1. Maria G. Mandourari BRIDGEWATER TREATISES

2. Bridgewater Treatises on the Power, Wisdom and Goodness of God as Manifested in the Creation (18331836) Eighth Earl of Bridgewater, the Rev. Francis Henry Egerton (1756-1829) Seven leading men of science One prominent theological commentator 3. The Treatises Treatise I, by Thomas Chalmers: The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man. 2 vols. Treatise II, by John Kidd: On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man. Treatise III, by William Whewell: On Astronomy and General Physics. Treatise IV, by Charles Bell: The Hand: Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing Design. 4. Treatise V, by Peter Mark Roget: Animal and Vegetable Physiology Considered with Reference to Natural Theology. 2 vols. Treatise VI, by William Buckland: Geology and Mineralogy Considered with Reference to Natural Theology. 2 vols. Treatise VII, by William Kirby: On the History Habits and Instincts of Animals. 2 vols. Treatise VIII, by William Prout: Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion. 5. Extraordinary contemporary interest & celebrity unprecedented sales widespread reviewing 6. 1837: Charles Babbage's ((26 December 1791 18 October 1871) was an English polymath. He was a mathematician, philosopher, inventor and mechanical engineer, who is best remembered now for originating the concept of a programmable computer Ninth Bridgewater Treatise 7. 1882: William Stanley Jevons (1 September 1835 13 August 1882) was a British economist and logician. unofficial Bridgewater Treatise 8. 1835: Lord Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux (19 September 1778 7 May 1868) was a British statesman who became Lord Chancellor of Great Britain Discourse of Natural Theology 9. A). Presented the pious middle classes: nontechnical religiously conservative compendium of contemporary science 10. B). Written: Scientific and religious credentials (e.g. the President of the Royal Society and the Archbishop of Canterbury) 11. J. D. Yule: few commentators regarded it as being primarily a contribution to demonstrative natural theology, or to formal apologetics 12. The Results of the bequest The publication of a scientific encyclopaedia Successful in presenting a science acceptable to many middle-class readers Formed an important part of the pedagogic apparatus of those engaged in popular education 13. THE BRIDGEWATER TREATISES AS POPULAR LITERATURE Sir Charles Bell (12 November 1774 28 April 1842) was a Scottish surgeon, anatomist, neurologist and philosophical theologian. Treatise IV: The Hand: Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing Design. 14. Peter Mark Roget (18 January 1779 12 September 1869) was a British physician, natural theologian and lexicographer. He is best known for publishing, in 1852, the Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases (Roget's Thesaurus), a classified collection of related words. Treatise V: Animal and Vegetable Physiology Considered with Reference to Natural Theology. 2 vols. 15. 1826 founding members of the SDUK (The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, founded in 1826, and wound up in 1848, was a Whiggish London organisation that published inexpensive texts intended to adapt scientific and similarly high-minded material for the rapidly expanding reading public. It was established mainly at the instigation of Lord Brougham with the objects of publishing information to people who were unable to obtain formal teaching, or who preferred self- education). scientific treatises for the Society's Library of Useful Knowledge (182746) 16. The Rev. Thomas Chalmers (17 March 1780 31 May 1847), was a Scottish minister, professor of theology, political economist, and a leader of the Church of Scotland and of the Free Church of Scotland. He has been called "Scotland's greatest nineteenth-century churchman". He served as Vice- president of the Royal Society of Edinburgh from 1835-42 Treatise I: The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man 17. Theoretical problem of pauperism in his Christian and Civic Economy of Large Towns (1821-1826) The practical problems facing the urban poor (in Glasgow and then in the West Port in Edinburgh) Social management of the working classes depended crucially on the effects of Christian and scientific education 18. The Bridgewater Treatises were not expensive when considered as philosophical works but their prices were prohibitive for the working-class readers and for the petit bourgeoisie This was a source of great dissatisfaction to many commentators (e.g. in Quarterly Review & Unitarian Christian Reformer) 19. Why the Bridgewater bequest was so widely interpreted as an opportunity to publish a cheap and educational treatise of scientific natural theology? 20. The age of the cheap literature Quarterly Review in which literacy was on the increase Unitarian Christian Reformer 21. opportunity to publish an 'ennobling' scientific series which was sufficiently cheap to compete with street literature Commentators: how the Bridgewater bequest might have been better managed to meet educational criteria 22. BROUGHAMITE EDUCATION Set the pace of early nineteenth-century education: Pioneering several new educational media mechanics' institutes immediately after 1823 23. The movement was not centrally co-ordinated The bourgeois patrons and managers shared some elements of the educational philosophy elaborated in Henry Brougham's Practical Observations on the Education of the People (1825) 24. 