bask er barcode scanner

7/30/2019 Bask Er Barcode Scanner

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Aerica Ecic Jral: Alie Ecics 2012, 4(3): 127tt://x.i.r/10.1257/a.4.3.1

Raising the Barcode Scanner:

Technology and Productivity in the Retail Sector

B Emek Basker*

Barces a barce scaers trasre te rcer istri te 1970s. I se stre-level ata r te 1972, 1977, a 1982Cess Retail Trae, atce t ata stre scaer istalla-tis, t estiate scaers eect labr rctivit. I f tatscaers icrease a stres labr rctivit, averae, barxiatel 4.5 ercet i te frst ew ears. Te eect was larer

i stres carri re acae rcts, csistet wit te res-ece etwr exteralities. Srt-r ais were sall relative t

fxe csts, sesti tat te ieiet t wiesrea ati te ew tecl was rftabilit, t criati rbles.(JEL J24, L24, L81, O33)

T pp p w g g g gg p -, w w -1970, p p.

S p , -- g ,pg p p. A (p-) p, z, g q. A - US p p w .

P w. T w p g F, Hwg, Kz (2006), w p- gw g 1990 w (p g

xp) x (p ). T g - w g gp w pp , g p g w p

* U M, 118 P Bg, C, MO 65211 (-: @.). Tpp w w w I w ASA/NSF/C B Fw g C E S(CES) US C B. I g g g pp CES p. A p xp p w US C B. A w - . I J M S W p g F Mg I p.T S A, Rg B, B C, T F, L F, S G, JHwg, Sw K, M Lw, J L, D M, G M, J M, J Mg,

J P, B S, H S, T S, D W, pp US CB, B E A, B L S, UNC-G, UT-Ag, 2011 IIOC(B), 2011 NBER S, P, I p-, w p . A g w.

T , w , pg p://x..g/10.1257/pp .4.3.1.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.4.3.1mailto:[email protected]://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.4.3.1http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.4.3.1mailto:[email protected]://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.4.3.1


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2 AmERICAn EConomIC JouRnAL: AppLIEd EConomICS JuLy 2012

gp g, g, , .D, J, K (2004) g p- g p wg pg g -g (IT) 1992 xp g p-

gw w 1992 1997. I pp, I g -g g g ( , g ) IT g - p gw. B , I p g .

I p - p g F Mg I 1970 1980 US C B () . I C R T 1972, 1977, 1982 --p p g 4.5 p 1982. T g - . G w , w p . T -g , I 1984. E p, p --p g ( , p) p- . W p , p w p .

Igg p, I gg

w - g, g . I , pp g , g pp.

I p w ---p . I ,I p p p - g p . T q $28 p , p , gg g w x p g. A - p , p p,

g, p p p . T g gg - p, , w p w g.

T g gp w - p g- xp g p g w p . I , p g U PC (UPC) w g p pg. A , 2,000 g g p p p. B 1984, 13,000 g p, g g - (Dp R 1997). Lg- p -g, w, , p g (EDI) w pp, g p (A . 1999).


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VoL. 4 no. 3 3BASkER: RAISIng ThE BARCodE SCAnnER

T pp . L, L, M (1985, 1987, 1992) D, F, Mg (2009) , p, - US p ,

z p, p - p , g p w g w g g. B, Gj, W (2011) ggg p Ep -p p . I p - w p g. F, p. S, gg w - C R T w gp pg p , p w .

T pp p -g p ( , Bj H 2003;Jg, H, S 2008; M, H, W 2009). U , w 1990, p g , g g . A w p w-w x. S p p- p qpp w UPC ().

Ag I - , - gg w x w .

T pp gz w. S I p g g . S II . S IIIV p w w-g q: W w p - p? Hww p g ? A j ?S VI . Ex p Appx.

I. Background

T , UPC, g w W F 1932 M . NJp W B S pp p 1949. Ip w gz, A H C U G P I C, gg , w, , w p gp MK & C., g . B p, F w p N A F C. W w p g IBM w IBM g . T A H C p p g- p, g w x g p :Kg, A&P, Sp V (H 2001, 145).


