Basics of Internal Organisational Communication Introduction

Human beings have learnt to live in groups. Even unrelated people get into a group with some common programme or aim. A family is perhaps is the simplest form of organization. The society is also an organization. In biology, organization is defined as distribution of work and keeping hierarchy in maintenance of the system. It is well known that parts of the body are called organs. Heart is an organ and brain is another organ. All the other systems in the body work under the supervision of the brain whereas the heart is an involuntary organ and works on its own. Thus an organisation is the set up where relations between the members are defined along with their roles. In the family there are elder who command and there are children who follow the instructions without much questioning. In an office or a company which is otherwise known as an organisation similar hierarchy works and facilitates management. There is the top management which makes the policies and decisions regarding the implementation. There is the middle management which works as the bridge between the cutting edge and the decision maker. All the information flows in the organisation in various streams in different directions. There are a lot of styles and theories about the flow of information in the organisation. Not withstanding the differences in them, it is the felicity of communication that sends the orders of the top management and the feedback from the other side in effective way. Most experts on organisations, management and leadership, agree that effective communications is essential for organisational effectiveness. There is no such thing as 'too much' communication. Some people confuse communications with paperwork or bureaucracy, so they don't support a high degree of communications. However, as leaders and managers mature, they realise the need to effectively share knowledge and information, and increase their efforts at internal and external communications.

Many texts on organisational communications tend to first examine the basic concepts. They discuss 'senders', 'receivers', etc. They go on to examine other aspects of communications, for example up/downward & horizontal, body language, verbal, written, formal and informal, interpersonal and group, etc.

This feature is designed to provide practical suggestions for non-profit leaders and managers to ensure effective communications within their organisations and with external stakeholders. Communications is a topic that often leaves people feeling confused or bored. It can be confusing because communications is such a broad topic and it seems to relate to everything. People who get bored assume that they've been communicating since childhood - so why make an effort? Therefore, this document begins with common communication mistakes and then goes on to provide a range of ways to improve effective communications.

Common Causes of Problems in Internal Communications

1. If I know it, then everyone must know it, too.

Perhaps the most common communications problem is when leaders and managers assume that because they have some piece of information, than everyone else knows it, too. However, staff isn’t usually aware unless management actually tries to carefully pass the information on.

2. We don't need bureaucracy.

Leaders of newer or smaller organisations see extensive written policies and procedures as a burden. Writing something down can be seen as a sign of bureaucracy and something to be avoided. As the organisation grows, it needs more communications and feedback to remain healthy, but this communication isn't valued. As a result, confusion increases.

3. I told everyone, or some people, or…?

Another frequent problem is management's not really valuing communications or assuming that it just happens. So they're not aware of what they told to whom - even when they intended for everyone to know the information.

4. Did you hear what I meant for you to hear?

With today's increasingly multicultural organisations, it's easy to believe you've conveyed information to someone, but you can't know if they understood the message as you intended. Unfortunately, you won't be aware of this problem until a major problem or issue arises out of the confusion.

5. Our problems are too big to have to listen to each other!

When personnel are tired or under stress, it's easy to do what's urgent rather than what's important. So people misunderstand others' points or their intentions. This problem usually gets discovered too late, too.

6. So what's to talk about?

Communications problems can arise when inexperienced management interprets its job to be solving problems and if they're aren't any problems/crises, then they think that there is nothing that needs to be communicated.

7. There's data and there's information.

As organisations grow, their management tends to focus on matters of efficiency. They often generate systems that produce substantial amount of data - raw information that doesn't seem to really be important.

8. If I need your opinion, I'll tell it to you.

Lastly, communications problems can arise when management simply sees no value in communicating with subordinates, believing subordinates should shut up and do their jobs.

Key Principles of Effective Internal Organisational Communications

Unless management understands and supports the point of view that organisations must have high degrees of communications (like people needing lots of water), the organisation will not reach its potential. Too often, management learns the need for communication when it's too late. 1) People judge themselves by their intentions. Each and everyone one of us believes we are doing the right thing. Thus, acknowledge that the other person’s actions or words are correct and proper (as seen by that other person). Even when someone’s behavior appears completely absurd, that person most likely believes it is justified.2) People judge others by their actions. This means you are being judged by the perceptions you create with your words and actions. For example, if you act angry, even though you feel otherwise, you will be judged as being hostile. If you sound helpless, even though you feel otherwise, you will be judged as being ineffective. Thus, choose actions and words that are consistent with the impression that you want to make.3) You can accept anything without agreeing with it. It's simply a matter of acknowledging the reality that someone else believes an idea. In fact, there would be less conflict if we recognized a) others might be right and b) we might be wrong. Then we could engage in an honest dialogue about our differences.4) Always begin with diplomacy. Strong leaders allow small indiscretions and adsorb minor mistakes. They react with courage, understanding, and purpose. They use courtesy and diplomacy to negotiate solutions because this always leads to a better result. After all, no one has ever had to apologize for being courteous.5) Everyone deserves to be treated with respect. When you treat others with respect, you demonstrate how you want to be treated.6) Everyone has valuable ideas. Everyone is an expert in some area. Everyone has valuable talents. Your job as a leader is to help others excel at expressing their ideas. Effective leaders attract people to them by making it easy for them to communicate.7) Effective communication is your responsibility. Even if the other person's ability to communicate seems to be less than what you expect, it is still your responsibility to make things work. You must increase your effort, rather than reduce it.

