals ran in the same

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circles and therefore could identify one another. It worked with varyingand unquantifiable degrees of success. When a criminal was identified, heor she was photographed and described, but not in accordance with anyset of standards. As a clerk, it was Bertillon’s job to fill out and file thereports generated from these descriptions. These reports were not taken se-riously, and with no comprehensive identification system, his work was alabor of futility. Aggravated by this ineptitude, Bertillon was determined tobring order to this essential aspect of police work. After only eight months,he approached his superior with his new system, but he was unsuccessfulin having his system implemented.4

Despite the rejection, he showed his work to his father who immedi-ately recognized its benefits. Bertillonage, as the system came to be known,was based on 11 measurements that could be taken with few instrumentsand with little chance of inaccuracy. All measurements were of body partsthat would not change once a person reached adulthood. As described inAlphonse Bertillon’s Instructions for Taking Descriptions for the Identificationof Criminals, and Others by the Means of Anthropometric Indications, thesemeasurements were the following:

1–2. The length and width of the head3–5. The length of the left, middle, and little fingers6. The length of the left foot7. The length of the left forearm8. The length of the right ear9. The height of the figure10. The measurement of the outstretched arms11. The measurement of the trunk, i.e., measurement from the bench to the

top of the head of a person seated5

When a suspect was arrested, a trained member of the police force mea-sured him or her. The measurements were printed on a card along withother descriptive information called the portrait parle, something Bertillonbiographer Henry Rhodes considered “[a]ccidentally, his greatest achieve-ment.” This “speaking likeness” included hair and eye color, weight, age,any possible name, address, or birthplace, and applicable items describedas small, medium, and large.6 An equally amazing, but often unrecognized,aspect of Bertillon’s system was the standardization of identification photog-raphy. Before his system, photographic lighting and positioning producedunreliable results at best. On the front of each card, Bertillon affixed twoheadshots, one full face, and one profile, taken with plenty of light and mo-tionless participants. The full side picture was taken so that the right ear wasfully exposed. This would aid in identification, as Bertillon believed that thecurvature of the ear was as unique as a fingerprint.7

This information was important, but was useless if it could not be lo-cated easily and efficiently. Although he was not the first to identify people

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by measurements, or criminals by photographs, Bertillon was the first toexpedite the process of criminal identification worldwide by creating a com-prehensive filing system. Bertillonage was based on an exponential premise.A Bertillon cabinet contained eighty-one drawers. The classification startedwith the length of the head. An average length was determined from mea-surements of the local recidivist population, and then three groups wereidentified: less than average, average, and above average. The cards weredivided into these three groups. Next, the cards were divided by the widthof the head into the categories of less than average, average, and above av-erage, producing nine possible combinations. The third subdivision was bylength of the middle finger, with twenty-seven possibilities. Finally the fourthsubdivision, by the measurement of the foot, produced eighty-one possiblecombinations.8 Each subdivision reduced the number of people per drawer,and thus the amount of time it took to identify whether a suspect was arepeat offender. Bertillonage allowed a trained clerk to measure and identifyan offender in less time than ever. The chance of two individuals having theexact same eleven measurements was calculated as 4,194,304 to one.9

Administrative changes at the prefecture offered Bertillon the opportu-nity to present his system again, and he was given a trial period of threemonths during which he needed to identify a recidivist criminal solely byhis new system. His defining moment came in February of 1883 when heused his Bertillon cabinet to identify a repeat offender, “Martin” who waspreviously convicted of stealing empty milk bottles.10 After that more crim-inals were identified every month. Word of Bertillonage spread throughoutEurope and its colonies and eventually to North America where it was en-thusiastically adopted. On February 1, 1888, Alphonse Bertillon’s innovationwas recognized in his appointment as Chief of the Service of Judicial Iden-tity, and “within a month of his appointment Bertillon had recommendedthat the photographic department should be attached to his.”11

The demise of Bertillon’s system came almost as quickly as its ascent.Many attribute this to the famous Will West case of 1903. Upon being admit-ted to Leavenworth Penitentiary, Will West was measured and photographed.When the record-clerk searched the file, he found a card with similar Bertillonmeasurements and a striking photographic likeness, belonging to a man alsonamed William West. Will West vehemently denied having been previouslyin the institution, and for good reason. The second Will West was currentlyincarcerated for life at Leavenworth, and, when summoned, proved almostindistinguishable from the new prisoner (see Figure 3).

In examining the photographs and data, the similarities are obvious, butnot exact. In fact, Bertillon would have argued that the variance of sevenmillimeters (28.2 centimeters as opposed to 27.5) in the foot measurementwas beyond the allowed limit.12 However, this case was not Bertillon’s onlymishap. His involvement in a famous false conviction case in the previousdecade had already damaged his reputation.

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FIGURE 3 Photographs and Measurements of the Two Will Wests.

Bertillon was drawn into the scandalous Dreyfus Affair that rockedFrance at the turn of the twentieth century. Not only was he a master ofportrait photography, Bertillon was also the pioneer behind what is nowknown as crime scene photography. Bertillon’s system of “metric photog-raphy” was based on his introduction of a measuring scale with the objectbeing photographed, “so that there was a permanent record of the scaleof the photograph in general.”13 It was in this capacity that Bertillon wassought out in the Dreyfus Affair; he was asked to photograph and enlargethe document that was at the center of the case. Bertillon and other scientistsinspected the photograph. Bertillon professed no expertise in the study andcomparison of handwriting. At first he did not believe the writing was that ofDreyfus. However, after several logical but a priori judgments, he changedhis mind. Captain Alfred Dreyfus was arrested and accused of treason basedon the bordereau, the handwritten note that Bertillon inspected. Through aneffective demonstration, Bertillon proved during testimony that Dreyfus wasthe author of the document in question, and because of this evidence, he wasconvicted. After a few years, the case came to national attention and the con-viction was questioned. Bertillon never wavered, even when the verdict wasoverturned, Dreyfus was set free, and Bertillon’s testimony disregarded.14 Hisobstinacy and inability to admit mistakes had led to his downfall. Althoughthis case was not responsible for the rejection of Bertillonage, it does attestto the personality traits that would not serve Bertillon well when questionedabout his system.

