BHS 499-07Memory and Amnesia

Episodic Long-Term Memory

Episodic Memories

Episodic memories are tied to specific events.• Amalgams of different kinds of information.

Serial position curves are also seen with episodic memories:• Primacy and recency effects have different

explanations than with STM

• First & last events more distinctive, less susceptible to interference

Levels of Representation

Episodic info is remembered at three levels of representation:• Surface form – the exact wording of a

sentence.

• Textbase – an abstract representation of the meaning of a sentence.

• Mental model – a mental simulation of the described events.

Cueing

Memory cues improve retrieval -- long-term memory is content-addressable, not just available based on time of storage..• New experiences prompt the retrieval of appropriate

memories.

• The info in the cues is also in the memory traces.

Types of cues:• Feature cues – components of the memory itself.

• Context cues – related to the environment.

Types of Contexts

Linguistic – the other bits of language occurring at the time a specific piece of info was encoded.• Paired associate learning

External context – environmental cues Internal context – physiological state,

emotions, thoughts in time.

Context Effects

Encoding specificity – recall is best when the context is most similar to what it was during learning.• Studying in many different locations adds to context

independence & stronger learning.

State-dependent memory – refers to both internal and external states.

Mood-congruent memory – may include other forms of context effects.

Transfer Appropriate Processing

Memory is better when the same cognitive processes are using during learning and in recall.

Deep processing affects explicit recall more whereas shallow processing affects implicit memory processes more.• Study rhymes when the test will be about

rhymes.

Irrelevant Memories

Interference – occurs when there is competition among memory traces.

Negative transfer – prior knowledge impedes new learning.• The amount of interference depends on the

similarity of the information.

Proactive and retroactive interference – learning multiple lists.

Associative Interference

The more associations there are to a memory, the greater the interference and the more difficult the recall.• Fan effect -- the more you know the harder it

is to learn.

• This should prevent more learning but doesn’t Chunking of related info prevents

associative interference because one single trace is involved.

Inhibition

Interference is controlled by inhibitory processes.

Part-set cueing – poorer memory can occur when cues are given because the cue disrupts retrieval processes.• A form of blocking of associated items to cue.

Directed forgetting – telling people to forget ones reduces interference.• Just as if they had never seen the to-be-forgotten

items

More Inhibition

Negative priming – the decreased availability of memories that were recently inhibited.• The opposite of normal priming.

• Retrieval-induced inhibition – remembering causes forgetting.

Repeated practice – things associated with what was recently remembered are also inhibited with repeated recall.

Repetition and Practice

Repetition effect – the more someone is exposed to info, the more likely it will be remembered.• How info is practiced is very important.

Distributed practice is more effective than massed practice (one long session).

Explanations

Deficient processing – more neurological consolidation occurs with distributed sessions compared to massed ones.

Encoding variability – multiple sessions provide more distinct contexts aiding recall via more retrieval pathways.

Dual process – both deficient processing and encoding variability are at work.

Overlearning and Permastore

Overlearning occurs with repeated practice – strengthens memory traces with increased resistence to forgetting.

Permastore – whatever remains in your memory after 3 years is permanent and will remain a lifetime.• Some things do not go into permastore

because they are isolated and not linked to other knowledge (e.g., math, landmarks).

Organization & Distinctiveness

Episodic memory is improved by organization of material to be learned.• Even when not given a structure, people

impose one themselves.

Distinctiveness – memory is better for items that are distinct or novel• Von Restorff effect – items that don’t belong

• Bizarre imagery – use selectively.

Relational vs Item-Specific Processing

Organization emphasizes similarity – relational processing that stresses what items have in common.• Works by creating a retrieval plan.

Bizarreness emphasizes difference – item-specific processing that stresses distinctness.• Works by reducing interference.

Material Appropriate Processing

The type of learning technique should supplement or enhance what exists in the type of material to be learned.

For narrative text that is already relational, use an item-specific (bizarreness) approach.

For facts that have little relation, use a relational, organizational approach.