Effective internal communications start with effective skills in communications, including basic skills in listening, speaking, questioning and sharing feedback. These can developed with some concerted review and practice. Perhaps the most important outcome from these skills is conveying that you value hearing from others and their hearing from you. Sound meeting management skills go a long way toward ensuring effective communications, too.

A key ingredient to developing effective communications in any organisation is each person taking responsibility to speak up when they don't understand a communication or to suggest when and how someone could communicate more effectively. Basic Structures/Policies to Support Effective Internal Communications

This communication can be looked at as communications downward and upward.

Downward Communications:

1. Ensure every member of staff receives a copy of the strategic plan, which includes the organisation's mission, vision, values statement, strategic goals and strategies about how those goals will be reached.

2. Ensure every employee receives an employee handbook that contains all up-to-date personnel policies.

3. Develop a basic set of procedures for how routine tasks are conducted and include them in a standard operating manual.

4. Ensure every employee has a copy of their job description and the organisation chart.

5. Regularly hold management meetings (at least every two weeks), even if there's nothing pressing to report. If you hold meetings only when you believe there's something to report, then communications will occur only when you have something to say - communications will be one way and the organisation will suffer. Have meetings anyway, if only to establish and affirm the communication that there are no immediate problems.

6. Hold full staff meetings every month to report how the organisation is doing, major achievements, concerns, etc.

7. Leaders and managers should have face-to-face contact with staff at least once a week. Even if the organisation is over 20 staff (large for a non-profit), management should stroll by once in a while.

8. Regularly hold meetings to celebrate major accomplishments. This helps employees perceive what's important, gives them a sense of direction and fulfilment, and let's them know that leadership is on top of things.

9. Ensure all staff receive yearly performance reviews, including their goals for the year, updated job descriptions, accomplishments, needs for improvement, and plans to help the employee accomplish the improvements. If the non-profit has sufficient resources (a realistic concern), develop a career plan with the employee, too.

Upward Communications:

Bit by bit, your workplace is changing.As the old industries disappear, and along with them, control styles of management, so new structures and new systems are taking their place.Where once the manager sat atop the pyramid, and issued commands to the team below, today there is every chance that it is the team that sits astride the pyramid and issues information to the manager below.Today, it is teams that have the information and knowledge. It is the teams that know how the business's customers feel. And teams that can manage by themselves.All this means a re-think on the traditional nature of communication.Where once the predominant flow of communication was from the top downwards, in a one-way flow, in today's information age, communication is multi-directional and purposeful. It goes anywhere and goes where it is needed.That can be up or down, horizontally across, and all ways diagonally.And one of the key skills of this kind of communication is Upward Reporting.This skill requires: knowing how to get and keep the ear of your boss; reporting in a timely fashion; knowing what he or she needs to hear; being short and accurate; balancing problems with solutions; and being willing to be questioned and cross-examined.To illustrate Upward Reporting, here is a set of rules posted by a manager to a self-managing team on how she wants to be kept informed."When you report up the way, please remember...Rule 1: Keep me regularly informed; I hate nasty surprises.Rule 2: Don't deadline me. I know it's been done to you, but please give me some time to think.Rule 3: Only bring matters that you really can't resolve. Anything else will just go back to you.Rule 4: Don't leave out the bad points because you want to look good: tell me it all.Rule 5: Give me at least three options for every problem. I prefer to choose and it's quicker.Rule 6: Do your homework before you come; I don't want you to have to go away and look something up.Rule 7: Remember that this is how you'll want your staff to report to you when you're in my position!"Communication is, and always has been, the glue that binds an organization together. Just because the predominant direction of that communication may have shifted from top-down to bottom-up, doesn't mean it is any less important. Learn how to properly report up and you'll master the new regime.

1. Ensure all employees give regular status reports to their supervisors. Include a section for what they did last week, will do next week and any actions/issues to address.

2. Ensure all supervisors meet one-on-one at least once a month with their staff to discuss how it's going, hear any current concerns from the staff member, etc. Even if there is

nothing of immediate concern, it cultivates an important relationship between supervisor and employee.

3. Use management and staff meetings to solicit feedback. Ask how it's going. Do a round table approach to hear from each person.

4. Act on feedback from others. Write it down. Get back to it - if only to say you can't do anything about the reported problem or suggestion, etc.

5. Respect the 'grapevine.' It's probably one of the most prevalent and reliable forms of communications. Major 'movements' in the organisation usually first appear when employees feel it safe to venture their feelings or opinions to peers.

Supervisor and Employee Communications

Supervision is often considered to include designing the job, hiring someone to fill the job, training them, delegating to them, guiding them via performance reviews, helping them develop their career, noting performance issues, and, if needed, firing them. Obviously small non-profits may not be able to afford full attention to all of these activities.

However, there are several basic and regular activities which can provide a solid foundation for effective supervision. These basics ensure that everyone is working together towards a common cause.