Although the Dreyfus and West cases seemed damning, the last nail inthe coffin to Bertillon’s system was scientific progress. In fact, as Peter J.Hutching points out, “Bertillonage developed alongside other identification

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systems, and it had a widespread success, a success which in part led toits demise.”15 Even before Bertillon was born, scientists and police officershad been experimenting with the identification of criminals by the uniqueridges of the finger. However, the lack of an accessible filing system delayedperfection and adoption. Inspired by Bertillon’s exponential filing system,Juan Vucetich of Argentina and Sir Edward Henry of England independentlycreated accessible systems for fingerprint identification. At first, fingerprintswere added to Bertillon cards (to their creator’s dismay), or the two sys-tems were used together. Eventually the uniqueness of fingerprints provedthe most reliable method of identification and the Bertillon system was aban-doned. Alphonse Bertillon’s vehement defense and championing of his mea-surement classification until his death in 1914 was the main bolster for itspopularity. In effect, the system passed with its creator.

LITERATURE AND EXHIBIT REVIEW

While use of Bertillon materials for their original intentions generally yieldedfavorable results, the materials have also been used for other purposes, run-ning the gamut from artistic to educational, and have been misapplied inthe name of science, for example, by proponents of eugenics. One of thefirst American publications concerning Bertillonage was by J. Gray in thejournal Man in 1905. Gray was familiar with anthropometry, the science ofskeletal measurement, and lamented, “The chief difficulty in the anthropo-metric system of identification lies in the classification of records.”16 He wenton to describe the exponential division of cards while pointing to possibleproblems with card location. He concluded by suggesting, “The system ofclassification which I propose is to bring the card to be allocated always intothe center of the limits of a compartment. This is done by making the limitsof a compartment moveable instead of fixed, as in the Bertillon system.”17

The author was arguing for a Bertillonage-like system over others, and thisis verified by his closing shot at fingerprint inaccuracies. It is interesting howscientists were eventually forced to choose the latter over the former, evenwhen some, like Gray, were serious supporters. But these supporters wereno match for scientific progress as evidenced by a survey of criminal iden-tification systems written in 1931 by J. Edgar Hoover. In his article, Hooverprovides a brief comparison of Bertillonage to contemporary methods, in-cluding an abrupt description of its ascendance and lengthy focus on itsdeficiencies. He gives Bertillon some credit by admitting that “the Bertillonsystem continued to render valuable service to organized society in its fightagainst crime until the advent of scientific fingerprint identification.”18 Thisgrudging admission, oft repeated, benefits from hindsight and belies therevolutionary nature of Bertillonage.19

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Moving away from the system and examining the man himself, there isonly one widely published biography on Bertillon, Alphonse Bertillon: Fatherof Scientific Detection by Henry Rhodes. However, Bertillon’s contributionsare so varied that he is mentioned frequently in books on criminal inves-tigation and scientific modernism. Dealing with the latter, Jennifer MichaelHecht’s work The End of the Soul: Scientific Modernity, Atheism, and An-thropology in France gives a brief and useful history of Bertillon’s life, work,and controversial beliefs.20 She lauds his contributions to criminalistics andeven recognizes his crucial advancements in photography. Even more inter-esting, she includes him in her chapter on “Careers in Anthropology and theBertillon Family’’ under the subheading “The Family Bertillon.”21 Bertillonwould find this extremely appropriate, as he owed his passion for and suc-cess from anthropometry to his father. However, the focus of this work is“Scientific Modernity, Atheism, and Anthropology in France,” and one cansee a difference in Bertillon’s importance when the subject is science. Theeditors of Forensic Science: An Encyclopedia of History, Methods, and Tech-niques barely mention Bertillonage, allowing it to make a brief appearancein the introduction for use as a foil to the evolution of fingerprinting.22 Themost comprehensive study on the use of human statistical information inarchives is “The Body and the Archive” written by Allan Sekula in 1986. Thisdense article mentions Bertillon numerous times and takes his theories ofindividuation to new theoretical heights, including recognizing his critical,yet unintentional, contribution to eugenic studies.23 Sekula shows Bertillon’sdesire to respect the individual and reemphasizes his lack of personal crimi-nal theory.24 This article embraces late nineteenth century scientific optimismin its understanding of the hopes, triumphs, and failures of Bertillonage.

While Bertillon’s system was not without flaws, he never imagined thatit would be considered a failure. The immediate criticism of the Will andWilliam West case in any discussion of Bertillon is frustratingly naive. Oneexception in how Bertillon is treated is the extensively researched SuspectIdentities: A History of Fingerprinting and Criminal Identification, written bySimon Cole using the Bertillon Collection at the New York State Archives.25

Cole understands Bertillon’s individuating tendencies and highlights thesein his discussion of measuring the criminal body. “In this way, Bertillonagefit into a broader emphasis on individualization that was taking root inevery facet of modern criminal justice systems . . . criminologists were makingindividual criminals their unit of analysis, and authorities and institutionswere seeking to treat convicts as individuals.”26 Cole then goes on to explainthe bastardization of this evaluation:

But far from understanding deterministic criminology, Bertillonage playedinto the same categories: for all practical purposes, Bertillon’s recidivistwas the criminal anthropologists’ elusive “born criminal,” and the specialpenal regimens designed for the born criminal were simply applied to the

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recidivist. What emerged, then, was a new way of visualizing criminality:the authorities did not read criminality in the body itself, but rather usedthe body as an index to a written criminal record.27

Cole also provides significant evidence calling into question the “crucialtest” of the Will and William West case. Cole states that the entire story wasfabricated, as it could not have occurred the way many have recounted.Among his arguments, Cole points to contemporary scholarly literature—ifthis case were so decisive, surely there would be mention of it in the pressor scientific literature of the day. However, there is none. Leavenworth’shistorian could locate no evidence in the prison records between 1903 and1910, and the first published mention of the incident is in the 1918 bookPersonal Identification.28 It seems as though this crucial challenge may nothave occurred at all.

