Politik terjadi di masyarakat: dari kelompok keluarga ke negara, dari asosiasi-asosiasi ke perusahaan multinasional. Politik melibatkan konflik dan kerjasama serta mencerminkan dan tentunya mempengaruhi struktur masyarakat.

Leftwitch (1984: 83-84) berkesimpulan bahwa perluasan definisi dari politik menuntut suatu pergeseran dari identifikasi ilmu politik dengan studi pemerintah dan masalah publik ke suatu fokus dalam politik kehidupan sehari-hari (the politics of everyday life).

Dengan pencarian ‘untuk memperluas studi dan pemahaman politik dalam masyarakat manusia’. Tujuan Leftwich adalah untuk ‘membantu menjaga disiplin politik dari penghancuran, stagnan atau menjadi tidak relevan.’

Dari uraian di atas terdapat penentuan istilah dari Politik dengan konsep utama sebagai berikut:

Negara (states), seperti Roger F. Soltau, J. Barents;

Kekuasaan (power), seperti W. A. Robson, dan O. K. Flechtheim;

Pengambilan Keputusan (decision making), seperti Harold Laswell, Karl W. Deutsh (Politics is the making decisions by publics means);

Kebijakan Publik (public policy), seperti David Easton;

Pembagian (distribution), seperti Harold Laswell dan David Easton.

Selain itu dapat juga ditambahkan pengertian Politik dengan konsep utama sebagai berikut:

Kepemimpinan (leadership), seperti Arnold Bergstraesser,

Hirarki, seperti G. Burdeau,

Ketertiban (order), seperti O. Suhr,

Perdamaian (peace), seperti D. Sternberger,

Kebebasan (freedom), seperti Franz L. Neumann

Demokrasi, seperti J. Kammler,

Konflik, seperti G. Lehmbruch

Perjuangan Klas, seperti kaum Marxis

UNESCO telah membagi cabang-cabang ilmu politik sebagai berikut:

• Teori Politik

– Teori Politik (political theory)

– Sejarah Perkembangan Ide-ide Politik (history of political ideas)

• Lembaga Politik

– Undang-undang Dasar (constitution)

– Pemerintahan Nasional (national government)

– Pemerintahan Daerah (local government)

– Administrasi Publik (public administration)

– Perbandingan Lembaga Politik (comparative political institution)

Teori Politik(Political Theory)

• Suatu penjelajahan dari kontribusi-kontribusi utama pada pemikiran politik mulai dari teoritisi-teoritisi Yunani klasik ke kontemporer. Para teoretisi ini memunculkan

pertanyaan-pertanyaan fundamental mengenai keberadaan individu dan hubungannya pada masyarakat politik.

• Bidang ini berkenaan pula dengan konsep-konsep, ideologi-ideologi, dan nilai-nilai utama. Melewati zaman-zaman, para filosof utama telah mempertanyakan masalah-masalah: Apa yang membentuk suatu pemerintahan yang baik dan bagaimana hal ini dapat dikembangkan?

• Teori Politik juga melibatkan pertimbangan filosofi dan spekulatif dari dunia politik. Filosofi politik berspekulasi mengenai “apa yang seharusnya” --Dasolen atau “what ought to be” ketimbang Dasein atau “what is”

1.1 Ideologi

1.1.1 Liberalisme

1.1.2 Konservatisme

1.1.3 Marxisme/Sosialisme

1.1.4 Fasisme

1.1.5 Nasionalisme

1.1.6 Ideologi Negara

1.2 Filsafat Politik/Pemikiran Politik

1.2.1 Barat

1.2.1.1 Modern

1.2.1.2 Klasik/Tradisional

1.2.2 Timur

1.2.2.1 Modern

1.2.2.2 Klasik/Tradisional

• 1.2.3 Islam

• 1.2.3.1 Modern

• 1.2.3.2 Klasik/Tradisional

• 1.3 Teori Politik

• 1.3.1 Normatif

• 1.3.1.1 Klasik/Tradisional

• 1.3.1.1.1 Institusionalisme

• 1.3.1.2 Kontemporer

• 1.3.1.2.1 Teori Kritis (Critical Theory)

• 1.3.1.2.2 Anarkisme/Radikalisme

• 1.3.1.2.3 Feminisme/Gender

• 1.3.1.2.4 Pascakolonialisme

• 1.3.1.2.5 Gerakan Sosial Baru

• 1.3.1.2.6 Komunitarianisme dan

• Libertarianisme (Neo-liberalisme)