1826: The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (SDUK): important support for the mechanics' institutes, including much-needed cheap literature Science formed the paradigm of Broughamite educational practice, both in the institutes and in the SDUK. 25. Why science was particularly appropriate for working-class education? According to Henry Brougham's Objects, Advantages and Pleasures of Science (1827) 26. I. A scientific education helps a man 'to provide for his daily wants', not merely by increasing his skills, but also by inculcating 'habits of regular labour' 27. II. It enables men to make improvements in the arts, and discoveries in philosophy, which may directly benefit themselves and mankind'. 28. III.The abstract pleasure of discovery, which is associated with the advantage of becoming 'a wiser and therefore a more exalted creature'. 29. IV. The highest of all our gratifications in the contemplation of science' is that 'we are raised by them to an understanding of the infinite wisdom and goodness which the Creator has displayed in his works'. 30. Natural theology Broughamite educationalists: the teaching of science could only strengthen the cause of religion Natural theology was potentially controversial within the SDUK 31. scientific education Manage the working classes by the power of highly objectified natural science. Many Broughamites had faith in the controlling power of science. If the working classes were given a scientific education, they would become peacable, respectable and diligent. The Bridgewater Treatises were well-suited to the educational programme of the more moderate Broughamites 32. Important Broughamite criteria: 1. Authoritative 2. Systematic 3. Contemporary 4. Readable 5. No concessions to the revolutionary underworld 33. The Broughamite concern with safe science was explicit. The Treatises: valuable, independently of the theological argument The objective scientific credentials of the Treatises reconciled their natural theology with the Society's policy 34. The mechanics' institutes 35. Three main categories: 1) Lectures 2)Classes 3) Libraries 36. Lectures & Classes might be dispensed with in smaller institutes Libraries Indispensable 37. Establishment and maintenance of a library: the most expensive often the main attraction a major source of recruitment 38. Institute libraries: Disagreements over educational philosophy Dominated by books which were not chosen by either educationalists or members 39. Manual for Mechanics' Institutes 1839 London barrister, Baldwin Francis Duppa Detailed advice about their foundation and management 500 books which were considered desirable for inclusion in institute libraries 40. The recommended books: o The Bridgewater Treatises of Whewell, Bell, Roget and Buckland o Six works of formal natural theology in the SDUK oNo section for religious or theological books o The works were classified under the heading 'Moral and Political Philosophy - Metaphysics Law'. 41. The Bridgewater Treatises were widely dominants in mechanics' institutes libraries Almost complete absence of the series from working-class libraries established by churches and chapels 42. High Prices Treatises could not have been acquired casually 43. Burnley and Keighley: more of the Bridgewater Treatises than the institute at Lancaster. Even the most proletarian institutes had to show caution in order to gain necessary middle-class patronage 44. lecturers & Bridgewater Treatises Dr Lloyd who discussed Buckland's Bridgewater Treatise at length in the series of six lectures he gave before Leamington Mechanics' Institute in 1837 45. George Birkbeck, to whom William Whewell had sent a copy of his Bridgewater Treatise intended for the London Mechanics' Institute 46. Bridgewater Treatises were the textbooks to which lecturers directed their pupils for further study. Probably used in some of the classes, especially since these were often run in tandem with lecture-courses 47. The Library of Useful Knowledge (1827-1846) SDUK: i. New cheap publication media further its programme of popular scientific education ii. First publishing project: the Library of Useful Knowledge (LUK) 48. Library of Useful Knowledge: Earliest truly popular ventures in scientific educational publishing Considerable attention from historians No treatise 'contain any matter of controversial Divinity or interfere with the principles of revealed religion' 49. Peter Mark Roget Sir Charles Bell wrote treatises for the LUK 50. Roget: Electricity (1827) Galvanism (1829) Magnetism and Electromagnetism (1831) subjects very different from those covered in his Bridgewater Treatise Highly praised, and sold many thousands of copies 51. Charles Bell's: Animal Mechanics, or, Proofs of Design in the Animal Frame (1827- 29) Lucid: less incomprehensible biological sciences 52. First part of the LUK treatise, (August 1827): mechanism & functionalist anatomy Second part (February 1829): showing the application of living forces Paleys strictly mechanical natural theology of Paley Vital phenomena 53. The Penny Magazine (1832-1845) and the Penny Cyclopaedia (1833-1846) Penny Magazine: other useful knowledge miscellanies attempted to imitate. The Penny Cyclopaedia in weekly numbers ultimately filled twenty nine (29) 54. Volumes and was edited by George Long, one of the compilers of the book-list in the SDUK Manual. A number of extracts from the Bridgewater Treatises: avoided theological references and related entirely to the scientific exposition of the Treatise in question. 