EXHIBITION OF BERTILLON CARDS

Bertillon cards have been used in museum exhibitions for many years fordifferent purposes. They provide supplementary or biographical evidence.When placed next to artifacts belonging to the same individual, the Bertilloncard is a physical manifestation of criminal activity. A good example of thisis the “Organized Crime: ‘The Black Hand’” online exhibition for The Smith-sonian National Postal Museum.29 One image, the digitally manipulable copyof Salvatore Arrigo’s card, indicating his arrest for “illegal use of mails” allowsthe viewer to interact with a primary source that conveys the magnitude ofArrigo’s crimes.

Bertillon cards serve as a historical benchmark in the progress of sciencein identifying criminals. As such, the San Diego Police Museum includedBertillon cards in an exhibition on the history of forensics and criminalinvestigation. As seen in Figure 4, the New York City Police Museum featuresan exhibition dedicated to Bertillonage. Though the descriptive plaque isbrief, it helps to introduce the system and exposes visitors to a piece ofcriminalistic history.

Another online exhibition of this summary nature can be found on theWeb site of the National Library of Medicine.30 Here the Bertillon system isconsidered a forensic technology. The description is brief but informativeand provides pictures of the measurement process. Finally, Bertillon pho-tographs and their relation to legal evidence are mentioned in an exhibitionfor the New York University Grey Art Gallery.31 This electronic exhibition,titled “Police Pictures: The Photographs as Evidence,” briefly discusses thescientific contributions that Bertillon made to metric photography. Almost asimportant as Bertillonage or the portrait parle, Bertillon’s advancements inmetric photography helped investigators relate to a scene without ever beingpresent.

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FIGURE 4 Explanation of the Bertillion System by the New York City Police Museum. Pho-tograph taken by author at the New York City Police Museum, December 1, 2008.

Since the introduction of Bertillon’s system, scientists and researchershave misunderstood and manipulated his work. Bertillon wanted to usehis measurements to individuate human beings. A person had a specific,unchanging set of measurements that could be used to identify him or heranywhere in the world. His focus on individuality carried through in his treat-ment of the people he photographed—he was known for treating them po-litely and without contempt.32 His individuating mind-set contrasted with themotives and techniques of some of his colleagues, known as criminal anthro-pologists. One of their main goals was to define the criminal body accordingto physical characteristics and numbers. With this, scientists wished to provethat criminals were born with determinative physical features that doomedthem from birth. This idea became part of a social eugenics movement, andBertillon’s name became associated with it as well due to the perceptionthat his work was an example of criminal anthropology. This association isstill strong as exemplified in Nicole Hahn Rafter’s online exhibition “Biolog-ical Theories of Crime: A Historical Interview: Searching the Criminal Body:Art/Science/Prejudice,” which addresses this association while acknowledg-ing that Bertillon’s work was not an example of criminal anthropology (inthat he was seeking to measure individuals to identify repeat offenders ratherthan define criminal classes through physical characteristics).33 Bertillon wasnot interested in any eugenic applications of his work. Though his inclu-sion in discussions of criminal anthropologists and eugenics is appropriate,he need not be situated in such close proximity to that unfortunate socialmovement. Another example of this application also provides an intrigu-ing example of how Bertillon photographs can be seen as art. Perfecting

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Mankind: Eugenics and Photography, curated by Carol Sanders in winter2001 at the International Center of Photography, takes an uncomfortablelook at how far humans will go to achieve and replicate physical perfection.While there are no mug shot photographs included, there are pictures ofBertillon taking measurements and his instructions for doing so. It is thistype of proximity that strengthens an incorrect association and further dam-ages the pioneering nature of the system. It is the ultimate goal of this articlenot only to reintroduce Bertillon cards as revealing primary sources but alsoto expose people to the technological leap that was Bertillonage.

SURVEY METHODOLOGY

When I began my internship with the New York City Police Museum, Idid not and could not conceive of the inspiration the Bertillon materialswould provide. The combination of photographic and documentary evi-dence seemed extraordinary for the turn of the twentieth century. In Julyand August of 2008, I designed a survey concerning Bertillon collection useand policies and sent it to eleven archival repositories throughout the UnitedStates34 in an attempt to answer several research questions. Of what histor-ical value are the contents of Bertillon cards? How can the quantitative andqualitative information on the cards be used for historical research? Whathave been the misapplications of Bertillonage and Bertillon’s research? Andhow have museums and public history institutions used/displayed Bertilloncollections? The main goal of this survey was to collect data concerning eachcollection’s physical preservation practices, use patterns, and access tools.The surveyed institutions were selected by the academic search enginesWorldCat, Archives USA, and ArchiveGrid. A keyword search of “Bertillon”netted thirty-one entries for archival material, most of these residing in theNew York State Archives. I contacted all institutions with related collectionsin an attempt to obtain thorough and relevant replies. Eleven in-depth re-sponses and one in-person interview made the survey a complete success.35

Of the eleven responses, six were institutional archives, four were historicalsocieties, and one was a museum—types of institutions that would benefitfrom, and have the ability to implement, innovative approaches to theseunderutilized primary sources.

THE SURVEY

The following sections describe the survey results delineated by institution.See the Appendix for the survey in full.

The New York City Police Museum

The New York City Police Museum served as the inspiration for this sur-vey, and the treatment of its collection provides a glimpse at the nexus for

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archival theory and practice. Located in an historic five-story gothic structure,the museum is a relatively young institution, having moved to its current lo-cation in the First Precinct on 100 Old Slip in 2002. I began my work there asa collections intern under the museum registrar Beth Spinelli. When Spinelliand her crew of interns arrived in 2007/2008, they made collections man-agement a priority and took a month to move boxes, build shelves, cleanoffices, stack blotters, and remove bags of construction refuse. Our laborsresulted in two clean, well-lit research and storage areas that allowed Spinelliand her interns the opportunity to find out exactly what the Police Museumhad accumulated. For all my hard work, I was given an office in which toattack the Bertillon Collection.