• 1.3.1.2.7 Pascamodernisme

• 1.3.1.2.8 Enviromentalism

• 1.3.1.2.9 Pascastrukturalisme

• 1.3.1.2.10 Neo-institusionalisme

• 1.3.1.2.11 Kewarganegaraan

• 1.3.1.2.12 Multikulturalisme

• 1.3.1.2.13 Konstruktivisme

• 1.3.2 Empiris

• 1.3.2.1 Klasik

• 1.3.2.1.1 Behavioralisme

1.3.2.2 Kontemporer

1.3.2.2.1 Teori Pilihan Rasional

1.3.2.2.2 Teori Permainan

1.3.2.2.3 Aksi/Tindakan Kolektif

8.1 Politik

8.1.1 Sejarah Konstitusi

8.1.2 Pemikiran Politik Indonesia

8.1.3 Gerakan Politik Indonesia

8.1.3.1 Prakemerdekaan

8.1.3.2 Revolusi

8.1.3.3 Kontemporer

8.1.4 Partai-partai Politik

8.1.5 Pemilu dan Demokratisasi

8.2 Pemerintahan

8.2.1 Sejarah Pemerintahan di Indonesia

8.2.1.1 Struktur dan Kekuasaan

Pemerintah Pusat

8.2.1.2 Struktur dan Kekuasaan

Pemerintah Daerah

8.2.1.2.1 Otonomi Umum

8.2.1.2.2 Otonomi Khusus

8.2.2 Devolusi di Indonesia

8.2.2.1 Desentralisasi

8.2.2.2 Dekonsentrasi (Kanwil, Kandep)

• 8.2.2.3 Pembantuan

• 8.2.3 Perimbangan Keuangan

• 8.2.3.1 Pusat-Daerah

• 8.2.3.1.1 Perpajakan dan Retribusi

• 8.2.3.1.1.1 Penyetoran

• Kapasitas Fiskal

• 8.2.3.1.1.2 Mekanisme

• Subsidi Silang

• 8.2.4 Institusi Pemerintahan

• 8.2.4.1 Negara

• 8.2.4.1.1 Badan Negara Independen

• 8.2.4.1.2 Nasional

• 8.2.4.1.2.1 Birokrasi (Orla,

• Orba, Reformasi,

• PP 12/99)

• 8.2.4.1.3 Lokal (Gubernur,

• Bupati/Walikota, DPRD)

• 8.2.4.2 Non-negara

• 8.2.4.2.1 Nasional

• 8.2.4.2.2 Lokal

• 8.2.5 Isu Politik Nasional

• 8.2.5.1 Islam dan Politik

8.2.5.2 Militer dan Politik (Hubungan Sipil Militer)

8.2.5.3 Gender, Mahasiswa dan Pemuda

8.2.5.4 Birokrasi

8.2.5.5 Separatisme/Regionalisme

8.2.5.6 Bentuk Negara

8.2.5.7 Budaya Politik

8.2.5.8 Civil Society dan NGO (LSM)

8.2.5.9 Ekonomi Politik

8.2.5.9.1 Ekonomi Kerakyatan/Koperasi

8.2.5.9.2 Konglomerasi

Pokok Bahasan dalam Mata Pelajaran:

Konsep-konsep Dasar dan Pendekatan dalam Ilmu Politik

Sub-Pokok Bahasan:

Kekuasaan (Power);

Kewenangan (Authority);

Ketertiban (Order);

Kesejahteraan (Welfare);

Keadilan (Justice);

Aktor-aktor dalam Politik:

Negara-Bangsa (Nation-State);

Individu;

Masyarakat (Society/Community);

Organisasi-organisasi (Nasional maupun Internasional)

Ragam Pendekatan dalam Ilmu Politik

Normatif dan Empirisme;

Tradisionalism, Behavioralisme, dan Pasca-Behavioralisme;

Klasik dan Kontemporer.

Power is one of the most important concepts in political science;

Word power itself stems from the older Latin term potere, defined as an ability to affect something else.

Definition and Characteristics:

Power is ability to influence an outcome to achieve an objective or the ability to influence someone to act in a way contrary to the way she/he would choose to act;

Capacity to affect another person’s rewards and costs;

Ability to control what happens to another individual;

Power involves the exercise of volition (will);

Power over someone else involves altering his or her volition (will);

Power can be latent or manifest;

Different types of power are generally blended together when power is made manifest.

Types of Power

Force is power involving physical means;

Persuasion is nonphysical power in which the agent using power makes its use of power clear and known to the agent over whom power is exercised Influence;

Manipulation is nonphysical power in which the agent using power conceals the use of power;

Exchange is the use of power through incentives.