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Sg J 1974 M p T, O.1O x , p Scai Istallati u-date

F Mg I (FMI) g p g pg . A , w w, p p 1980. I J 1985, p mareti

news p 29 p p US w g -g (p D, F, Mg 2009). Fg 1 w FMI . B 1984, 10,000p . T g w p w p .

S p . T p g g

-1980 w, , , , gp q w pg g w (D, F, Mg 2009). T -, w g g UPC p -, UPC g . B S, ww IBM g 1970, p w w , w [] pgg, g (S 2008, 223). A w , w, pg wg . Ag , 1980 90 p g p UPC g (H A1984, 7). Z (1999) p w M 1974 N 1980

1C, 1974 Gw Yg (1997) w, w p g g w qp .

Figure 1. US Scanning Stores, 19741984

nte: S p p .

Srce: A F Mg I .

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Cumulativescannerinsta

llations


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g p UPC -, 869 7,570 (Z 1999, 45).

T g w g p p g w , xp,

p g. T p g pg wg w g -g p qp- g (Sw 1977, 54). Fw p pp g, g w p p g jw (Sw 1977, 51). I, MK - qp j xp.2

E w x ppg. A -wg 50 p N 30, 1976, Sw (1977, 233), 23 [p] p p gp g , w 12 [] g p. T g 15 w . T p 1970 1980 p g , g . H A (1984, 204), xp, p g z p g 40 p p, g.

T, p p g . S g pg p p p g (B Gp1999), p w- p -

p w p p. M M (2009) p p p. S p g - , - g p - (M 2011). M p , IT g g p-, p p gw w (, .g., H 2001; B, K, V 2012).

II. Data

D F Mg I (FMI) p- Scai Istallati u-date p - , M p T,O, J 1974 1984. T w p FMI gg p , g IBM N CRg (NCR).3 M 12,000

2Bw (1997, 44) MK w , p. I w [ g], w xg .

3I S W FMI g p . FMI p pg D 1985, p pp , w p ggg pg. I p g 1985 p g 1984.


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6 AmericAn economic JournAl: Applied economics July 2012

o 1984, approximately a quarter o which are specifed to be upgrades. I ocus

my attention on v

installations. Figure 2 show the locations o scanners in the48 contiguous states as o December 1977 and December 1982.

Starting in 1976, the Longitudinal Business Database (LBD), maintained bythe US Census Bureau, lists, with ew exceptions, all business establishments with

paid employees in the United States. (Exceptions include most government-ownedor -operated establishments, establishments operated by religious organizations or

schools, and agricultural establishments.) The LBD is described in detail in Jarminand Miranda (2002), but I describe the most relevant eatures here. The LBD recordsthe existence o an establishment and provides the establishments industrial clas-

sifcation. Establishments are linked over time through a unique identifcation num-

ber, and are matched to the owning frm, which may be a single-establishment frm

or a multi-establishment frm. In the retail context, a multi-establishment frm is

usually a chain, although it can also be a frm operating one retail outlet and one or

more nonretail outlets (manuacturing acilities, warehouses, etc.). Since scanners

Panel A.1977

Panel B.1982Figure 2. US Scanner Locations, Year End 1977 and 1982

nt: Alaska and Hawaii installations not shown.

s: Authors calculations rom Food Marketing Institute data
http://pubs.aeaweb.org/action/showImage?doi=10.1257/app.4.3.1&iName=master.img-001.jpg&w=323&h=138http://pubs.aeaweb.org/action/showImage?doi=10.1257/app.4.3.1&iName=master.img-000.jpg&w=324&h=136


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w x g p, I w SIC 541: g , , p.

M p g w

LBD. T () ( ) LBD B Rg (BR), w x (.g., x g) ( -). I FMI , w , , w LBD/BR. T xz , I p zg g pg ggp . Dp , 3,683, 35 p, w g 1984 FMI w LBD. Fg 3 w p p.