The New York City Police Museum received its Bertillon cards from theNew York Police Department, though the donor and date of acquisition areunknown. This collection should be considered extensive for several reasons.First, it contains well over 5,000 cards, spanning a time period from the 1890sto the 1930s. By the late nineteenth century, New York was already America’slargest city, and the immigration boom during the turn of the century broughtmillions more. In order to better deal with this movement of people, the NewYork City Police Department developed a filing system, based on a five-digit“B” number, assigned to an offender. As previously discussed, the successof Bertillonage was based on rapid identification of the criminal using aBertillon cabinet. This allowed the clerk to find a recidivist by using theindividual Bertillon measurements and their relationship to the “average” ormean in the Bertillon index. It is unclear whether the NYPD system wasdeveloped after or in tandem with (but unaware of) the original Bertillonagesystem. Nevertheless, the cards came to the museum in blue envelopes withthe “B” (possibly for Bertillon?) number in the upper right hand corner. Otherenvelopes were marked with an “E,” a designation of unknown derivation.

The collection can also be considered extensive because of the mate-rial contents. Sometimes the envelopes contained more than just Bertilloncards; about 40 percent had newspaper articles or correspondence relatedto the individual. Many had both. It appeared that once an individual wasassigned a number, the police department created a file, and an employeewas responsible for adding related material to the file. Most accompanyingnewspaper articles described the crime committed or the ensuing trial. Moreheinous or infamous crimes garnered large amounts of this documentation.The term “correspondence” was used to describe the remaining material inthe envelopes. This included written correspondence, index cards, wantedposters, criminal records, and more. The depth that this record keepingachieved seems astonishing at first, but in reality it is a perfect example ofhighly bureaucratized organizations of the late nineteenth and early twenti-eth century.36

The size of the collection, twenty-three letter and legal manuscriptboxes, and (as interns) our limited knowledge of archival collections,

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presented some daunting processing problems. We decided that a sampleof the cards would be individually sleeved in negative sleeves while the restwould be left in the blue envelopes. Articles and correspondence in thissample were also preserved in Melinex, a sturdy and flexible archival gradepolyester envelope that is transparent and chemically inert.37 The sample wasstored in materials that meet archival standards, while the remaining twenty-one boxes were not. While this sample of item-level processing was tedious,it did reveal one key document that verified the legal status of the individualson the cards. In response to a photograph request from the Newark, NewJersey, Detective Bureau, the New York Detective Bureau explained that“she was not photographed, as we do not photograph anyone until afterthey are convicted.”38 The envelopes were organized into numerical order(by “B” and “E” number) and all loose supplementary material was returnedto the proper envelope, if possible. There were also two 8 1/2 × 10 1/2× 12′′ archival boxes of unsortable material, mainly degrading newspaperarticles. The total volume of the collection came to 29.38 cubic feet, as notedon the finding aid and inventory box list that I created upon completion.39

There are no electronic search systems to provide access to this collection,but hopefully this will be remedied once it has joined its companion collec-tion in the New York City Municipal Archives. Finally, the New York CityPolice Museum does have an exhibit that features Bertillon cards. Titled “TheBertillon System,” this wall panel and display of eighty-four cards briefly ex-plains Bertillonage and allows the visitor a view of the front and back ofeach card. It is unclear how the individual cards in the exhibit were chosen.

Regardless of their provenance or their current use patterns, the BertillonCard Collection at the New York City Police Museum might be better servedat another location. Although Bertillon cards can be included in exhibitions,they are mainly research tools. Historians and genealogists use Bertillon cardsas important source material, but as of this writing, the Police Museum’scollections are not open to researchers. The museum is pursuing accredi-tation by the American Association of Museums for whom being open toresearchers is a criterion, so the cards availability to the public may changein the near future.

New York City Municipal Archives

The New York City Municipal Archives was another institution I was ableto investigate more closely because of its location and because the otherhalf of the New York Police Department Bertillon cards reside there. TheMunicipal Archives was founded in 1950 and “preserves and makes avail-able the historic records of New York City municipal government.”40 Twointerviews with director of the Municipal Archives, Lenora Gidlund, revealedmuch but still left some important questions unanswered. The archives re-ceived the collection of Bertillon cards in the 1980s from an unidentified

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police officer. Gidlund had the impression that the cards were “swept upoff the floor and donated rather unceremoniously.”41 Despite this previoustreatment, the collection has been preserved well at the archives. Listed un-der “Photographs,” there are more than 7,000 cards (more than 50 cubicfeet of records).42 Individual cards have been sleeved in Melinex slips andwere then placed in acid-free envelopes, along with any of the supplemen-tary material contained in the original blue envelopes (most of which werethrown away). These envelopes are kept in standard (15 5/8 × 5 1/4 × 105/8) archival boxes.

The collection is organized by number, but access is augmented byan amazing, though limited, electronic search function. The database wascreated using a program called Dbase 4 when the collection was donated,was revised between two to five years ago,43 and was converted recently toMicrosoft Access. Every entry includes the Case Number, Name, Alias, Dateof Conviction, Crime, Attachment, Gender, and any comment on the file.As of the date of my interview, the database was accessible only throughGidlund’s personal computer, and she could search by Name, Date, andCrime. This database adds incalculable value to the collection, as it seemsto be the only one of its kind in the United States. The cards are usedinfrequently, however. Even if people know of the information that the cardscontain, the retrieval processes appear so cumbersome that use becomesprohibitive. For genealogical researchers, the most common user for thiscollection, the database can locate a family member in a fraction of the time,alleviate the physical burden of transportation to the research room, andreduce much unnecessary physical disruption to the rest of the materials.For any historical researcher, the date and crime searches produce botha wealth of information and allow them to locate these resources withoutdigging through innumerable boxes. Consequently, it would be better if thisdatabase could exist elsewhere than on a personal computer.

A follow-up interview, however, revealed changes at the MunicipalArchives that will benefit the repository, researchers, and the collection as awhole. When I returned to clarify some final questions and notify Gidlundthat I planned to publish my article, which eventually would result in savvyresearchers seeking out this collection, I was surprised and excited to hearthat the New York City Municipal Archives was about to launch what shecalled “Active Desktop,” a multimedia search function, soon to be availableon the ten computers in the research room (see Figure 5).