Power as:

The Stick (the use of force or intimidation), the Deal (the productive exchanges involving mutual gain) and the Kiss (the creation of obligation, loyalty and commitment)(Keith Boulding: 1989)

Authority

‘In the sociology of politics Authority is contrasted with mere power; authority is being in a position to give an order that will be obeyed because its legitimacy is accepted by those to whom the order is addressed, rather than simply being a command which is being backed up by coercion, bribery, persuasion, etc. Exactly what it is that gives authority, and what are the sources of legitimacy in politics, is more complicated’ (David Robertson, Dictionary of Politics, Penguin 1993).

Whereas power is the ability to influence the behaviour of others, authority is the right to do so. as ‘legitimate power’.

Max Weber – 3 part categorization of legitimate authority

Traditional authority, in this sense, is rooted in history and tradition;

Charismatic authority stems from the power of personality;

Legal-rational authority is grounded in a set of impersonal rules associated with an office rather than the office holder.

An alternative distinction of authority

De jure authority, or authority in law, operates according to a set of procedures or rules which designate who possesses authority and over what issues. Both traditional and legal-rational authority can therefore be viewed as forms of de jure authority.

De facto authority, or authority in practice, operates in circumstances in which authority is exercised but cannot be traced back to a set of procedural rules. This includes all forms of charismatic authority, and also what is called expert authority, when a person is recognized as being ‘an authority’ by virtue of his or her specialist skills or knowledge.

Order

In social life, order describes regular, stable and predictable forms of

behavior, for which reason social order suggests continuity, even permanence. Social disorder, by contrast, implies chaotic, random and violent behavior, that is by its very nature unstable and continually changing.

As political principle, therefore, order is associated with personal security, both physical security, freedom from intimidation and violence and the fear of such, and psychological security, the comfort and stability which only regular and familiar circumstances engender.

Order may be conceived of as either a political or natural phenomenon:

Political order stands for social control which is imposed ‘from above’ through a system of law and government. Order in this sense is linked to the ideas of discipline, regulation and authority;

Natural order, on the other hand, arises ‘from below’ through the voluntary and spontaneous actions of individuals and groups. In this sense, order is linked to ideas such as social harmony and equilibrium.

Welfare

Welfare, in its simplest form, means happiness, prosperity or well-being in general; it implies not merely physical survival but some measure of health and contentment as well.

As a political principle, however, welfare stands for a particular means through which social well-being is maintained: collectively provided welfare, delivered by government, through what is termed a welfare state a state that assumes broad responsibilities for the social well-being of its citizens, or more narrowly, to the health, education, housing and social security systems through which these responsibilities are carried out.

Justice

Justice is the idea of a morally justifiable distribution of rewards or punishments.

Justice can be applied to distribution of any ‘goods’ in society: freedom, rights, power, wealth, leisure and so on.

A distinction can nevertheless be made between procedural and substantive notion of justice:

Procedural justice, or ‘formal’ justice, refers to the manner in which outcomes are arrived at, and thus to the rules that govern human conduct and interaction;

Substantive justice, or ‘concrete’ justice, on the other hand, is concerned with the substance of the outcomes themselves; that is, with the nature of the end-point.

The two most common applications of concept of justice are:

Legal justice refers to the apportionment of

punishments and rewards as a result of wrongdoing and, in particular, law-breaking;

Social justice refers to a morality justifiable distribution of material or social rewards, notably wealth, income and social status equality.

Political Actors

Nation-state (Negara-bangsa)

Individu

Society/Community (Masyarakat)

Organizations (Organisasi baik lokal, nasional maupun global/internasional)

The normative approach was used by Plato, the student of Socrates, who tried to define justice and the good society.

He lived from 427 to 347 BC.

What is Political Theory?

Teori Politik memberikan suatu pedoman pada tindakan politik (political action) dan kebijakan publik (public policy) serta memberikan pula penjelasan-penjelasan perilaku politik dan penggunaan kekuasaan. Tanpa suatu kerangka teoretis yang berguna, pencarian pada pemahaman politik ini tidak akan mampu untuk menginterpretasikan

secara berarti peristiwa-peristiwa politik. Ketika teori politik menjadi terlalu abstrak untuk dihubungkan pada peristiwa-peristiwa aktual atau terlalu sempit untuk mencakup faktor-faktor yang relevan dalam penggunaan kekuasaan politik, hal ini dapat menjadi menyesatkan dan tak berguna. Sayangnya, dalam ilmu politik, seperti dalam disiplin ilmu-ilmu sosial lainnya, kecenderungan2 terhadap abstraksi yang takrelevan dan pengerutan/penyempitan seringkali mengancam formulasi dan penggunaan teori yang efektif.