T g 27 p ( 1978) 42 p ( 1982).Ng g. Dp z (.g., S . S.), ( p ) FMI w w LBD. O g , ppx FMI p , , , p p LBD . (W p-, I .) T LBD , . F, pg, p,. I p z , , , . M g w , xp, g , w pp LBD, . S,

Figure 3. Number of Scanner Installations Matched to Business Register, by Year

800

600

400

200

0

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

Numberofmatchedinstallations

Year


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g w , j w , , , FMI g p p . W p -

g, I g LBD . T, w (SIC 541) . F, LBD wp p, p g . (Txp p p pp pp g .)

T LBD p pp, p , g p q g , C R T (CRT). T CRT p E C, w pqq g 2 7. T CRT p p w M 12, p, -. T CRT g 1977, I 1977 1982 CRT w LBD/FMI . Ag 1972 CRT , 1977 CRT p 1972 p,, p g .

T CRT p g g (, , p; p; pg -z ; p; ; g p), w

, p, (g pp pp g), , , g. I 1977 1982, I acae, i 1977 pg g p, w I xg p . T acae g w g 1977, 1977 p g g w 1 p g, p p w 1 p .

I p p CRT .T p , I p p 1 p p . I p g g g w .L p p w , w, w . I p g p p p w .F, p , w p g p . S, p , p p . T, p g g w - p- w, w . I p - , xp, g - w p- w, w p w, w p


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. Ug p p p . T p w w g w, . F, p g g w

g- w- w w g , g x w. I xp S IVA IVB.

E p p. A p w p .4A p p. T p g I ww w p, , , wg , p - w p. I - p , p w p, I g g p p w I p w w p.5

A p wg w gg p w w . F xp, Aw . (2001) wg g - w g . Ug C Pp S Ogg RGp 19791982, I w g g xp

7075 p w g g p, pg . Ag p (.g., , g, , .), , - gR2 7883 p. Sxp - (p- ). S g q x , - - pp g g p .

T 1 p p. F , p p : 19741977 ( 1),

19781982 ( 1), 19831984 ( 2). S 70 -1p , -1 p.T p g, , gp . T p : p ( 1982 g - CPI); p, w w; z, ; pg g.

4T , p - g p.

5A p p- ( p-) p F, Hwg, Kz (2002) D, J, K(2004). S F, Hwg, Kz(2002); H S (2009); B (2005) .


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S g g w 1 1, g 2, p. I , t- j p z w , g, , , p. Dp , p- g ppg . Fg 4 p 1972 g 1977 g 1 2.

I , z, p

wg , gw g p . C z 1 ppx 13 p p w w g- . T g pgg 1977 g x, . I w 1 1 p g 2.

T 2 p - , p . T CitScaerq 1 terg (w p-xg) t:

CitScaerit {0 xjc(i)/i Scaerjt = 01 xjc(i)/i Scaerjt > 0,w c(i)/i i , c(i) , xg i. T -

w g c t, I

Table 1Establishment Summary Statistics

S R P P C z Pg

1972: C 1 41 9,217 873 10.5 148 0.631C 1 902 8,207 721 12.1 245 0.589t- 0.206 0.043 0.005 0.127 0.049

C 1 943 8,250 727 12.0 240 0.591C 2 755 7,696 690 12.0 545 0.605t- 0.029 0.108 0.982 0.000 0.019

1977: C 1 70 11,526 1,121 11.3 142 0.632C 1 1,469 9,423 874 11.4 282 0.585t- 0.001 0.000 0.805 0.009 0.002

C 1 1,539 9,519 886 11.4 275 0.587C 2 1,156 8,373 779 11.5 557 0.604t- 0.000 0.000 0.610 0.000 0.000

1982: C 1 63 11,676 1,109 11.3 121 0.632C 1 2,053 8,917 867 11.1 303 0.585t- 0.000 0.001 0.640 0.002 0.003

C 1 2,116 8,999 874 11.1 298 0.587C 2 1,356 8,205 810 10.7 581 0.606t- 0.000 0.000 0.007 0.000 0.000

ntes: C 1 D 1977. C 1 J 1978 D 1982.C 1 1 1. C 2 1983 1984. R p 1982 ; z .

