A COMPARISON OF SCHIZOPHRENICS, PRISONERS AND NORMALS 483

toward some sort of moral rehabilitation of prisoners are likely to be less fruitful than might have been expected. In contrast, programs designed to take advantage of prisoners’ aversion to censure or stress (as evidenced by the Aversive scale results) may prove more practical. Additional research on the ethical standards of prisoner populations might prove to be particularly fruitful to program planners.

SUMMARY A multiple-choice inventory that allows Xs to present themselves as inclined

to make antisocial, moral or aversive responses when confronted with ethical dilem- mas was developed and presented to process and reactive schizophrenics, prison inmates and normals. Compared to normals and reactives, process schizophrenics presented themselves as less inclined to make antisocial responses. Moreover, the test-retest rs of the normals tended to be higher than those of the schizophrenics, which suggests that the ethical standards of the latter are unstable. The prison inmates’ responses were less moralistic, more antisocial, and more oriented toward the avoidance of censure than the other groups. They were also more stable upon retesting.

REFERENCES 1. BRAGINSKY, B. M. and BRAGINSKY, D. Schizophrenic patients in the psychiatric interview: a study of their effectiveness a t manipulation. J . consult. Psychol., 1967, S f , 543-547.

2. BRAGINSKY, B. M. BRAGINSKY, D. and RINQ, K. Methods of Madness: The Mental Hospitul as aLust Resort. New Lork: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969.

3. FONTANA, A. F. and COREY, M. Culture conflict in the treatment of “mental illness” and the central role of patient leader. J . consult. clin. Psychol., 1970,34, 244-249.

4. FONTANA, A. F. and GESSNER, T. Patients’ goals and the manifestations of psychopathology. J . consult. din. Psychol., 1969, 33, 247-253.

5 . FONTANA, A. F. and KLEIN, E. B. Self-presentation and the schizophrenic “deficit.” J . consult. clin. Psychol., 1968, 32, 250-256.

6. FONTANA, A. F., KLEIN, E. B., LEWIS, E. and LEVINE, L. Presentation of self in mental illness. J . consult. clin. Psychol., 1968, S2, 110-119.

7. RODNICK, E. H. and GARMEZY, N. An experimental approach to the study of motivation in schizophrenia. In M. R. Jones. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: 1957. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1957, pp. 109-184.

8. TOWBIN, H. P. Self-care unit: some lessons in institutional power, J . consult. clin. Psychd., 1969, SS, 561-570.

9. ULLMANN, L. P. and GIOVANNONI, J. M. The development of a self-report measure of the process- reactive continuum. J . new. ment. Dis., 1964,138, 38-41.

10. WATSON, C. G. Roles of impression-management in the interview, self-report and cognitive behavior of schizophrenics. J . consult. elin. Psychol., in press.

BIRTH ORDER AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AMONG CHRONIC SCHIZOPHRENICS

LOUIS H. MUZEKARI

Philadelphia State Hospital

PROBLEM The majority of literature‘’, 4 , ’ 3 * ) that deals with the effects of birth order in

schizophrenia is concerned with frequency of incidence and familial antecedents. Relatively little attention, however, has been directed toward the relationship between birth order and social behavior among schizophrenics. This study further investigated the differential effects of birth order upon the social behavior of chronic schizophrenics. The specific aim was to study the relationship between group participation and awareness of others among first- and later-born male and female chronic schizophrenic pa tien ts.

484 LOUIS H. MUZEKARI

METHOD Subjects. The Ss were 12 first-born and 12 later-born males and 12 first-born

and 12 later-born females who had been transferred from custodial wards to an intensive treatment center. All of the patients had been diagnosed as chronic psychotics whose major symptoms consisted of social apathy and interpersonal withdrawal. The males ranged in age from 38 to 65 (hlean = 54) and had been institutionalized from 7 to 42 years (Mean = 20). The age range of the female Ss was 28 to 65 (Mean = 48) ; length of institutionalization ranged from 1 to 32 years (Mean = 15).

Procedure. Once transferred, first-born and later-born Ss were assigned random- ly to groups in an existing socioenvironmental treatment program. This program required their attendance in socio-educational discussion and activity groups that involved approximately 10 hours per week of programmed treatment. The groups were coeducational and openended; group size varied from 5 t o 8 members a t any one time. They were led by social therapists trained to stimulate patient interaction and reinforce socially adaptive behavior. Opportunities were also available for participation in informal activities in the evenings and on weekends.

The Group Participation Scale (GPS) (5 ) was utilized to measure each S’s verbal participation in one discussion and one performance treatment group. For each item, group leaders rated on a 4-point scale the frequency and amount of each S’s participation during a group session. A group participation score was determined by summing S’s scores on each item.

A Photo Naming Test (PNT) ( 5 ) was used to measure the extent to which first- and later-born Ss had succeeded in establishing a minimum degree of social contact with other patients of the research center. The P N T consisted of approximately 100 Polaroid photographs, which represented all patients of the center, and was administered a t four different time intervals: prior t o admission to the center (baseline), and at 2, 6 and 12 weeks after transfer. The score for each S was de- termined by the number of photographs that he could identify correctly by name.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Group Participation Scale. The 2 X 2 X 3 analysis of variance of GPS scores for

the discussion group indicated significant birth order and sex differences ( F for birth order = 13.88, df = 1,44, p < .01; F for sex = 8.21, df = 1, 44, p < .01). Results of the analysis of GPS scores for the performance group also yielded significant differences on the same factors ( F for birth order = 5.21, df = 1, 44, p < .05; F for sex = 4.10, df = 1,44, p < .05).