Teori Politik (Political Theory), suatu penjelajahan dari kontribusi-kontribusi utama pada pemikiran politik mulai dari teoritisi-teoritisi Yunani klasik ke kontemporer. Para teoretisi ini memunculkan pertanyaan-pertanyaan fundamental mengenai keberadaan individu dan hubungannya pada masyarakat politik. Teori Politik juga melibatkan pertimbangan filosofi dan spekulatif dari dunia politik.

Concepts Behind Political Theories

Secara eksplisit atau implisit, semua teori politik berkenaan dengan konsep-konsep yang biasa pada kehidupan politik. Setidak-tidaknya terdapat beberapa cakupan dalam teori politik, antara lain:Sifat dari Alam Semesta (The Nature of Universe);Sifat Manusia (Human Nature);Pandangan tentang Masyarakat (Views of Society);Sistem Ekonomi (Economic Systems);Bentuk-Bentuk Negara (Forms of State)

The Scope of Political Theory

Teori-teori politik bervariasi secara luas dalam bentuk yang komprehensif dan canggih. Dalam suatu pengertian yang elementer pun, pemikiran yang sederhana tentang politik dan kekuasaan politik dapat dikarakteristikan

sebagai suatu bentuk penteorian. Untuk keperluan perkuliahan ini, maka teori politik ini dapat dikategorikan pada: Filsafat Politik (Political Philosophy);Teori Politik Normatif (Normative Political Theory);Ideologi (Ideology);Teori Politik Empiris (Empirical Political Theory).

Plato, The Republic:

• may be considered the seminal essay on the nature of the state and the maintenance of political harmony;

• describes an ideal society where justice prevails at the hands of wise rulers, the philosopher kings;

• Order is secured by the guardians who are wholeheartedly devoted to the interests of their country;

• The workers –farmers, shepherds, and artisans– provide the material necessities.

• Friction is avoided by each class attending to its own business.

In The Politics, Plato’s fellow Athenian and younger contemporary Aristotle:

• describes man as a political animal (zoon politicon) and explores three principal forms of government: monarchy (rule by one), aristocracy (rule by the few), and polity (rule by one).

• He deems the best political communities to be those comprised of members of a large middle class and warns against the tyrannies that can arise when a few posses great wealth (i.e. oligarchy) and the other little (i.e. democracy).

• He counsels that the key to maintaining the stability of the government is the education of the young in the habits and virtues of the society.

In his multivolume City of God, St. Augustine:

• Envisions two cities –one of this world and the other, God’s city, in heaven.

• To Augustine, the symbol of the heavenly city is the church, and the earthly city is embodied in the state.

• The state must maintain peace and order so that human beings can lead lives that will obtain them access to the heavenly city.

• Justice is a key concept in Augustine’s writings. It can only be attained after mortals enter into a proper relationship with God.

• Augustine is credited with taking Plato’s concept of justice and imbuing it with a religious cast.

• In his principal contribution Summa Theologica, St. Thomas Aquinas, explores such basic political questions as:

• How is law related to reason?

• Is law created for the good of all?

• What is the relationship between human and natural law?

• Is a state better off governed by one or by many rulers?

• Aquinas is credited with highlighting and transforming the philosophical tenets of Aristotle.

• Aquinas’ work belongs to a body of scholarship called scholasticism, an attempt to align the teachings of the church with the realms of science and reason.

• Aquinas maintains rulers are changed with three primary responsibilities: to show concern for the good of the masses so that the state may continue its existence, to lead the people in the ways of virtue, and to protect their subjects from enemy attacks.

• A key figure in the realm of realistic political theory of the Renaissance (14th – 16th centuries) was Niccolo Machiavelli of Florence.

• His major contribution, The Prince (1513), which is dedicated to Lorenzo Di Medici, is considered the first modern work of political philosophy.

• The ruler’s purpose in wielding political power is to maximize his personal power and wealth

• Government, from this point of view, is the art of transferring wealth from the people (who made it) to the ruler. Politics is, then, the art of (political) Power: acquiring, maintaining, expanding it.

• On Machiavelli’s view, Morals is Subordinate to Politics. The ruler uses moral methods if they work, otherwise not ...

• Thomas Hobbes authored the Leviathan (1651), an analysis of human nature, the character of the state, and the concept of sovereignty.