Ironically, these basics are usually the first activities that stop when an organisation is in a crisis. Consequently, an organisation development consultant, when 'diagnosing' an organisation, often first looks to see if these basics are present. The new employer's supervisor should carry out the following:

Have all employees provide weekly written status reports to their supervisors. Include what tasks were done last week, what tasks are planned next week, any pending issues and date the report. These reports may seem a tedious task, but they're precious in ensuring that employee and supervisor have mutual understanding of what is going on, and the reports can be useful for planning purposes. They also help both staff and managers stand back and reflect on what they're doing.

Hold monthly meetings with all staff together.

Review the overall condition of the organisation and review recent successes. Consider conducting 'in service' training where employees take turns describing their roles to the rest of the staff. For clarity, focus and morale, be sure to use agendas and ensure follow-up minutes. Consider bringing in a client to tell their story of how the organisation helped them. These meetings go a long way toward building a feeling of teamwork among staff.

Hold weekly or biweekly meetings with all staff together if the organisation is small (e.g., under 10 people); otherwise, with all managers together.Have these meetings even if there is not a specific problem to solve - just make them shorter. (Holding meetings only when there are problems to solve can create a crisis-oriented environment where managers believe their only job is to solve problems.) Use these meetings for each person to briefly give an overview of what they are doing that week. Facilitate the meetings to support exchange of ideas and questions. Again, for clarity, focus and morale, be sure to use agendas, take minutes and ensure follow-up minutes.

Have supervisors meet with their direct reports in one-on-one meetings every month.

This ultimately produces more efficient time management and supervision. Review overall status of work activities, hear how it's going with both the supervisor and the employee, exchange feedback and questions about current programs and services, and discuss career planning, etc. Consider these meetings as interim meetings between the more formal, yearly performance review meetings. Develop a Basic Communications Plan

Whether planning your internal or external communications efforts, it helps a great deal to develop a communications plan, either informally or formally. For example, consider:

1. What key messages do you want to convey?

2. To what key stakeholders do you want to convey the key messages (e.g., consider clients, fund providers, community leaders, service providers, etc.)?

3. What's the best approach to reach each key stakeholder, including who/how the message should be conveyed?

4. How will you know if you're reaching these stakeholders or not?

Cross-cultural CommunicationThe boundaries which used to define countries and states therein no longer exist in the world of communication. The e-world is a virtual phenomenon where everyone is in touch with everyone else’s mother-in -law, no matter where in the world they live. Even within the country you find people of all states working in all the other states. More so in the IT based industry. Communication in such an atmosphere is a little more challenging

than the usual vernacular talk. It depends not only on the language sufficiency of people but also on the cultural understanding between the parties. Words mean many things to many people. Body language also makes a lot of difference in such as situation.A multi-cultural environment is challenging with different values, sometimes clashing head-on, but it can also be a wonderful learning opportunity if we can only understand those differences and tap that energy. Encountering people from another culture can be very difficult at the very least. From the very start there is the potential for sending the wrong signal, or ignoring signals from the other party inviting you to develop the relationship further. Different cultures place varying degrees of emphasis on the importance of relationship building. For example, business in Turkey is not possible until here is a relationship of mutual trust. Even with people at work, it is necessary to invest a lot of energy in "small talk", usually over a glass of tea, before trying to get anything done. Haste is equated with rudeness. In many European countries, too - like the UK, France or Spain - people find it easier to build up a working relationship in social settings such as pubs or restaurants. This is where lasting working relationships are formed rather than at the office. Even the exchange of business cards has the potential for embarrassment. This is particularly true for the Japanese, for whom the exchange of business cards helps each party to quickly understand the role and status of the other better.

Talk and silence may also vary in some cultures. Once I made a presentation in Bangkok to local staff. I was sure it was going to be a success, but for some reason it fell flat. They stared at me blankly, smiling. My presentation began to fall apart. No questions were asked. The lively discussion that I had expected my presentation to generate was replaced by an uncomfortable silence. The impression was that they were unhappy about something, or did not want to be cooperative. After getting to know Thai ways better, I realised that they thought I was talking too much and answering unnecessary questions. In my own culture, we express meaning mainly through words. We speak a great deal to express what we feel and think, and silence makes us uncomfortable. In some other cultures, a lot of what is happening is understood from the context, and too many words are sometimes felt unnecessary. Communication is taking place in an unspoken way.

The differences between Thai and English ways were probably the biggest cross-cultural challenge I have yet faced. Even linguistically, there seem to be fundamental differences between how we view the world. English seems to be "rational". Look at the number of expressions we have such as "cool-headed" and "level-headed". Thais keep a "cool heart". Fundamentally, however, the British are not such an analytical bunch. When buying a car, for example, we will digest all the brochures for details such as mpg, top speed, safety features, etc. In the end, we still buy the red one with the exciting design. Thailand also taught me that truth is not absolute. On one occasion in the South of Thailand, carrying rather too much luggage, I stopped to ask a local directions to the bus station. My knowledge of the Thai language was, at that time, better than my understanding of Thai ways, and I phrased my questions poorly. "Is this the way to the bus station?" received a smile and a "Yes" in reply. "Is it much further?" elicited a "No, just a few minutes". Probably this person was as much a foreigner as I was, as the bus station was about six miles in he other direction. Not only was he saving his face (few

Thais would readily reply "I don't know"), he was also telling me what he thought would make me happy. It took me a long time to realise that the same was true for my culture also. All people want to please and try not to say what the other might not want to hear. Thais have made an art of this.