Photo Naming Test. A 2 X 2 X 3 analysis of variance of these scores revealed a significant birth-order effect ( F = 4.48, df = 1,44: p < .05); first-borns identified significantly more photographs than did later-borns. The results also indicated a significant sex difference; females identified significantly more photographs than did males ( F = 5.89, df = 1,44, p < .05).

The findings thus reveal that first-born male and female chronic schizophrenics demonstrated a significantly higher level of group participation and awareness of others than did later-born patients. The obtained result on the GPS is consistent with, and extends the data reported by E i ~ e n m a n ( ~ ) , who found that first-born institutionalized patients in group psychotherapy are more verbal than later-borns. The present results indicated that this holds true for both male and female patients and for both discussion and performance-type groups. The results noted on the P N T add further support to the notion that first-borns evidence more social be- havior than do later-borns, since they were more successful in establishing a mini- mum degree of social contact with other residents of the Center.

The significant differences observed for sex on both measures replicate previous findings that pertain t o sex differences in social behavior among chronic patients.

Measures.

BIRTH ORDER AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AMONG CHRONIC SCHIZOPHRENICS 485

These have shown that the female chronic schizophrenic tends to be more socially oriented than her male counterpart (2, 5 - 6 ) .

SUMMARY The effects of birth order upon the social behavior of first- and later-born

chronic male and female schizophrenics were investigated. The results indicated that first-born male and female Ss evidenced a significantly higher level of group participation and awareness of others than do later-borns. Significant sex differ- ences were also noted which indicated that both first- and later-born females tend to be more socially oriented than first- and later-born males.

REFERENCES 1 . BARRY, H., I11 and BARRY, H., JR. Birth order, family size, and schizophrenia. Arch. qen.

Psychiat., 1967, 17, 435-440. 2. CUMMING, J. and HENRY, W. E. Growing Old. New York: Basic Books, 1961. 3. EISENMAN, R. J. Birth order, anxiety, and verbalizations in group psychotherapy. J . consult.

Psychol. 1966, SO, 521-526. 4. FARINA, A,, BARRY, H., I11 and GARMEZY, N. Birth order of recovered and nonrecovered schizo- phrenics. Arch. qen. Psychiat., 1963,9, 224-228.

5. MUZEKARI, L. H., HAMILTON, M. and LEVITT, C. Gradual introduction of chronic schizophrenics to intensive social therapy. Proc. 75th Annual Conventza of the A P A , 1967, 229-230

6. Sanders, R., Smith, R. S. and WEINMAN, B. Chronic Psychosis and Recovery. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1967.

7. SCHOOLER, C. Birth order and schizophrenia. Arch. qen. Psychiat., 1961,4, 91-97. 8. SCHOOLER, C. Birth order and hospitalization for schizophrenia. J . abn. SOC. Psychol., 1964, 68, ,574579.

ITEM ANALYSIS OF REVISED B E T A E X A M I N A T I O N SCORES OBTAINED FROM HOSPITAL AND COLLEGE SAMPLES*

S. THOMAS ELDER LARRY P. GONZALEZ AND LESTER D. HORNSBY

Louisiana State University in New Orleans Southeast Louisiana State Hospital

INTRODUCTION The Beta E ~ a m i n a t i o n ( ~ ) was developed in 1917-1918 by the Division of

Psychology, Office of the U. S. Surgeon General, as a group test for non-English speaking recruits. It consisted of seven subtests, the instructions for which were given in pantomime and illustrated on a blackboard. In the Revised Beta Examina- tion, Kellogg and Morton (2 ) eliminated the pantomime method of instruction and substituted a series of practice items that preceded each of six subtests. The original Army version consisted of seven subtests, but subtest 2, Cube Counting, was dropped from the Revised Beta Examination according to Kellogg and Morton because of confounding by reversible perspective illusions.

Later, Lindner and Gurvita (6) restandardized the Revised Beta Examination using an original sample of 2,000 from which they reported that all psychotics, physically handicapped individuals, and Negroes were removed. This reduced the sample to 1,800 white male adult prisoners a t the United States Federal Penitentiary

*This study was supported in part with funds made available through the Louisiana State De- partment of Hospitals, and a preliminary report of the results was presented a t the XVIIth Inter- national Congress of Applied Psychology, Leige, Belgium, 1971. A large measure of credit is due Miss Carolyn Wagner for invaluable technical assistance through all phases of the project.

Reprint requests should be sent to Dr. S. Thomas Elder, Department of Psychology, LSUNO- Lakefront, New Orleans, Louisiana, 70122. For a complete tabular summary of item correlations and item difficulty indicies, please write Dr. S. Thomas Elder, Department of Psychology, LSUNO- Lakefront, New Orleans, Louisiana, 701 22.