• ‘State of nature’ – the state in which people find themselves if there are no institutions to regulate or co-ordinate their behavior

• Negative in tone, Leviathan asserts that human beings are competitive, acquisitive, and quarrelsome.

• Thus for Hobbes many collective action problems can be solved if there is some system in place that allows people to make enforceable deals, or ‘covenants’, with each other

• The desire peace only because they fear death and enter into covenants (social contracts) with other individuals for purposes of mutual security.

• The ‘night watchman’ state enforces the deal

• Minimalist role – Makes people honour their agreements

• State has no welfare or services role

• Modern state goes far beyond Hobbes’ notion of the state

• John Locke, author of the influential works, Two Treaties of Government (1689) and Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), originated the concept of the tabula rasa (the mind at birth is a blank slate, and all knowledge is the result of experience) and it regarded as the founder of the liberal school of philosophical thought.

• Building on Hobbes’ framework of social contract, Locke denied the legitimacy of divine right (the belief

that the right of sovereigns to govern emanates from God) and promulgated the concepts of individual freedom and rule by the consent of the governed that permeate the founding documents of the United States.

• Who will guard the guardians?

The problem of preventing the ‘enforcer’ or guardian from exploiting their position

• Locke saw that the Leviathan is not a WHALE, but a HUMAN, subject to (imperfect) human desires and temptations

• Problem of big government solutions to collective action

– Need for systems of checks and balances on exercise of power

• In his Spirit of the Laws (1748), the Baron de Montesquieu argues for separation of powers (the division of government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches) and checks and balances (a system whereby one branch can limit the power of the others).

• His emphasis on the well-being of society over the rights of the individual is apparent in the Social Contract (1762) in which Jean-Jacques Rousseau argues for the sovereignty of the general will and majority rule.

• Rousseau’s call for direct democracy and freedom marked him as one of the Enlightenment’s most radical reformers Republicanism.

• Edmund Burke (1729-1797) supported the political party as a means of promoting the interests of the state and at the same time accepted the aristocracy as the critical component in maintaining the social order.

• In 1790, he published his major work, Reflections on the Revolution in France, and here attacks most of the fundamental principles that motivated the overthrow of the ancien regime including the concepts of individual rights, equality, and revolution as a vehicle for change.

• Burke argues for a preservation of the existing order and of the political institutions that perpetuate the stability of that order.

• Thomas Paine (1737-1809), on the other hand, called for bold action to redress grievances against governments and was instrumental in precipitating the American call for independence and subsequent military action against the British.

He wrote Common Sense (1776), a pamphlet that encouraged the break with England on practical as well as ideological ground

• Friedrich Hegel (1797-1831), who developed a strand of history based on idealism.

• He generated the proposition that history is an idea that develops through a dialectical process (thesis/idea antithesis synthesis). Each stage of history is flawed as cultures engage in conflict and war in their efforts to dominate.

• Hegel glorified Prussia as one of the nations responsible for energizing the progressive movement of history.

• Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) is generally recognized as the founder of the utilitarian school of philosophy with his “greatest happiness principle.”

• By this Bentham meant that the best policy is one that avoids the most pain and brings the most pleasure to the greatest number.

• He based his conclusions on systematic inquiry into the nature of humankind which he saw as basically a pleasure-seeking race.

• The principal task of government, according to Bentham, is to promote the well-being of its citizenry through a system of rewards and consequence.

• Lawmakers must set about leading others to act on behalf of others as well as for themselves.

• To John Stuart Mills (1806-1873), life was more than a mindless quest of pleasure.

• A champion of liberty and free speech, Mill underscored the importance of good character, artistic expression, interpersonal relations, and social conscience.

• Mill’s ideal government would be an instrument of education and elevation through which citizens raise standards and display their public spirit.

• Economist Adam Smith (1723-1790) published his classic Wealth of Nations in 1776 in which he argued

for a laissez-faire approach with respect to governments and matters of business and commerce.

• As a utilitarian, Smith believed that each individual would act in his/her own self-interest, and, in so doing, would benefit the society as a whole.

• The self interest of individuals would act as an invisible hand to guide the economy which should operate under conditions of market competition and free trade.