Compared to Turkey, Thailand also occupies the other extreme of the conflict spectrum. Arguing and disagreeing have been raised to the level of a national sport in Turkey, although violence is extremely rare. Thais, on the other hand, have made an art out of avoiding conflict. (And perhaps as a consequence, drive-by shootings are almost daily news). As a language trainer in Bangkok, initially I found it nearly impossible to generate any kind of discussion or argument with my classes. Holding strong opinions is perceived to be threatening to the social order, and students were reluctant to voice even mild views until they were sure how the group stood on the issue.

Even within Northern Europe, cross-cultural differences can lead to misunderstandings as one party steps on the other's toes. Certainly, while English and German cultures share similar concepts of rapport building, Germans tend to get down to business more quickly. Typical British people's comments of our neighbours include such descriptions as "overbearing" and "rude". In fact, this is just a case of a culture that moves more quickly to the discussion and decision-making stage. Similarly, perceived values differ from one culture to another. German airlines focus on safety and technology, while US advertisements are much more concerned with comfort and quality of service.

Values change over time, too. Just as one INGO was getting used to submitting quantitative data and proposals to its head office, along comes systems thinking and the confusion about how to fulfil the more holistic and qualitative needs of donors.

As we saw earlier, some cultures such as Thai put the group opinion before their own. In a collectivist culture, group harmony (and social stability) take precedence over individual performance and needs. Other examples of collectivist cultures are Japan, Portugal, Venezuela and Indonesia. On the other hand, the United States, Britain and Italy are clear examples of cultures where individuality and personal autonomy are highly valued, often reflected in the "I-culture" prevalent in many work places. Expect your colleagues from collectivist cultures to be less forthcoming about their personal needs, and those from individualistic cultures to put forward their ideas freely and have quite ambitious plans for their personal development.

The distribution of power within organisations will also vary from culture to culture. For example, Sweden and the United States have a low power-distance, and there is very little (overt) emphasis on status and role power. In other cultures, position and status may play a more important role in working relationships. For example, an acquaintance of mine on her first job was working for an INGO in Uganda. She had the habit of going directly to the source - whether "up" or "down" - to get the resources, information or action she needed. Towards the end of her spell there, a South Asian manager was appointed to her department. As you might imagine, the manager was none to happy that his status was not "respected" the next time she bypassed the "line of command".

The second example concerns a Canadian manager and his Greek secretary. Posted to Athens, and provided with a Greek secretary, "John" treats her as he would a Canadian secretary. One day the secretary complains to a colleague, "I wish he would just tell me what to do instead of always asking me. After all, he's the boss and I'm here to do what he wants". "John" has been practising politeness strategies, such as saying "Could you type this for me?", which conflict with the secretary's perceived role. (Ultimately, however, a Canadian secretary knows that she doesn't have the option to refuse). In the Greek setting, different norms apply. The secretary accepts the power difference between herself and her manager, which calls for her dependency on him for work, his right to order her to carry out tasks and her obligation to fulfil them. By exporting his norms to the Greek setting, "John" has violated the expectations of his Greek subordinate. Neither of them is fully inter-culturally competent. Neither can find a way of analysing or dealing with the misunderstanding. If the secretary constantly doubts the sincerity of her manager, the entire relationship is threatened.

Blame the Weather? As an Anglo-Saxon, I've been brought up to break things down and analyse, group and define them. Let's imagine that there are two types of culture. Even in such a small continent as Europe, the polarity is clear. Many people in the South of Europe, especially along the Mediterranean, have a different attitude to time to those in Northern Europe. Southern European countries such as Portugal, Spain, Italy and Greece are predominantly polychronic. Along with a fluid view of time, there is a high tolerance for many things happening at once. Polychronic cultures are multi-tasked, and meetings may often be interrupted by telephone calls and non-urgent business.

In contrast, people from a culture such as Britain, Germany or North America dedicate blocks of time to a particular task or meeting, and have a very low tolerance for interruptions and diversions. This could explain the reason why, if you are working in a multi-cultural I/NGO, meetings don't start on time and can take forever, to the potential annoyance of 'monochronic' staff. In monochronic cultures, a lot of importance is placed on schedules and deadlines, and keeping to these is seen as professional. In polychronic cultures, attitudes to time are more fluid and flexible, people live much more in the present and, wherever possible, avoid being tied down to specific future dates.

Which is your prevailing culture? And what has the weather got to do with all this? Northern Europeans - the Scandinavians, the British, the Germans - tend to be monochronic. On the other hand, Southern Europe tends to be polychronic. Worldwide, Northern countries seem to be wealthier and 'better-organised' than their Southern counterparts. In warm climates, there has never been a need to plan too far ahead. Nature has always tended to provide, and a minimum of labour was required to meet a person's daily needs. This leads to a relaxed approach to life typified by the 'do it tomorrow' attitude. In the colder Northern hemisphere, it has always been necessary to plan ahead. Without efficient objective-setting and achievement, winter would have undoubtedly brought suffering and hardship. Without organisation, entire communities would have perished.