Of the six categories (Photo Collections, Mayoral Collections, VitalRecords Genealogy, Board of Education Collection, Collection Guides,and City Hall Library Catalog), Bertillon records are placed with thephotographs.44 Very few Bertillon cards have been digitized, but the Mi-crosoft Access database search will be available. I explained to Gidlund thatthis was the only database of its type that I had located, and that makingit available to scholars would only increase the quality of scholarship. This

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FIGURE 5 Unofficial “Active Desktop” Home Page and Site Map. Source: Courtesy of LeonoraGidlund, Director of the New York City Municipal Archives.

model can easily be replicated by any of the other institutions that maintainBertillon collections. Finally, the New York City Municipal Archives is one ofonly three institutions to have an exhibit including Bertillon cards. Interest-ingly enough, they were included on an exhibition featuring “funny hats.”

The National Archives and Records Administration

The Bertillon records held at the National Archives and Records Admin-istration (NARA) at College Park provide a bleaker example of the futurethat faces many of these collections. With a guide available online, it waseasy to find that Bertillon cards existed in the records of the Bureau ofCriminal Identification (BCI) and then the Federal Bureau of Investigation(FBI). It took some time and effort however to find a staff member whowas knowledgeable about these collections. Archives Technician StephenUnderhill came to my assistance and was happy to fulfill my request forinformation. He provided no acquisition date but indicated that the recordswere accessioned from the FBI. The collection contains less than 500 cardsthat are not sleeved but instead have been placed in a legal archives box(15 5/8 × 5 1/4 × 10 5/8).45

In contrast to other collections, these cards were sorted by name. Twopossibilities may account for this decision. One may be that the BCI andFBI kept records of federal criminals and the familiarity of these suspectsmade locating their card superfluous. The other possibility is that there wasa numbering system that was later abandoned and the cards were re-sortedbefore they arrived at the archives. Either way, sorting by name is the mostefficient strategy for genealogical researchers who are searching for a sur-name. Various factors including the location of the collection, the lack of anelectronic search function to find these items, and staffing issues make the

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collection largely inaccessible. My fear that the cards were underutilized wasconfirmed by Underhill’s admission that mine was the only research requestthat he had serviced for the Bertillon cards. Given the popularity of conduct-ing genealogical research through databases and the Internet, it is frustratingthat these rich resources have not reached a higher number of researchers.

Massachusetts State Archives

At the Massachusetts State Archives, the search for Bertillon cards revealeda set of Bertillon Books. According to the mission statement on its Website, “The Massachusetts Archives serves the Commonwealth and its citizensby preserving and making accessible the records documenting governmentaction and by assisting government agencies in managing their permanentrecords.”46 Archivist John Hannigan responded to the survey, indicating thepresence of what he called “Registrar Books” from the Massachusetts StatePrison at Charlestown and the Women’s Prison in Framingham. The term“registrar” indicates that these measurements were taken and recorded uponadmission to either prison. However, Hannigan goes on to note that “the de-scriptions of both series note that information taken from Bertillon cards wasentered into these register books. Presumably, the cards were subsequentlydestroyed.”47 So it appears that Bertillon cards existed, but someone foundtheir form irrelevant, transcribed the information, and destroyed the cards.This is slightly discomfiting. Since the information contained within the cards,rather than the physical cards themselves, are important to researchers, thetranscription seems logical. Unfortunately, there is no information concern-ing the fate of the mug shots attached to the cards. Inspection of New YorkCity Bertillon cards leads me to believe that the glue used to affix the picturesto the cardboard made removing the photographs impossible. Additionally,without the originals, it is difficult to verify the accuracy of the transcriptions.

Minnesota Historical Society Library

The Minnesota Historical Society Library’s Bertillon card collection was awell-processed example of archival material of this nature. One reason forthis attention could be that the “Saint Paul (Minnesota) Department of Po-lice, Identification Photograph Cards, 1891–1911” was a smaller collection,containing less than 500 cards. Reference Associate Steve Nielsen indicatedthat the collection was donated by the St. Paul Police Department (dateunknown), organized by file number, and stored in photo storage boxes.48

Fortunately, there was an electronic search system available for these cards,but it is unavailable outside the library.49 Further investigation through theMinnesota Historical Society Library’s Web site uncovered the electronicguide for the “Identification Photograph Cards” which, under “Finding Aids,”revealed that “A card list is available in the repository; filed under Ramsey

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County: St. Paul: Police Department.”50 It is one of the most complete elec-tronic catalog records in this survey and provides some hope for the futuretransparency of these collections. There is also a small description of Bertilloncards and mug shots under the collections section of the site.51 Finally,Nielsen added that the collection was used about once a year, with crime andcriminals in Minnesota as the most recent subject. Judging from the electronicguide availability, and considering the excellent reputation of the MinnesotaHistorical Society, it is reasonable to say that the size of the collection andthe nature of the repository account for the enhanced level of processing.

New York State Archives

An electronic keyword search of archival repositories through the WorldCatsearch engine revealed that the largest number of Bertillon card collectionsresided in the New York State Archives in Albany. Jim Folts, Head of Ref-erence Services for the State Archives, submitted that, “Records containingBertillon data were transferred to NY State Archives from various facilitiesof the NYS Department of Correctional Services,”52 including Attica, Auburn,and Sing-Sing. As indicated, the Bertillon records did not constitute onecollection but were included in the collections of various correctional in-stitutions, making up well over 5,000 cards. Because of the immense sizeand diverse nature of these collections, individual cards are not sleeved.However, the collections are stored in a secure, climate-controlled facility.