• The Period of Prophet Muhammad S.A.W.;

• The Period of Khulafur Rasyidin Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali;

• The Monarchy under the Umayyads (661-750) and Abbasids (750-945/1258);

• Sunna;

• Shi’ite (imamah);

• Al-Farabi (870-950) The Principles of the Opinions of the Inhabitants of the Best (Virtuous) State (al-Madina al-Fadila) and The Governance of the State (al-Siyasa al-Madaniyya);

• Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037) Healing of the Soul (al-Shifa al-nafs) and Book of Governance (Kitab al-siyasa);

• Al-Mawardi (974-1058) On the Principles (Ordinances/Rules) of Power (Kitab al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya);

• Al-Ghazali (1058-1111);

• Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (1126-1198);

• Ibn Taymiyya (1263-1328) The Book on the Government of the Religious Law (al-Kitab al-siyasa al-shar’iyya);

• Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) Prolegomena (Muqaddima);

Sistem Pemerintahan

Perbandingan

PARLEMENTER

• Bentuk Ideal: Inggris

• Kepala Negara sebagai eksekutif-seremonial dijabat oleh Raja/Presiden, Kepala Pemerintahan sebagai eksekutif-real dijabat oleh Perdana Menteri

• Parlemen adalah badan tertinggi dan serba kuasa

• Bikameralisme

• Bipartisme/Multipartisme

• Sistem Distrik, Ketua Partai pemenang Pemilu dengan mayoritas sederhana langsung menjadi Perdana Menteri

SEMI-PRESIDENSIAL

• Bentuk Ideal: Perancis

• Kepala Negara dijabat Presiden yang dipilih langsung dan memimpin Kabinet, Kepala Pemerintahan sebagai pengelola pemerintahan sehari-hari dijabat oleh Perdana Menteri

• Kekuasaan Presiden kuat

• Bikameralisme

• Bipartisme/Multipartisme

• Sistem Distrik, Ketua Partai pemenang Pemilu dengan mayoritas sederhana langsung menjadi Perdana Menteri

PRESIDENSIAL

• Bentuk Ideal: Amerika Serikat

• Kepala Negara dan Kepala Pemerintahan dijabat oleh seorang Presiden

• Pemisahan kekuasaan (separation of power) dan sistem checks and balances

• Bikameralisme

• Bipartisme/Multipartisme

• Sistem Distrik, Presiden dipilih langsung melalui Electoral College

• It is what men think, that determines how they act (John Stuart Mill);

• An ideology is an organized collection of ideas. The word ideology was coined by Count Antoine Destutt de Tracy, Elements of Ideology, in the late 18th century to define a "science of ideas." Kata ‘ideologi’ merupakan suatu produk dari Masa Pencerahan Perancis, yang berarti suatu ilmu tentang ide-ide (idea-ology);

“mad men in authority” seperti Mussolini, Hitler, Lenin, Stalin, Mao Zedong (John Maynard Keynes);

• Menurut Terence Ball dan Richard Dagger, an ideology is a fairly coherent and comprehensive set of ideas that explains and evaluates social conditions, helps people

understand their place in society, and provides a program for social and political action;

• Ideologi mempunyai 4 fungsi bagi manusia, yaitu:

1. Eksplanasi;

2. Evaluasi;

3. Orientasi;

4. Program Politik.

• Sedangkan menurut John Plamenatz, ideology has been defined as “a set of closely related beliefs, or ideas, or even attitudes, characteristic of a group or community”

• Ideologi memberikan kerangka dasar bagi manusia bagi tindakan politik, yang dapat digunakan untuk:

1. Legitimasi;

2. Solidaritas dan Mobilisasi;

3. Kepemimpinan dan Manipulasi;

4. Komunikasi;

5. Pemenuhan emosional;

6. Kritisisme, Utopia, dan Konservasi

Socialism

• Ideologi ini berkembang sebagai suatu reaksi melawan kemunculan kapitalisme industri;

• Tujuan awalnya adalah untuk menghapus suatu ekonomi kapitalis yang berdasarkan pada pertukaran

pasar, dan menggantikannya dengan suatu masyarakat sosialis;

• Sosialisme telah berkembang dan bercabang menjadi berbagai bentuk selama abad ke-19 dan ke-20, seperti sosialisme reformis, sosialisme revisionis, sosialisme revolusioner (komunisme), sosialisme konstitusional, eurokomunisme.

• Berbagai ilmuwan politik menyebutkan bahwa di akhir abad ini, sosialisme sudah tidak laku lagi diterapkan, bahkan sebagai ideologi negara pun. Hanya Kuba dan Korea Utara yang masih menerapkannya, sedangkan RRC dan Vietnam sudah mengkombinasikannya dengan ideologi kapitalisme;

• Komunitas interaksi sosial dan kelompok;

• Persaudaraan terikat satu sama lain kolektivitas;

• Persamaan sosial egaliterianisme yang dapat menjamin stabilitas dan kohesi sosial;

• Kebutuhan prinsip distribusi dari kemakmuran;

• Klas sosial klas pekerja;

• Kepemilikan bersama dapat dipandang sebagai suatu tujuan (end) ataupun suatu sarana (mean).