Communication (1)

IntroductionTake a minute to consider what communication is. Try to think of an appropriate definition. You may wish to ask your colleagues the same question. You will find that for many people, their understanding of this universal process is different.

Everyone is involved in communication almost all the time. Every day we have interactions with a range of people - our families and friends, our professional colleagues, acquaintances and strangers. We also exposed to many other kinds of communication. We read newspapers and advertisements, watch TV, listen to the radio. We also are all very skilled at non-verbal and non-literal communication, recognising and receiving messages through posture, facial expression, etc.

Why, then, do so many of us feel that communication is a problem? Not just our own communication skills, but the communicative abilities of others?

This programme looks at communication in the context of organisations, with a particular focus on interpersonal communication: perhaps the area where we all feel we could improve.

1 The Sender-Receiver Relationship

There are several key stages in the communication cycle. Firstly the sender conceives the message, then s/he encodes it, and then selects the channel (or medium). The receiver decodes the message, interprets it and reacts. (This reaction may be immediate feedback or any other course of action.)

This cycle also contains four key elements:

The Sender The Message The Medium The Receiver For example, you telephone a Government representative collaborating on your project to inform him / her that there is a meeting scheduled for the next Monday. You are the sender and the message is that there s/he is expected at the meeting. The medium is the spoken word (real time, without visual context) and the Government officer is the receiver.

The relationship between the sender and the receiver has an effect on both the message to be communicated and the medium to be used. This relationship is at the heart of any analysis of the communication process.

In this first part of this programme we will look at the place of role theory in describing this relationship. We will examine in particular role set, role definition and role signs. We then go on to consider the importance of Transactional Analysis (after Eric Berne, 1964) in examining the sender-receiver relationship.

Consider the following situation. A field officer regularly arrives unprepared for project meetings. What message does s/he need to receive?

How would you inform this person if you were

a) His / her line-manager? b) Representing the agency funding the project? c) A concerned colleague?

Messages given by someone in authority can often be 'contaminated' by the relationship between the person sending the message and the receiver. In this context, 'contaminated' means that it is hard for the receiver to really 'hear' the message. The authority of the sender affects the receiver's perception of what the message is.

1.1 Role TheoryRole theory was first identified by the social scientists Linton, Newcombe and Menton, in 1936. However, it was only in 1996 (when Katz and Kahn wrote about role theory and organisations in The Social Psychology of Organisations) that role theory became more widely understood.

In role theory we analyse the roles we take in any social interaction and examine the interdependence and inter-relatedness of these roles. The sender's role affects the role of the receiver. This then affects the role of the sender, which in turn … Through role theory we have tools that usefully describe the roles that people take on in interaction and an aid in illustrating the complexity of communication.

Katz and Kahn identified eight role theory concepts:

Role SetAt the centre of any communication / interaction we are analysing is one person. This is the focal person. Imagine him / her sitting in a chair in the centre of a circle of people with whom s/he interacts in some way. This circle of people connected to the focal person is the role set.

An example of a Family Role Set

All the people with whom you have more than trivial interactions are part of your role set. Your role sets will change according to the situation. Usually, when we analyse our role sets we find they are much wider than we first thought.

An Example of a development project Field Officer's Role Set

Before continuing, you will find it useful to map out your own role set. Include all the people with whom you have more than trivial interaction (for example, you probably will not want to include taxi drivers or your local shop-keeper).

Role DefinitionRole definition is a combination of all the role expectations that the members of the role set have of you as the focal person. This means that your interactions in given situations are not defined by you (the focal person). The way you interact is defined by what people around you expect of you. For this reason it is very important to be aware of who is in your role set.

Some job descriptions carefully define role expectations. You are told exactly what your role definition is. In some professions, such as the law, medicine or the police, roles are defined clearly in legal and cultural terms. and is generally very clear. We also tend to attribute such professions with their roles when they are 'off duty', for example, if we meet our doctor socially we will usually interact with him primarily 'as a doctor'.

In our professional life, different sections of the role set might have different expectations. For example, colleagues, donors and target users might view you very differently. These different views will all help to define the role that you play professionally, and the way that you communicate with the different sections of your role set.

Considering the question we asked earlier about an unprepared field officer, you can see that within a role definition perspective, the donor, line-manager and colleague will each relate the information differently. It would be unsettling if a donor spoke to us as a colleague, and even more disturbing of our colleagues addressed us as if s/he was out manager.

Case StudyAbhiyan has recently been promoted to Section Head of an entire development stream in a major INGO. He was promoted rapidly from within the organisation and, although he is delighted with his new responsibilities, he is anxious not to appear 'superior' to his former peers. He has an 'open door policy' but few members of staff come up to his office. Those who do have found that the door is in fact closed and Abhiyan always appears busy. The general feeling in the organisation is that 'you never see the manager around'.