55. Natural theological books with sufficient scientific credibility Provided: 1. Working epitome of contemporary science 2. Uncorrupted by radical ideas 3. Set out in a relatively systematic and introductory form 4. Imprimatur of the Archbishop of Canterbury: opponents would view the Bridgewater Treatises as an indication of its wholesomeness 56. HIGH CHURCH EDUCATION Religious tract produced by the SPCK. One of the Committee's first publications was the weekly Saturday Magazine (18321844) Primary object of the Saturday Magazine: replace revolutionary politics of the radical press and the equally revolutionary secular 'useful knowledge' of the Penny Magazine 57. Bridgewater Treatises: oAttractive to the Society oExposition of a science which reinforce the High Church ideology 58. EVANGELICAL EDUCATION Chalmers: use of natural theology convince skeptics of the being of God Natural theology: reduces the need of grace Bridgewater Treatises: combined entertaining and useful knowledge with ennobling sentiments 59. Bridgewater Treatises: Publish safe science Oppose the doctrines of infidel science Served: Theological General Educational functions providing safe science 60. Conclusion Much too expensive for working-class readers to buy Readership was increased through the efforts of paternalist educators Workers could read the Treatises in mechanics' institutes, such libraries Could hear them in lectures and classes could also read extensive extracts from them in various 'useful knowledge' miscellanies 61. None of these media was used mainly by the working classes Treatises were far more widespread in popular education than has been appreciated Unique among the natural theology literature Provided science: culturally appropriate to a wide range of paternalist educators 62. Nineteenth century is the Premier Age of British Public Science The importance of science Legitimation of science Many disciplines began to professionalize Science in the public sphere Science and civic arena Science and educational system Science and religion Common language and a shared forum Journals and periodicals in public science communication 63. References List G. E. M. Anscombe, (1958), Modern Moral Philosophy in Philosophy, Vol. 33, No. 124, pp. 12 Bailey, Edward (1962). Charles Lyell. Nelson, London Birkbeck to Whewell, (1833), Trinity College, Cambridge, Add. Ms. a.20131 Chester W. New (1961).The life of Henry Brougham To 1830, Oxford at the Clarendon Press Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Clifford, William Kingdon". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press Encyclopdia Britannica Online, http://www.britannica.com/ 64. David Knight, (2004), Davy, Sir Humphry, baronet (17781829), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press Donald K. McKim; David F. Wright (1992). Encyclopedia of the Reformed Faith. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 61 A. D. Morrison-Low Brewster, (2004), Sir David (17811868), natural philosopher and academic administrator. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004) Biography of John Tyndall by W. M. Brock N. A. Rupke, (1983), The Great Chain of History: William Buckland and the English School of Geology (18141849), Oxford, p.20 65. The Bridgewater Treatises On the Power Wisdom and Goodness of God As Manifested in the Creation, Added by John van Wyhe, Fellow, National University of Singapore; Researcher, History & philosophy of science, Cambridge University in the Victoria Web Organisation, http://www.victorianweb.org/science/bridgewat er.html Isaac Todhunter, (1876), William Whewell: An Account of his Writings, with selection from his literary and scientific correspondence, London: Macmillan, (volume 1, volume 2) Jonathan Topham (1992). Science and popular education in the 1830s: the role of the Bridgewater Treatises. The British Journal for the History of Science, 25, pp 397-430 66. Frank M. Turner, (1980), Public Science in Britain, 1880-1919, The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science Society Stable, Isis, Vol. 71, No. 4, pp. 589-608 Terence Whalen (1999). Edgar Allan Poe and the masses: the political economy of literature in antebellum America. Princeton University Press. p. 254 Photos by Wikimedia Commons http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page R Yeo, (1993), Defining science: William Whewell, natural knowledge and public debate in early Victorian Britain, pp. 77-115 J. D. Yule, (1976), 'The impact of Science on British Religious Thought in the Second Quarter of the Nineteenth Century', Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cambridge, (BLLD Accession No. D17081/76), 189n.