Body Rhythmsand Mental States

• Chapter 5

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Chapter Outline

• Biological Rhythms

• The Rhythms of Sleep

• Exploring the Dream World

• The Riddle of Hypnosis

• Consciousness-Altering Drugs

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Consciousness

1. Consciousness is personal2. Consciousness is in constant change3. Conscious thought is continuous 4. Conscious thought is often of objects outside of oneself5. We are capable of selective attention/free will

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Biological Rhythms

• Biological rhythms

– A periodic, more or less regular fluctuation in a biological system (daily, annually, monthly)

– Biological rhythms influence effectiveness of medication, alertness, job performance

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Circadian Rhythms•Circadian rhythms occur approximately every 24 hours (e.g., sleep-wake cycle)– Commonly synchronized to external time

cues

– Internal rhythm averages around 24.3 hrs

– light-dark cycle from the Earth’s rotation, biological rhythms will reset across time zones

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Circadian Rhythms

• Circadian rhythms– Controlled by biological clock in suprachiasmatic

nucleus (SCN) – cell cluster in the hypothalamus • Regulates levels of the hormone melatonin

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Melatonin

• Over-the-counter melatonin is taken to treat insomnia and reduce jet-lag but currently is unregulated

• Quality, appropriate dosages and long-term safety is unknown

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Circadian Rhythms

• Genetic differences • Also affected by illness, stress, excitement,

exercise, drugs, meal times etc.

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Does the Menstrual Cycle affect moods? • “Premenstrual syndrome” (PMS)

– Vague cluster of physical & emotional symptoms associated with the days preceding menstruation that was labeled as an ‘illness’

– Physical symptoms (e.g., cramps, water retention) are common

– Emotional symptoms (e.g., irritability, depression) are rare

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Moods, PMS, & Research

• Expectations and beliefs may be related to PMS symptom reporting

• Fewer than 5% of women are found to predictably experience symptoms

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The Rhythms of Sleep• During sleep, we cycle between periods of REM &

non-REM sleep– Non-REM (NREM) sleep – characterized by fewer eye

movements than in REM• Divided into 4 stages with different brain waves • Stage 1: feel on the edge of consciousness; light sleep• Stage 2: minor noises won’t disturb you• Stage 3: breathing & pulse have slowed down; hard to awaken• Stage 4: deep sleep; most likely stage for sleepwalking

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The Rhythms of Sleep

– Rapid eye movement (REM) – characterized by eye movement, loss of muscle tone, and dreaming– From a couple of minutes to an hour in length– Electrical activity resembles wakefulness

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Why Do We Sleep?

• TIME OUT• Exact function of sleep unclear but allows for

certain processes to occur:– Body eliminates waste products from muscles– Repairs cells– Conserves & replenishes energy stores– Strengthens immune system

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Why We Sleep

– Necessary for normal mental functioning

– Consolidation – the synaptic changes associated with recently stored memories become stable (leading to a more reliable memory).

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Exploring the Dream World

• Why do we dream?• “No one has come up with a convincing explanation for

REM sleep”

• Various theories proposed to explain the purpose of dreams

– Psychoanalytic– Problem-focused– Cognitive– Activation-synthesis

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Psychoanalytic approach

• Dreams provide insight into unconscious wishes & desires

• Manifest content: aspects of dreams that are consciously experienced

• Latent content: aspects of dream that are unconscious wishes being expressed symbolically

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Psychoanalytic Approach

• Freud also suggested that the manifest content be analyzed with the clients’ own associations

• BUT, there is no reliable, objective way to interpret the meanings of dreams

Problem-Focused Approach

• Dreams often contain material related to our current concerns (e.g., relationships, work, health)• More than chance would predict!

• May provide opportunities to resolve problems

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Cognitive Approach• Dreams reflect are waking thoughts and

experiences• Similar to daydreaming at a biological level• Dream complexity emergences with

intellectual complexity

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Activation-Synthesis

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• Activation-synthesis theory of dreaming

• Random electrical activity occurring in the pons

• The cortex tries to integrate this information with existing knowledge/ memories

Activation Synthesis

• Signals from the pons is random so the cortex interpretation (the dream) will be confusing and bizarre

• Signals usually set off emotional and visual parts of the brain

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Hypnosis

• Psychologists agree that hypnosis affects some people, but they do not agree about whether it produces a genuinely altered state of consciousness

• Two competing theories:• Dissociation Theories• Sociocognitive Approach

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Hypnosiso Procedure in which the practitioner suggests changes

in the sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, or behaviour of the participant

o Variety of methods used to induce hypnosis, most involve relaxation

oWho can be hypnotized?