R p; x .F 1997 pg g.- t- q 1 1.- t- q 1 2.


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FMI g ( g g- ). I , w I LBD.

T 1970 pp - -g (SIC 541) 1972 1977C C D B(CCDB), ICPSR 7735, w pp gw 1970 1980. A jg p-g p, ppx 90 p - FMI/LBD g w CCDB . Pp g g , . C z . T ( 1) g w g . C 1 w g , 2

w g g. E gw 1970 1980.

III. Scanners and Productivity

A.dierece-i-diereces Estiates

I p g g -- p:

(1) (rctivit)it = i + t + Scaerit + it,

w rctivitit p p i t; i x ; t x ; Scaerit

1

0.5

0

4 6 8 10 4 6 8 10

Density

1972 1977

Log annual store revenue(Thousands of 1982 dollars)

Cohort 1a (1972 only) Cohort 1b Cohort 2

Figure 4. Log Annual Revenue by Cohort, 1972 and 1977


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g , , w pw g t, tg w .(I J 11.5_

12

. F w 10.5_12

, .) S it w .

I p - . M p 6,000 FMI g

p LBD CRT.Exg w FMI g t -. Ow, w . Dg -- .

O- p g , p-, p w p. B p w g g, p, g p gw pg , g p g w pw. I Appx, I p g w g - p.

Table 2City-Level Summary Statistics

CS1970

pp1972

19701980pp gw

1972: C1 0.000 153,321 151 0.241C1 0.000 114,155 120 0.124

t- 0.497 0.608 0.027

C1 0.000 115,807 122 0.129C2 0.000 207,279 217 0.118t- 0.000 0.000 0.471

1977: C1 0.157 225,319 241 0.188C1 0.100 111,574 118 0.173t- 0.124 0.010 0.010 0.761

C1 0.103 116,617 123 0.174C2 0.164 175,425 187 0.140t- 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

1982: C1 0.698 234,441 252 0.195C1 0.652 113,037 123 0.200t- 0.443 0.006 0.008 0.929

C1 0.653 116,581 126 0.200C2 0.633 184,209 199 0.151t- 0.221 0.000 0.000 0.001

ntes: S T 1. O CS T 1. O w p - .

I g () g , .S: CC D B(CCDB) ICPSR 7735.


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Rg p p w -pg . T q , g D 1984, x g w , 1983 1984 . T --p. Eg p

1970 1980 1983 1984, w 1984. I x , I p w p x w p w p.

M w T 3. I w 4.5 p p 1982.E p ( w), g -g -- x , w , w

g x w z, z (w g 1970 pp 1972 -g ), gw ( g pp w 1970 1980). T g x x w wp g p p. T g 1 p w , , . E g p, .g., p ( p p), .

I Appx, I p g p xp xp p g w 1977 1982 g 1981, 1982, 1983. T , w g- w (1,580 ), g 4.6 pp g.

Table 3Scanners Effect on Labor Productivity:Difference-in-Difference Estimates

(1) (2) (3)

Scaer 0.0451*** 0.0495*** 0.0454***(0.0084) (0.0105) (0.0084)

Scaert+1 0.0076(0.0099)

CitScaer 0.0068(0.0073)

Y FE S FE O 7,865 7,865 7,865

ntes: LHS g p. U p, 19721982. R p ( ).

*** Sg 1 p .**Sg 5 p .*Sg 10 p .


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B. Secifcati Tests

I , I - p- . F xp, p-g g wp

g, g gz, w, w , p g g. O p - p pp p p. Sp, t ( t+ 1) x g p t. T g x p, I

(2) (rctivit)it = i + t + tScaerit + t+1Scaeri,t+1 + it,

w Scaeri,t+1 q i w J D (t + 1), . C 2 T 3 w t t+1. T t q (1). T t+1 g, w g , w g g w g p. I, T A1 Appx w I p 1984, t+1 g g. Ug p pp - .