The organization of the Bertillon information varied by collection butwas usually sorted by inmate number or admission date, two numbers thatcorresponded as well. However, this was somewhat useless since there wasno search function provided. An electronic guide was available throughthe “Excelsior” online catalog.53 Despite the vast amount of historical andgenealogical information stored within these cards, these collections are usedless than once a year. Folts observed that the “only substantive academicresearch use of Bertillon records in NY State Archives was by Simon Colefor his book, Suspect Identities: A History of Fingerprinting and CriminalIdentification.”54

Pennsylvania State Archives

The Bertillon collections at the Pennsylvania State Archives were difficultto find because the cards were disguised in the form of fifteen volumesof Bertillon records. “Record Group 15: Records of the Department ofJustice” contain books from both Eastern and Western State Penitentiariesthat were later transferred from those institutions to the State Archives.55

The volumes are stored on shelves, and some are boxed; all fifteenhave been microfilmed, possibly due to their fragility and cumbersomenatures. According to Jonathan Stayer, Head of the Reference Section at

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the Pennsylvania State Archives, the collection was organized by date andnumber. It is safe to assume that this meant the names within the volume areorganized this way and that the inmate number corresponds to the date ofhis or her incarceration. There were no search functions, but an extremelydetailed guide to the collection is available online.56 This guide provided abox-level description of the collection, which is divided into nine sections,including Eastern and Western Penitentiaries. These sections were organizedalphabetically with “Bertillon Hand Books” under population records. Thelink to the more detailed description and holdings was extremely useful.The description reveals that there are no actual measurements on thecards, but the portrait parle is still intact.57 Finally, the “Holdings” linkprovides a box-level description with key annotation like the inclusion ofdischarge date.58 The collection is used about once a month and usuallyfor genealogy or family history. At the time of my survey, there were noplans for an exhibition, even though Pennsylvania State Archives is in theunique position of supporting a cultural institution that has the properforum for these materials. The Eastern State Penitentiary Museum, the mostsuccessful prison museum since Alcatraz,59 would be an excellent place tohave a Bertillon display or even a workshop educating visitors about thegenealogical research opportunities that the record books provide.

Ohio Historical Society

The Bertillon materials at the Ohio Historical Society were spread throughoutseven different collections, mainly the State Archives of Ohio series, trans-ferred from Department of Corrections. No accession dates were provided,but the cards span the years 1888 to 1923.60 Access Services Manager LouiseJones included copies of the finding aids for all related collections in hersurvey response. The approximately 5,000 cards are not sleeved individuallybut were instead stored in archival boxes and folders and organized by pris-oner number. In response to whether the cards could be accessed throughan electronic search system, Jones responded affirmatively adding, “our SirsiDynix Horizon catalog contains bibliographic records and our inventoriesand finding aids are in MS Word.”61 While this is an electronic record, it doesnot allow the researcher to search the cards individually without handlingthem. The collection is used infrequently, about once a month, and there areno plans for any exhibition. It is interesting to note that Ohio Penitentiarywas one of the first institutions to adopt Bertillonage in 1887, and there-fore would have some of oldest Bertillon cards on record. While the OhioHistorical Society recognized the value of the collection in relation to itspenal history, they may not have considered the genealogical benefits. Likethe New York City Municipal Archives, the Ohio Historical Society couldbe ready to launch a new trend in scholarship if it used a few electronicresources to increase access to the rich primary sources in its holdings.

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San Diego Police Historical Association

The San Diego Police Historical Association is in the process of openingthe San Diego Police Museum. Their informative home page led me to VicePresident Steve Willard. The Bertillon collection has no title, and was listedas donated by the San Diego Police Archives. I believe the creator sourceto be accurate, but the donation likely came from the San Diego MunicipalArchives for two reasons. First, the San Diego Police are a municipal entity,and therefore their records fall under the collecting scope of the MunicipalArchives. Second, I contacted Ellen Smith of the City Clerk’s Office of SanDiego and she forwarded the Archives Index List of the repository’s hold-ings. It lists Box A-0035 as containing information and documents relatedto the San Diego Police Department, along with a notation that the boxwas transferred to the San Diego Police Historical Museum in December of2003.62 The less than 500 cards are individually sleeved and stored in a se-cure, climate-controlled room. Unlike other collections organized by name ornumber, this collection is organized as “General booking cards from the early1900s.”63 There could be many reasons for this. It is possible that the use ofthe collection does not warrant further organization. Research use could beless genealogical in nature and therefore alphabetizing is unnecessary. Dueto the relative age and resources of the institution, it is not surprising that noelectronic value has been added to this collection. However, two of Willard’sresponses stood out. The San Diego Police Museum will be the third sur-veyed repository to have an exhibit featuring Bertillon cards, with the focusof forensic science. It is inspiring to see Alphonse Bertillon recognized in thefield for which he worked so hard. The second surprise was the most recentresearch subject. While the majority of institutions serve genealogy requests,the San Diego collection was used most recently for historical research onarrest patterns at the turn of the century.64

Wisconsin Historical Society

The response from the Wisconsin Historical Society was informative. In-cluded in the “Wisconsin State Prison Collection,” these Bertillon recordswere one of two sets to be stored on microfilm. According to ReferenceArchivist Henry Miller, “The records originated at the Wisconsin State Prisonin Waupun, Wisconsin, and we acquired them in keeping with our statutoryrole as State Archives.”65 With twenty-four rolls of microfilm, he did not indi-cate how many cards these might contain. There was no electronic access tothe rolls, search or otherwise, and they were used infrequently (more thanonce per year, but not once a month). Though he could not say for certain,Miller admitted that the cards were used almost exclusively for genealogy.From the viewpoint of the computer generation, microfilm is cumbersomeand foreign. Though these complaints do not decrease the viability of the

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format, they do indicate that technological familiarity and preference will af-fect how often a medium is used. The frequency of use is not high enough tojustify full digitization, but it is reasonable to suggest that selective scanningand proper publicity could increase interest significantly.

Wyoming State Archives

The Bertillon material at the Wyoming State Archives is in the “WyomingState Board of Charities & Reform” Collection, donated by the WyomingState/Territorial Prison. Like many other collections, this one has both phys-ical cards and what are described as books. According to reference archivistCindy Brown, these are “[a] series of twenty-two Bertillon Books, from 1873to 1981. We also have a series of more than 5,000 mug shot cards which havea section on the back with space for Bertillon information, but the informa-tion was not consistently put on the cards.”66 This seems to be a commonpractice in the smaller police departments. Individual cards are sleeved andstored in archival boxes. Both the Bertillon Books and the mug shot cardsare stored in a climate-controlled environment, with a dry-pipe fire sup-pression system.67 The Bertillon Books and mug shot cards are arranged bypenitentiary inmate number, which corresponds to the date that they werereceived at the penitentiary. This is common throughout the United Statespenal system.