He makes a point of having lunch in the organisation's canteen with his former colleagues because he doesn't want to 'lose touch'. He chats to them about anything and everything, laughs and jokes as he loosens his tie and takes off his jacket. However, he senses that he is becoming unpopular.

This is a situation familiar to many who receive internal promotion. From a role theory perspective, Abhiyan is creating ambiguity and confusion. He appears not to recognise, or perhaps not to accept, that his role set and his role definition changed with his appointment to Section Head. Although staff are sometimes initially pleased to meet their Section Head over lunch, there is an issue of appropriacy, which staff are sometimes more aware of than managers. And from a role definition perspective, the fact that

Abhiyan appears unapproachable whilst at work and accessible and friendly over lunch creates ambiguity for those who see him in both contexts.

There are also other communication problems here. Abhiyan understands, at least in theory, the need to be present, to keep in touch and to maintain open channels of communication. But in practice he is felt to be unapproachable or worse still, invisible. Advocating an open-door policy which you do not in fact keep, whatever the reason, is worse than not having an open-door policy in the first place. There is also the danger that while Abhiyan feels he is keeping in touch by socialising in the canteen, he is getting a very distorted and limited view of what is actually going on in the organisation. If there is no other channel of communication, there will be no way of checking or validating any information he receives.

Role SignsWe often need to make it clear to people what our role is in any specific situation. We do this by using role signs. The most obvious example of a role sign is a uniform. The uniform defines the role very clearly. If a nurse takes our hand, for example, we are not alarmed. When someone in a cleaner's uniform says, "Excuse me", we move our feet. If a cleaner took our hand, we would be alarmed or confused.

Another role sign is place. In the case study above, Abhiyan uses place (i.e. the canteen) to indicate a change of role (i.e. from manager to colleague). He is not successful because the staff were not willing to accept this change of role and find his behaviour inappropriate. However, place can be used very effectively to indicate a change of role. A Head of Department would not normally give a presentation on planned programme changes in a coffee bar. A more formal setting gives status and authority to the role. This means that the message is will be heard in a very different way.

Conversely, if Abhiyan decides to discuss the issue of Personal Development Plans not in his office, but in the busy canteen, he is signalling a less authoritarian role, which might be more appropriate in this particular situation.

Before we continue, consider the following task.

Where would be the most appropriate place in your organisation for the following interactions:

A presentation regarding the year's financial situation? An appraisal interview? Your thoughts about a new project? Presenting your vision to the staff? Presenting your vision to the board of directors/donors? A job interview? Talking to a project manager about problems with his project? Dismissing a staff member? Informing staff about new policy regarding expenses?

Why?

If possible, compare with your ideas with a colleague.

Another sign we use is body-language (or non-verbal communication) We often do this sub-consciously to let people know what role we are taking in a particular situation.

During a presentation, a Director may stand up straight, in front of his audience, use hand signals, perhaps walk up and down, all of which show us that s/he is in the role of leader. If s/he does the same in his / her office, during an interview, or at home, we would be very disturbed. The role signs and the place would not be communicating the same message.

Non-verbal communication is extremely important. Our clothes, our gestures, our 'presence' and our body language communicate a lot of information to the receiver(s). In public presentations, for example, some estimate that 80% of the message is communicated through non-verbal communication. Other researchers suggest that in a normal conversation, 40% of communication is verbal, 10% is comes from tone of voice and 50% of the message is communicated through body language.

If we want to deliver a message, we should do our best to make sure that our message is heard. It is a waste of time to give a boring presentation about an exciting new project. If the sender's non-verbal communication lacks enthusiasm, it is unlikely that the receivers will feel enthusiastic about the message. We should not be worried that making a 'show' might be hiding a lack of substance. If we are confident in our message, then we should present our message as appropriately and appealingly as we can.

It is worth looking briefly at Transactional Analysis here. First described by Eric Berne (Games People Play, Penguin, 1964), TA developed into a field of psychotherapy. While not directly concerned with role theory, Berne's insights into roles that people play are of value to any serious study of sender-receiver relationships and their effects on messages, particularly in organisations which have a hierarchical structure.

1.2 Transactional AnalysisPsychotherapists and counsellors use Transactional Analysis is used by to analyse and describe communication patterns. TA is another useful way of describing the process of communication. While we are not suggesting the use of psychotherapy by managers, it can provide us with some useful insights into the whole process of interaction.

TA identifies three basic positions taken by people in all their communications with others; parent, child and adult. In other words, in TA terms, whenever we say anything to anyone we take the position of either an adult, a parent or a child. This is regardless of our actual relationship with that person.

For example, if someone says:

'I wish you wouldn't always turn up late for meetings', he or she is communicating as a 'parent'. A hierarchical, authoritarian stance is implied, which can 'push' the other person to respond as a 'child', for example by saying:

'Well, Sharad always comes late and you never say anything to him'.

This can then makes the first person behave in an even more authoritarian, parental way. As a result, we get trapped into cycles of (unhealthy) communication patterns. Reaching a positive outcome becomes difficult as negative feelings are generated on both sides. The staff member may start to arrive on time, but s/he will feel resentment. Eventually this resentment will resurface in another aspect of his / her work.

In TA terms, the most successful communication takes place on an adult<>adult level.