A p . I - w, , g wg g g p, - p w pw. (C, w w g wg g p.) T p -g p p p g w w -- . T w g , I

(3) (rctivit)it = i + t + Scaerit + CitScaerit + it,

w CitScaeritq terg , i, w . R w T 3.Ag, g, w z, w p , w, - g p wg.Rg p w g - - , w, p - . I , w, I - z. I p, I p w 1970pp w 100,000 w 10,000.

A p S IIIA wg q g p g ,


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p w p, g p- p p. W p , w p.O , p p xp p .

IV. Understanding the Productivity Eect

A.decsiti

I , I p p p, ---p , p, g p p. I - q (1), pg -- (revee)it (arll)it, p. T p w T 4.6

S (2008, 238) p g xp 1012 p , I

. T p ( g-), g g, 10 p j 1 p . T p, w, g, g, , 5.3 p, g g p p .

S g p p ppx$816,000 ( 1982 ), p , g, p g p $36,500 p , g g.

F p, p, p, M12 p, p M 12 p, p p M 12

6T w -- I p 1 p p g g.

Table 4Scanners Effect on Alternative Outcomes:Difference-in-Difference Estimates

R PA A M 12 p M p M p p p p

Scaer 0.0097 0.0535** 0.0299 0. 0022 0.0546***(0.0253) (0.0259) (0.0256) (0. 0173) (0.0210)

Y FE S FE

O 7,050 7,050 6,960 7,552 6,556

ntes: LHS ( g). U p, 19721982. R p ( ).

*** Sg 1 p .** Sg 5 p .

*Sg 10 p .


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p. F , I p w I p w q 1 M t; ( w) g.T w j p p -

. S w g, , p g p M 12 p w .

B. Scaers Sill Bias

T g p g pg p p g q w p .T w , w g p p w, p. I , -g. I , w , g - g Ag (2002). Sppg , W (1993) g - (W 1993, 106). Sppg , B (1972, 223) g w g w p w p p pp.

S CRT w , w wg, w , I x g . T g,g , gg x w .

A p, I C Pp S (CPS) Ogg RGp (ORG) 1979 1989. T CPS ORG , q 3-g SIC , p . O , ppx 6,000 p p wg (1970 628 1980 601, q SIC 541). A2,500 p p wg pp (1970 657 658 1980 630 631, q SIC 56), 5,000 p wg g- (1970 609 1980 591, q SIC 531 532).

I p g p w w w g pp , w w w p. F J 1979 D 1982, g w wg 9.3 p, p w 7.3 p wg pp g , w g . Ug xp, pg g w p, g w.

I p p 1983 1989 p, g w g- pg g g, w. I p, g wg p , 16 p, p w 46 p pp g -. T pg g w ,w g . G p z


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CPS w , p p , w g p g p, g , w g .7

T pp p. I w p p, g x --j g w . A g prressive grcergz 1976 g g [sic] R D pp, Tx F gp, g. W, p . O , q z (prressive grcer, M 1976,4042). S p w w -g p (prressive grcer, D 1976, 70) w w x: w [ P] gz, T C, x. B gz, T, x-. S [ w] w Pp ? (prressive grcer,D 1978, 56). C w , g p-g p 1975, 1984, w w , w gp g qp p p p , , x , p, (Hp 1984, 7).

O p j, w, .

T Dp L D Op T (DOT) p , g px g, j , -g (.g., , , ,).8 T p p g w DOT, p 1965, ( ), p 1991. E DOT px j : , pp, g. Bw 1965 1977, g px wg w pp g. Tpx g w p g g 8, g p-

p, 2, g pg g . Tw g px g w 1977 1991.T g g w wg ,

. S w- w, -g, w p w g p w qp w pp . T p . US Dp Agp, p B (1972, 218220), w , p 1819 p. T p- g w w ,

7T pp B MC (2001), w 19841986 19921994p wg g g w.