Two aspects make this collection at the Wyoming State Archives unique.First, the archives has an alphabetical inmate index, which is filed separatelyfrom the rest of the collection. This makes it one of only two repositorieswith any specific search capabilities. This is extremely surprising since theother, the New York City Municipal Archives, is quite different from theWyoming State Archives in location and number of visitors. Despite thesedifferences, the Bertillon cards and books are in high demand in Wyoming.When asked about the frequency of collection use, Brown indicated, “For themug shot cards, it is a little more than once a week, for the Bertillon Booksit is maybe once a year.”68 The majority of the research was genealogicalin nature, a probable reason for the “individual” search function. There wasno electronic guide available for the collections, but some of the cards havebeen scanned. Brown says that, “[the Wyoming State Archives] scan bothmug shot cards and Bertillon Book as requested, therefore some mug shotsare scanned, but not a high percentage.”69 She did not indicate whether thescans are created for individual use, or placed on the Internet for futureaccess. Like most repositories, the Wyoming State Archives has no plans foran exhibition.

CONCLUSIONS

From the extensive survey responses to their inclusion in modern literature,Bertillon cards could be as vital today as they were a century ago. Bertillon

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cards are archival material and should be treated as such. These collectionsshould be placed in institutions that have the ability to provide physicaland intellectual access. Bertillon cards can be used as exhibitional artifacts,ephemeral reminders of the rampant criminality that they were designedto record. However, the most important uses of these materials fall toresearchers. Genealogists most frequently use Bertillon materials. Theseindividuals search for family members who time may have forgotten, andthey are given an opportunity to fill in some missing links. For historiansresearching crime and criminals, arrest patterns, and police activities at theturn of the past century, Bertillon records are perfect for both statisticalanalysis and individual examples. Despite these amazing opportunities, onlyone repository, the New York City Municipal Archives, has electronic search-ability at the item level. The decision to place this on the Active Desktop inthe Research Room is monumental, and hopefully, in conjunction with thisarticle, will change the perception of Bertillon cards as accessible researchmaterials. Finally, these prolific Bertillon records capture a class of peopleat a specific moment in time, a moment of growth and confusion. Thosewho ended up incarcerated were often quickly written off and forgotten bysociety. Though it was not the goal of the police employing Bertillonage,the material record that it produced satisfied Alphonse Bertillon’s ultimategoal: perpetual identification of the individual. He succeeded in producingwhat was almost certainly the only existing photographic and descriptiverecord of many individuals, stories and faces that would have been lostto history. Scholars will appreciate that this documentation has survivedfor more than 100 years only to reemerge as stimulating and important asever. Perhaps this is Bertillon’s greatest accomplishment: creating a recordthat allows researchers to see criminals as individuals and use his system tobetter appreciate the power of one.

NOTES

1. Henry F. Rhodes, Alphonse Bertillon: Father of Scientific Detection (New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1956), 52–53.

2. Ibid., 62.3. Ibid., 73.4. Ibid., 75–77.5. Alphonse Bertillon, Alphonse Bertillon’s Instructions for Taking Descriptions for the Identifica-

tion of Criminals, and Others by the Means of Anthropometric Indications. (New York: AMS Press Inc.,1977, 1889), 17.

6. Rhodes, Alphonse Bertillon, 82–83.7. Ibid., 108–109.8. Bertillon, Alphonse Bertillon’s Instructions for Taking Descriptions for the Identification of

Criminals, 7–8.9. Rhodes, Alphonse Bertillon, 82.

10. Ibid., 93.

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11. Ibid., 103.12. Ibid., 15613. Ibid., 107.14. Ibid., 162.15. Peter J. Hutchings, “Modern Forensics: Photography and other Suspects,” Cardozo Studies in

Law and Literature 9, no. 2 (1997): 236.16. J. Grey, “Anthropometric Identification: A New System of Classifying the Records,” Man 5

(1905), 84.17. Ibid., 86.18. J. Edgar Hoover, “Criminal Identification,” The American Journal of Police Science 2, no. 1

(January–February, 1931), 9–10.19. Nigel Morland, An Outline of Scientific Criminology (New York: Philosophical Library, 1950),

48.20. Jennifer Michael Hecht, The End of the Soul: Scientific Modernity, Atheism, and Anthropology

in France (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003).21. Ibid., 145.22. William J. Tilstone, Kathleen A. Savage, and Leigh A. Clark, Forensic Science: An Encyclopedia

of History, Methods, and Techniques (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2006), 19–20.23. Allan Sekula, “The Body and the Archive,” October 39 (Winter 1986), 19.24. Ibid., 25.25. James D. Folts, Head of Reference Services for the New York State Archives E-mail Survey.

November 1, 2008.26. Simon Cole, Suspect Identities: A History of Fingerprinting and Criminal Identification.

(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 56.27. Ibid., 58.28. Ibid., 143.29. The Smithsonian National Postal Museum, “Organized Crime: ‘The Black Hand,’” 2008, avail-

able at http://www.postalmuseum.si.edu/inspectors/a4p4.html (accessed August 12, 2008).30. National Library of Medicine, “Visible Proofs: Forensic Views of the Body: An Online Exhibi-

tion for the National Library of Medicine,” available at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/visibleproofs/galleries/technologies/bertillon.html (accessed August 11, 2008).

31. “Police Pictures: The Photographs as Evidence,” New York University Gray Art Gallery, StudentExhibition. Available at http://www.nyu.edu/greyart/exhibits/police/html/mug.html (accessed August 23,2008).