'It is important that you arrive at meetings on time''Yes, I understand that, but I've been delayed at a local project several times recently trying to sort out staff problems'

is a more adult<>adult communication pattern and therefore more likely to achieve a positive outcome.

Transactional Analysis is far more complex than this simplified explanation, but the basic concept of communication patterns and the parent, child, adult terms TA uses, can help us a great deal in understanding communication.

Our organisational and psychological roles have a great influence on communication. Charles Handy notes that, while there is now an enormous amount of communication training in communication, very little of it deals with role theory. Communication training tends to focus exclusively on the actual act of communication - the 'message' element.

'Yet roles and the perceptions of roles underlie all interactions between individuals. More understanding of role perceptions and the part that roles play in interactions would surely help to reduce the misunderstandings so common with all of us.'

Communication (2) Contents

1 The Message and the Medium: Introduction 2 The Message - Apparent Vs. Real (Overt Vs. Covert) 3 The Medium 4 Perception 5 The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 6 Listening

1 The Message and the Medium: Introduction In the first part of this series we looked at Role Theory. We will now look at the actual focus of communication, or, in other words the message and the importance of medium.

Marshall McLuhan once famously stated 'The message is the medium'. This was to illustrate the crucial importance that medium has in defining the message we give. An invitation to a party on a gold-embossed card tells us more about the event than the actual words. A sealed envelope marked 'confidential'; a hand-written note; a public announcement in the national press: each communicates its message in part through its medium. Message and medium cannot be separated.

While they cannot be separated in the act of communication, we will attempt here to look at each in turn. Firstly, we will look at the message, and the confusion caused by the multi-layering of real and apparent messages, and secondly at the variety of channels of communication, or media, available to us.

2 The Message - Apparent Vs. Real (Overt Vs. Covert)Consider the following. A manger says to subordinate:

'The annual report has to be ready by the end of this month.'

In this situation, the apparent (overt) message and the real (covert) messages might be the same, namely that the manager is imparting a simple piece of information.

However, it is possible that the staff member has missed similar deadlines before, and the manager feels that this should not happen again. In this case the message is layered, with an apparent, overt layer and a real or covert layer of meaning. The second, covert layer of meaning may be:

'I'm relying on you to do your bit for this report - please don't let me down', or even 'This is your last chance! I'm getting really annoyed having to compensate for your delays!'

Problems occur when the receiver does not hear the real message and responds only to the apparent message. In this case, for example, the subordinate merely absorbs the information about the annual report but does not submit his / her contribution. You can imagine how the manager might next communicate with the staff member if the deadline is again missed, as a result of this misunderstanding.

Problems can also occur when the receiver does respond to the covert message because sometimes the sender is either not aware of, or does not accept that this was the message sent.

In this situation the exchange might then proceed in this way:

'The annual report has to be ready by the end of this month.'

'Well I didn't know I had to submit anything!' 'I was only letting you know!' (thinking 'Why is this person so aggressive all the time?')

Try the following task.

Match the following overt messages with their covert counterparts

Overt message Covert message 1 The weekly meeting starts at 9.00 a You never remember anything 2 I'd better put it in writing bYou should have called them back 3 There's a message for you on the notice-board c You're sitting in my place 4 I'll just move my things d I'm annoyed that you get it wrong 5 The Ministry of Education phoned again e I wish you'd read your messages 6 The seminar is in March, not April. f You're late

Can you add two recent examples of your own?

Click here to see the answers or scroll down.

There are often various levels of meaning in any one 'message' and there may be more than one covert message. The sender may or may not be aware of this.

As 'senders' we need first to recognise the different layers of message we might be sending. Then we can develop the skill of separating these out and dealing with these more transparently and appropriately. If we want a colleague to be punctual, for example, we need to say so as directly as possible.

How we choose to transmit our message (memo, formal notice, video clip etc.) can be termed the 'medium' and is another subdivision of the 'message' category in the three elements of communication. The medium chosen can greatly influence the success or failure of a communication act.

3 The MediumTry the following task.

Brainstorm all the channels of communication (media) you can think of. Circle all those used in your organisation. Look at those you haven't circled. Is there a reason for this? There are many different channels of communicating a piece of information, from policy document to informal chat, but most of us tend to operate within a fairly narrow range. This is influenced by the culture of the organisation we are in and by our personal preference. We can become more effective communicators by selecting more appropriately from a wider repertoire the most effective channel for our piece of information.

We are probably all aware of situations where the medium chosen to convey a message seems inappropriate as the following examples show:

An unsuccessful interview candidate is told the outcome of their application, in a 'chat' in the corridor. The apparent thoughtlessness of choosing such a low-key medium (and inappropriate place) after what has been a significant event is insulting to the interviewee. A formal debriefing is needed, either with or without a carefully worded, formal letter

The Senior Programme Officer of a small NGO sends out a typed memo about a welcome party for a new member of staff to colleagues he sees every day. The formality of typing and the bureaucracy of the memo do not correspond with the light-spirits implied by an invitation to a party, particularly when he sees his colleagues so regularly. The receivers might wonder what is going on. Is there a hidden agenda? Or has the Senior Programme Officer simply taken to self-aggrandisement? Here the informal spoken word would be more appropriate.