8M DOT L (2011) A, L, M (2003).


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. Nwpp p, w w I w g p xp w p, g w g (, .g., W 1984).

A w g pg,

p pg p p, pg w -pg. T p w wp g p , g .U gp w pp -pg , g j. Dp R (1997) p M 1976, w , g w w g [J L Mg] C [ R FI]: L w g w p pg g, g w g p p (Dp R 1997,26).9 B 1989, p (W 1993, 102). S p w p g - . I Mg, w q p pg, p p- 1986 g pg 4080 w p p w, g $25,000 p (MG 1986).10

T , , gg -g j, g x ww w pp . A

w , -p, gg g.

C. Te Vale a Barce

T g p p w UPC. T p UPC, - . A B (1972, 220) , I p

p w , .I, I w p

g p g UPC . I pp- UPC p, I p .I, , I g pg (.g., x,, j) g, p g g UPC z p. I p p p.

9W (1993) xp g g p gz , w w - p w .

10I p pp, I p g p -pg g g p . T pg w w w p, w, pw x.


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T w p w p p- w gg p g , I p g - 1977 .11 W p ,

w x w p p xp w g.I

(4) (rctivit)it = i + t + t acaei

+ Scaerit + l Scaerit acaei + it,

wacae i 1977 pg g- p, w I xg p . T tacaeip p p pz pg g pz p, p.

R p T 5. W g, l, w p p g g g pg g, g, 0.21, g- 1 p . T p , p, w- p acae ppx 0.5 - p 0.7. T 0.6. T p p

pg g 1977 xp p , g, 1.4 p w ,p w 5.7 p p g 70 p pg g.

W I q (4) g p p , p. T p p, w g z .

Mg p g -

UPC q p. F, I - pg g w p. I p, UPC , pg g w g p. C, pg p p UPC . S, I pgg px w ( g g q-wg p pg pg g ). F Mg I p Mg N(1995, 200, T 6) g g -pg , p, p 1975 9,000, 14,000 1980.

11I 1972 p , I 1972 g.


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I g p 10,000 p w .

W p, w p

g . Ag p w 6,000 p 1977 w p g g 0.0035 p. G S IVA 4.5 pp g g $36,500 p , g - p g ppx $28p p .

S g p , -, p g p g w x- w p g g. T g

p w , w, , , p -g p p p . B q p -g g p .

T w- w x p , g UPC- p. I pp, p UPC xp p. T x p w g , p A H CIB Cp. (, H B), H. J. Hz Cp, G F Cp.(w K F), B-M (, B-M Sq), GM, I. p -g . A, g C Mw p -- -g (SIC 2035), xp, 50 p 1972

Table 5Scanners Effect on Labor Productivity: Interactions

(1) (2) (3)

Scaer 0.0914** 0.0460*** 0.0072(0.0436) (0.0085) (0.0241)

Scaer0.2115***

acae (0.0718)

1(Scaert> 0) 0.0234***(0.0091)

Scaer1982 0.0546**(0.0242)

Y FE Y FE pg S FE

Y 19771982 19721982 19721982O 4,913 7,863 7,863

ntes: LHS g p. U p. R p- ( ).1977 pg g.

*** Sg 1 p .** Sg 5 p .

*Sg 10 p .


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55 p 1977 62 p 1982. I , , p (SIC 2051), 29 p 33 p 34 p. Ap p q UPC g, p pp.

V. Cost-Beneft Analysis

T . Bw (1997, 8081)g w $50,000 $250,000 p w $60,000 w 1973. I 1978 Tie gz pp [] p g- - $110,000(Tie 1978). C w , Sw (1977, 5860) q p IBM 10- g $133,100 1976, g w g $7,000/. Sw (1977) p p,w w g . F, B (1972, 224), g MK& C. , p qp w x $150,000 w $4 ppx $100,000 w . T p g w p p .12Expg g , x $200,000 1977 , $300,000 1982 , g 10 p p p.