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The Nature of Hypnosis

1.1. Hypnotic responsiveness depends more on the Hypnotic responsiveness depends more on the efforts & qualities of the person being hypnotized efforts & qualities of the person being hypnotized than on the skills of the hypnotistthan on the skills of the hypnotist

2.2. Hypnotized people cannot be forced to do things Hypnotized people cannot be forced to do things against their willagainst their will

3.3. Feats performed while under hypnosis can be Feats performed while under hypnosis can be performed by motivated people without hypnosisperformed by motivated people without hypnosis

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The Nature of Hypnosis

4.4. Hypnosis does not increase the accuracy of Hypnosis does not increase the accuracy of memorymemory

5.5. Hypnosis does not produce a literal re-Hypnosis does not produce a literal re-experiencing of long-ago eventsexperiencing of long-ago events

6.6. Hypnotic suggestions have been used Hypnotic suggestions have been used effectively for many medical and effectively for many medical and psychological problemspsychological problems

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Dissociation Theory of Hypnosis

• Involves dissociation or a split in consciousness in

which one part of mind operates independently from the rest (presence

of hidden observer)

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Sociocognitive Theory of Hypnosis

• Effects of hypnosis result from an interaction between:

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– the social influence of the social influence of the hypnotistthe hypnotist

– the abilities, beliefs, and the abilities, beliefs, and expectations of the expectations of the subjectsubject

– The hypnotized person The hypnotized person plays a role and submits plays a role and submits to hypnotistto hypnotist

Research and Hypnosis

• Does hypnosis alter perception and memory?• Perception and memory appears intact

but people’s reports of memory and perception is altered to what is expected of them (support for socio-cultural theory)

• Hypnosis can affect brain activity • Associated with alpha brain waves

(relaxed wakefulness)

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Consciousness-Altering Drugs

•Psychoactive drug– A substance that alters

perception, mood, thinking, memory, or behaviour by changing the body’s biochemistry

– Used to manage illness or for nonmedical (recreational) reasons

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Physiology of Drug Effects

• Psychoactive drugs produce their effects by acting on brain neurotransmitters (NTs)– Increase/decrease release of NTs– Prevent reuptake of NTs– Block effects of NTs on receiving cells– Bind to receptors that would ordinarily be

triggered by NTs

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Classifying Drugs

1.1. StimulantsStimulants– Drugs that speed up activity in the CNSDrugs that speed up activity in the CNS• E.g., nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, E.g., nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines,

methamphetaminesmethamphetamines

– Produce feelings of excitement, confidence, Produce feelings of excitement, confidence, euphoriaeuphoria

– Make a person anxious, jittery, hyper-alertMake a person anxious, jittery, hyper-alert– Can cause convulsions, heart failure/death Can cause convulsions, heart failure/death

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Classifying Drugs

2.2. DepressantsDepressants– Make you feel calm or drowsy, reduce anxiety, Make you feel calm or drowsy, reduce anxiety,

tension, inhibitionstension, inhibitions– Can cause death in high amounts Can cause death in high amounts – Slow activity in the CNSSlow activity in the CNS• E.g., alcohol, tranquilizers, sleeping medicationE.g., alcohol, tranquilizers, sleeping medication

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Classifying Drugs

3.3. Opiates/Narcotics Opiates/Narcotics – Mimic endorphins – cause euphoria and decreases Mimic endorphins – cause euphoria and decreases

anxiety and motivation anxiety and motivation – Drugs, derived from opium poppy, that relieve Drugs, derived from opium poppy, that relieve

pain, induce sleep and commonly produce pain, induce sleep and commonly produce euphoriaeuphoria• E.g., opium, heroin, morphine, methadoneE.g., opium, heroin, morphine, methadone

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Classifying Drugs

4.4.Psychedelic drugsPsychedelic drugs– Drugs that produce hallucinations, change thought Drugs that produce hallucinations, change thought

processes, or disrupt the normal perception of processes, or disrupt the normal perception of time & spacetime & space• E.g., LSD, ecstasy, certain mushroomsE.g., LSD, ecstasy, certain mushrooms

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Classifying Drugs

4.4.Psychedelic drugsPsychedelic drugs– Emotional reactions vary from person to person Emotional reactions vary from person to person

can be pleasant or a nightmare can be pleasant or a nightmare

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Classifying Drugs

• Other more commonly used drugs not in these categories

– Anabolic steroids: types of testosterone taken by pill or injection; used to increase muscle size & strength

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Classifying Drugs

• Other more commonly used drugs not in these categories– Marijuana: contains tetrahydrocannabinol (THC);

related to mild euphoria, relaxation, intense sensations, reduced pain

– Impairs concentration, coordination, visual perception and reaction times

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Psychology of Drug Effects

• Reactions to psychoactive drugs depend on:

– Individual factors such as weight, metabolism, level of emotional arousal, personality, physical tolerance

– Experience or number of times drug has been taken– First use of alcohol or cigarettes typically has a neutral or

unpleasant experience

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Psychology of Drug Effects

• Reactions to psychoactive drugs depend on:

– Environmental setting or context where drug is taken– Wine at home = sleepy, wine at a party = energetic

– Mental set or expectations about drugs effect & reasons for taking it– Placebo effects, pain reduction, self-treatment of anxiety

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Physiology of Drug Effects

• Use of some psychoactive drugs can lead to tolerance

– Increased resistance to a drug’s effects accompanying continued use

– Typically leads to increased amount or use – Can be related to place and situational factors – Tolerance is different from addiction

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Physiology of Drug Effects

• Drug abuse: drugs that cause damage (whether emotional or physical) to the individual using them or to others

• Addiction: a condition where a person is compelled to use a drug in order to function “normally”

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Physiology of Drug Effects

• When heavy users stop, may suffer severe withdrawal symptoms

– Physical & psychological symptoms that occur when someone addicted to a drug stops taking it

– Symptoms can vary from nausea, cramps, sweating, depression and more

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End of Chapter 5

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