The Elements of Marxism

• Historical materialism Base pada ekonomi, terutama pada mode of production yang menentukan superstructure yaitu ideologi dan politik;

• Perubahan dialektik ide Hegel: Tesis Antitesis Sintesis;

• Aleinasi di bawah kapitalisme, kaum buruh (proletar) direduksi hanya sebagai komoditas;

• Perjuangan klas untuk menumbangkan suatu masyarakat kapitalis (bourgeoisie, rulling class);

• Nilai surplus derivasi dari buruh yang telah mencurahkan dalam produksi barang;

• Revolusi proletariat kesadaran klas (class consciousness) revolusioner;

• Komunisme periode sosialis transisi suatu dictatorship of the proletariat.

The Political Spectrum The Right Wing

– Political beliefs on the right side of the line support tradition and oppose change in society.

– The extreme right is associated with Fascism.

– Because the beliefs of conservatism and liberalism are democratic they are located inside the circle.

FASISME

• Fascism as a political ideology began in Italy in 1922 with the regime of Benito Mussolini.

• In Germany the National Socialist Party led by Hitler came to power in 1933.

This was a backward looking political philosophy which stressed militarism and racial purity.

Liberalisme

• Dianggap sebagai ideologi dari negara-negara Barat yang terindustrialisasi, dan telah berkembang sekitar 300 tahun;

• Produk dari kehancuran feodalisme dan pertumbuhan dari suatu masyarakat pasar atau kapitalis liberalisme dengan kapitalisme dihubungkan secara dekat;

Dalam bentuk liberalisme ekonomi, posisi ini disokong oleh suatu mekanisme pasar bebas dan kepercayaan bahwa ekonomi bekerja lebih baik ketika dibiarkan sendiri oleh pemerintah, sehingga menjamin kemakmuran, kebebasan individu, merrit-system, dan keadilan social

• Liberalisme klasik suatu komitmen pada suatu bentuk ekstrim dari individualisme, atomisme, negara sebagai suatu ‘necessary evil’ yang menjamin ketertiban dan keamanan sekaligus membatasi kebebasan individu negara ‘nightwatchman’;

• Meskipun di akhir abad ke-19 muncul suatu bentuk liberalisme sosial yang menekankan lebih pada reformasi kesejahteraan dan intervensi ekonomi;

• Para New Liberals seperti T. H. Green dan J. A. Hobson memandang kebebasan itu bukan hanya berarti meninggalkan sendiri, melainkan kebebasan dari kelaparan social or welfare liberalism;

• Bentuk kesejahteraan sosial ini dapat memperluas kebebasan dengan penjaminan para individu dari setan sosial yang merusak keberadaan individu;

• Awalnya sebagai doktrin politik yang menyerang absolutisme dan keistimewaan feodal dengan mengembangkan pemerintahan konstitusional dan perwakilan (John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, 1690);

• Abad ke-19, suatu kredo ekonomi liberal telah berkembang yang memuji kebajikan dari kapitalisme laissez-faire dan mengutuk semua bentuk campur tangan pemerintah (Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1776);

• Sedangkan liberalisme modern justru dikarakteristikan oleh suatu intervensi negara. Hal ini terutama dipengaruhi

karya John Stuart Mill, On Liberty, 1859, yang menekankan selain pada kualitas kehidupan individu, juga simpati pada hak pilih perempuan dan kerja sama para buruh.

• John Maynard Keynes memandang bahwa pertumbuhan dan kemakmuran dapat dipelihara hanya melalui suatu sistem kapitalisme yang dikelola atau diatur, dengan tanggung jawab ekonomi kunci ditempatkan di tangan negara;

• Individualisme menekankan pada individu manusia ketimbang setiap kelompok sosial atau kolektivitas;

• Kebebasan (freedom, liberty) manusia berhak bertindak sesuai dengan keinginannya;

• Akal (reason) dunia mempunyai suatu struktur rasional yang dapat ditemukan melalui penggunaan akal manusia dan penyelidikan progress;

• Persamaan (equality) ‘born equal’ meritokrasi;

• Toleration kesabaran suatu keseimbangan atau harmoni antara pandangan dan kepentingan yang bersaingan;

• Consent kewenangan muncul ‘dari bawah’ legitimasi

• Konstitusionalisme pemerintah dibatasi oleh konstitusi

• Liberalism is divided into classical and reform liberalism.