L j w w x , p q p w p- : - . (F g, B G 1999.) I p w wg xp p q p p. I, gg w g , - w p g , w , g w .

T pp g p -

w w. I q g , p p, - p g g w . T q I p - (-) - p p g :

(5) (rctivit)it = i + t + tScaerit + s1(Scaerit > 0) + it,

12V p Z (1999, 39), w q NCR p g $4,200 1974 $3,800 1980. T g w , , p N S g w g p $7,000$11,000 g (NS Cp S D, ). I w p.


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w 1( ) . T sp p- p , - p p.

E w T 5. T p g

xp p g , - , g q . A J w Scaerit

11.5_12

- 1(Scaerit> 0) , g p g 2.2 p.E , p 4.6 p g .

T p p p p g. E , xp, - IBM p B S, g w g.T g g , p-g g, g p. O p , gz, w (Bj H 2003). I , p g p g g--g p. B w g , I w p pg--g - p .

T p g p . F, , g , g 1979, w w g . S,

g w U C C , w UPC g w 1977 1982 (Dp R 1997, 4, g 1). F, - p g g . B S g 1974: A xp p-, w w (S 2008, 159). IBM w p g pg g g -g p.

S p g g

p 19741982, wg w p p, pp .T , I

(6) (rctivit)it = i + t + Scaerit + 82Scaeri,82 + it.

E w T 5. T , w p- p D 1977, g, p , 1977 - g. T w1977 1982, 82, p , p g(5.65 p) 0 5 p .

A , w $816,000 p, g p- g 4.5 p q $36,500 p p.


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(Fg 1982 .) T w gg pg w pp , 10 p 1983 w pg 1984, w pg 1978. G g

, w p g p p ( MK& C. ).

T g- wg .C xp p p (E 2007 p p- p p w 1980 2004). U, I pp p, C p x pg g w g. I z, pw p .B, K, V (2012) p p, w gg p p ,ggg p w p z. Lg xp p g, g - .

T gg pg z w pg UPC p-. T 2,000 -

1974 8,700 1982 13,000 1984 (Dp R 1997). Ag x pg UPC , p w , p p p p. A , , w w , w,w, g. A , w , g, 1979 1980. L , w p g -wgp, p, .

A w pp pp g gp

- p, p pg w p. Ag xp z g- g pg - pg w g ( pg), p g w w pp .13 I p g , N (1999) p p g, wg xp p .14 C g g -g p g p ,

13L (1997) Bg . (2008) pg pg w ,, .

14M g, p g pg g, .g., w pg (ELDP) . p (H-L) pg. S E M (2008) pg g.


24/27


p ppg, p w p w p .15

A p z w g w w p p p g. T

- -g pp,w p j , w p. Ag A . (1999), xp, w g p p. S- pg, , w p g (EDI), g pg p,w p z g g (A . 1999). O g g p z p .

VI. Concluding Remarks

M - ICT 1990 2000, w g. T ppg g 1970 1980. Ug p- w- g , - p, I p w gp p. T wg,

p p w p .I - p 4.5 p,

g, g p p p - . E p , g, $28 g. Dp pp g, w p - .

T w p q , q , p. I , - ,

w, , w p g w - - p. N, gg - p, g , p g p -g. P xp g g A H C. A w,pp, g. I p , p w p , ww g. T g w p, g p p

15T g g g g .


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p, , w w w pg pg pg.

W xp p pg, p p w p w, g -

p? C w q, p pg p gg p p pg. M - g 1970 p . Sw w pgw p gg p- p, g - . I g wp p -q - (RFID), w w p . A , -, p g, pp g w p .

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http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,948019,00.htmlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/articlehttp://www.nytimes.com/1984/09/02/business/the-new-supermarket-takes-shape.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/1984/09/02/business/the-new-supermarket-takes-shape.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/1984/09/02/business/the-new-supermarket-takes-shape.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/1984/09/02/business/the-new-supermarket-takes-shape.htmlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/articlehttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,948019,00.html

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