32. Rhodes, Alphonse Bertillon.33. Nicole Hahn Rafter, “Biological Theories of Crime: A Historical Interview: Searching the Crim-

inal Body: Art/Science/Prejudice,” University Art Museum, State University of New York at Albany. Avail-able at http://www.albany.edu/museum/wwwmuseum/criminal/curator/nicole.html (accessed 12 August12, 2008).

34. The survey and cover letter were modeled after those created by Tara Zachary Laver forher survey of faculty papers later published in “In A Class By Themselves: Faculty Papers at ResearchUniversity Archives and Manuscript Repositories,” American Archivist 66, no. 1 (2003): 159–196. I wouldlike to thank Dr. Peter Wosh, current Director of the Archives and Public History Programs at New YorkUniversity, for bringing attention to this paper and providing input on drafts of both the survey andarticle.

35. I am grateful for those who took the time to complete and return the surveys. This survey wasconducted for use in preparing a paper in order to fulfill final credits toward a master’s degree in archivesand public history with an emphasis in public history, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, New YorkUniversity.

36. JoAnne Yates, Control Through Communication: The Rise of System in American Management(Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1989).

37. Gaylord Brothers Library Supplies, Furniture, & Archival Solutions, “Melinex Envelopes,”available at http://www.gaylordmart.com/adblock.asp?abid=1491&sid=52B4E282D79F46B7B255A4B8D49A75 (accessed August 12, 2008).

38. “Photograph Request Response,” “The Bertillon Card Collection Inventory,” New York CityPolice Museum, INV: 2008.3.502.3.

39. B. Griffith, “Bertillon Collection Finding Aid,” New York City Police Museum, 2008.

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40. New York City Department of Records and Information Services, “Municipal Archives,” avail-able at http://www.nyc.gov/html/records/html/about/archives.shtml (accessed December 10, 2008).

41. Leonora Gidlund, interview, New York City Municipal Archives, July 2008.42. Ibid.43. Ibid.44. Gidland Interview, Active Desktop Homepage, “Photographs, 1889–1956,” New York

City Department of Records, Municipal Archives’ Collections, available at http://www.nyc.gov/html/records/html/collections/collections photographs.shtml (accessed July 15, 2008).

45. Stephen Underhill, Bertillon Collection Survey (New York: National Archives & RecordsAdministration, October 2008).

46. Massachusetts Archive, “Mission,” available at http://www.sec.state.ma.us/arc/arcmis/misidx.htm (accessed December 11, 2008).

47. John Hannigan, Bertillon Collection Survey (Boston, MA: Massachusetts State Archives).48. Steve Nielsen, Bertillon Collection Survey (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Library,

September 2008).49. Ibid.50. Minnesota Historical Society Library, “Identification Photograph Cards Catalog Record,” avail-

able at http://mnhs.mnpals.net/F/?func=find-c&ccl term=sys=006220165 (accessed November 22, 2008).51. Minnesota Historical Society, “St. Paul Police Department Mug Shots,” available at http://www.

mnhs.org/collections/upclose/mugshots.htm (accessed September 1, 2008).52. James D. Folts, Bertillon Collection Survey (Albany, NY: New York State Archives, October

2008).53. New York State Archives, “Excelsior Online Catalog,” available at http://nysl.nysed.gov/

uhtbin/cgisirsi/MTOEygwehq/ARCHIVES/125160017/60/56/X (accessed August 19, 2008).54. Folts, Bertillon Collection Survey55. Jonathan Stayer, Bertillon Collection Survey (Harrisburg, PA: Pennsylvania State Archives,

November 2008).56. Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission, “Pennsylvania State Archives: RG-15 Records

of the Department of Justice,” available at http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/bah/dam/rg/rg15.htm (accessedNovember 21, 2008).

57. Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission, “Bertillon Hand Books 1895–1937,” availableat http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/bah/dam/rg/sd/r15sd2.htm#15.52.

58. Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission, “Records of the Department of Justice: East-ern State Penitentiary Prison Population Records,” available at http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/bah/dam/rg/ys/r15ysd.htm#15.52.

59. Eastern State Penitentiary, “Eastern State Penitentiary Home Page,” available at http://www.easternstate.org/exhibits/index.php (accessed November 15, 2008).

60. Louise Jones, Bertillon Collection Survey, (Columbus, OH: Ohio Historical Society, December2008).

61. Ibid.62. San Diego City Clerk/Records Management Office, “Archives Index List (9–2003),” personal

e-mail, November 25, 2008.63. Steve Willard, Vice President of the San Diego Police Historical Association E-mail Survey,

December 8, 2008.64. Ibid.65. Harry Miller, Bertillon Collection Survey (Madison, WI: Wisconsin Historical Society). Though

it can be reasonably assumed that a majority of the collections arrived at any of the state archives for thisreason, Miller was the only respondent to indicate it explicitly.

66. Cindy Brown, Bertillon Collection Survey (Cheyenne, WY: Wyoming State Archives, September2008).

67. Ibid.68. Ibid.69. Ibid.

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APPENDIX

Bertillon Collection Survey

Name:

Title:

Collection Title:

Institution

Address:

E-mail:

How did your institution acquire the collection? Where did it originate from?

How extensive is the Bertillon Collection?

Less than 500 cards 500–2,000 2,000–5,000 5,000+How is the collection preserved?

• Are individual cards sleeved?• Collection storage:

How is the collection organized?

By name By date By number By crimeOther (please explain)

Can the collection be accessed through an electronic search system?Yes No

If yes, what database program do you use?

If yes, what are the search categories?

Name Date Number Crime

Other (please explain)

Is a guide to collection available online? Yes No

Are any of the Bertillon cards available electronically? Yes No

If yes, what percentage?

How often is the collection used?

Once a week Once a month Once a yearLess than once a year

Never

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] at

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2014

Bringing Bertillion Back 213

If possible, please provide the last research subject for which the BertillonCollection was used.

Subject:

Have you had or do you plan on having an exhibition including items fromthe Bertillon collection?

Yes No

If yes, please describe the subject of the exhibit and how the Bertillon cardswere used within it.

Subject:

Bertillon cards:

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

thea

ster

n U

nive

rsity

] at

11:

33 2

2 N

ovem

ber

2014