• Liberals were believers in the progress of good men with reform liberals accepting more government intervention in the economy.

• Conservatives were not as optimistic about mankind but strongly supported economic freedom.

• Conservative ideas and doctrines first emerged in the late 18th and early 19th century.

• They arose as a reaction against the growing pace of economic and political change, which was in many ways symbolized by the French Revolution.

Mainstream

• Liberalism Neo-Liberalism;

• Conservatism Neo-Conservatism;

• Sosialisme & Communism Neo-Socialism;

• Fascism dan Nazism Neo-Nazism;

• Nasionalism Ethno-nationalism.

Contemporary

• Feminism;

• Enviromentalism, Ecologism, “Green” Politics;

• Fundamentalism.

SUPRASTRUKTUR POLITIK

Indonesia memasuki babak sejarah baru dalam perkembangan sistem kenegaraannya. Setelah kejatuhan Rezim Orde Baru 21 Mei 1998, Indonesia memulai proses transisi menuju demokrasi. Hal ini terutama diwujudkan dengan amandemen UUD 1945 oleh para anggota MPR hasil Pemilu 1999, yang membawa perubahan pula dalam sistem pemerintahannya. Setelah memperkenalkan beberapa lembaga baru seperti DPD, MK, dan KY, kemudian diikuti dengan Pemilihan Presiden dan Wapres secara langsung dalam Pemilu 2004, bahkan pada tahun 2005 diikuti Pemilihan Kepala Daerah secara langsung.

• Pada masa 1945-1949 berlaku secara de facto UUD 1945 hanya di sekitar Jawa, Madura dan Sumatera. Kemudian digantikan UUD RIS (1949-1950) yang hampir berlaku di seluruh Indonesia kecuali Irian Barat, setelah itu masa 1950-1959 diberlakukan UUD Sementara 1950, dan akhirnya kembali ke UUD 1945 setelah adanya Dekrit Presiden 5 Juli 1959 sampai tahun 1999, di mana UUD tersebut akhirnya mengalami amandemen sebanyak empat kali.

• kekuasaan judicial review –yaitu, kekuasaan untuk menguji konstitusional dari hukum-hukum yang disahkan oleh legislator nasional.

Berdasarkan beberapa teori negara modern dalam Ilmu Politik terdapat 3 (tiga) bentuk negara, yaitu:

1. Negara Konfederasi ialah suatu gabungan negara-negara yang berdaulat, di mana hanya pemerintah negara berdaulatlah yg berwenang mengatur daerah;

2. Federasi (Serikat), di mana suatu negara merupakan gabungan dari beberapa negara bagian, baik pemerintah pusat maupun pemerintah negara-negara bagian mempunyai kewenangan masing-masing;

3. Negara Kesatuan, di mana dalam suatu negara yang merdeka dan berdaulat hanya ada satu pemerintah (pusat) yang mengatur seluruh daerah. Variasinya: sistem sentralisasi dan desentralisasi.

4. Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 Bab VI Pasal 18, 18A dan 18B;

5. Undang-undang No. 32 Tahun 2004 tentang Pemerintahan Daerah;

6. Undang-undang No. 34 Tahun 2004 tentang Perimbangan Keuangan antara Pemerintah Pusat dan Daerah;

7. Peraturan Pemerintah No. 25 Tahun 2000 tentang Kewenangan Pemerintah Pusat dan Pemerintah Provinsi sebagai Daerah Otonom.

8. Desentralisasi adalah penyerahan wewenang pemerintahan oleh Pemerintah kepada daerah otonom untuk mengatur dan mengurus urusan pemerintahan dalam sistem NKRI;

9. Dekonsentrasi adalah pelimpahan wewenang pemerintahan oleh Pemerintah kepada Gubernur sebagai wakil pemerintah dan/atau kepada instansi vertikal di wilayah tertentu;

10. Tugas pembantuan adalah penugasan dari Pemerintah kepada daerah dan/atau desa dari pemerintah provinsi kepada kabupaten/kota dan/atau desa serta dari pemerintah kabupaten/kota kepada desa untuk melaksanakan tugas tertentu.

INFRASTRUKTUR POLITIK

Terdapat beberapa fungsi Partai Politik, antara lain:

Representasi;

Formasi dan rekrutmen elit (Rekrutmen Politik);

Formulasi tujuan;

Artikulasi dan agregasi kepentingan;

Sosialisasi dan mobilisasi;

Organisasi pemerintahan.