Try the following task.

How would you impart these pieces of information? Write a channel next to each piece of information.

Information Channel Salaries will be reduced o Offices to be repainted o A driver is retiring o A colleague has had a baby o Director is very ill o A significant donor will not be funding any projects this year o Your organisation has just gained $2m for funding future projects o

Now go back and add another channel you could use to convey each piece of information.

How would changing the channel affect the way in which your message is received?

Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) is another field of psychotherapy widely used in other areas of work. It advises us that 'If the message isn't heard, then change the message'. In other words, it is our responsibility as senders to ensure that our message is heard. It's no good saying 'They just didn't understand!' and blaming 'them' for their inability, lack of attention or intelligence. If the receiver does not understand our message, we should try to find another way of illustrating it - and another, and another until we feel that the message has been 'heard'.

4 PerceptionThe receiving of any message depends on

the receiver's perceptions of the role of the sender the signs indicated (including the non-verbal communication used) and the actual content of the message in order to make sense of what is communicated. As receivers we:

collect data categorise this datamake predictions (about what the person is likely to say or do) This process usually takes seconds. So, for example, when a colleague staggers into school late, you collect the data presented by his visual appearance and body language: dishevelled clothes, unsteady gait. You categorise this data: he's drunk or hung-over. You predict what he's going to say - 'Sorry I'm late'.

A significant problem with the whole communication process is that we usually spend far too little time collecting data. Handy claims that the outcome of most interviews is decided in the first three minutes (Understanding Organisations). Research on medical problem-solving shows that hypotheses are generated early in the diagnostic procedure and then further evidence is sought which confirms this diagnosis (Eraut, Educational Management and Administration, 1993). This tendency to notice what you are looking for has been termed the 'conservative tendency' and, in terms of communication, certainly makes us less able to assess the available data in a non-judgemental, open, way. Is the colleague above drunk? Has he been in an accident? Is he ill? Is this behaviour usual? Unusual?

R.D. Laing has written extensively about the interconnectedness of role and perception and has identified three levels of interaction complication:

the direct perspective ( my thoughts) the metaperspective (what I think you think of me) the metametaperspective (what I think you think I think) One of Laing's examples makes this clear:

Direct perspective Mary does not love John John does not love Mary Meta-perspective Mary thinks John loves her John thinks Mary loves him Meta-meta perspective Mary thinks that John thinks that he loves her John thinks that Mary thinks that she loves him

Neither wants to hurt the other so rather than resolve this misunderstanding they might well get married. (Handy, Understanding Organisations).

Similarly, if a manager thinks (falsely) that a particular staff member dislikes her she can begin to behave in such a way that the teacher begins to think that the manager dislikes him! They are both convinced of the other's dislike although the apparent dislike is in fact only a reaction to the (false) perception of the other's feelings. As Handy says, 'If Laing's systematisation appears complicated … it is nothing to the complications that underlie many of the role relationships in real life' (Understanding Organisations)

5 The Self-Fulfilling ProphecyWe are all aware of the tendency to hear what we want to hear. This selective 'data gathering' means that we are not as open to communication as we should be. Eraut talks about the way in which we gather information 'piecemeal', gradually building up a picture of a person or a situation. But we tend to have an incomplete picture of the person.

This obviously colours our view of the person and 'because of prior expectations, earlier incidents may affect how later incidents are perceived. Worse still, informal second-hand reports or rumours may affect how the first direct encounters with a person are interpreted' (Eraut, ibid.).

This tendency to 'see what we want to see' has been famously documented in the research done by Rosenthal and Jacobson in America. Pupils in an Elementary school were given the 'Harvard test of inflected acquisition'. The teachers were told that this test would show them which pupils could be expected to make dramatic academic progress. (In fact the test was a simple intelligence test).

The teachers were given the names of the 20% of pupils who were identified as 'spurters' (those most likely to make rapid progress). No further action was taken.

A year later all the pupils were given an intelligence test. The 'spurters' had all made much greater progress than the non-spurters had. However, the 20% identified as 'spurters 'had been selected entirely at random. (Handy, Understanding Organisations)

In this research Rosenthal and Jacobson proved most effectively the self-fulfilling prophecy of selective perception. It is a sobering thought to imagine what would have happened if instead of identifying 'spurters' they had discovered the 'failing' students, and to recognise how often we allow false perception to dictate our view of the people around us.

Most of us do not reflect sufficiently on the data we receive. We are told that Colleague X is unreliable and we believe him to be so, without even taking the time to consider the facts. This lack of reflection means that we are likely to jump to conclusions, to develop prejudiced views of other people and situations and this clearly has a detrimental effect on the whole process of communication.

One of the best ways of becoming more 'open' to communication is to develop our listening skills.

6 ListeningIn all communication listening is essential. Most people who are described as having good communication skills are in fact good listeners and one way in which we could improve our ability to communicate is to develop our ability to listen.

The following task is an exercise in active listening, with which some of you may be familiar. It is a valuable exercise and one which is useful for managers to come back to and practise periodically.

For this you will need a partner.

Choose someone you like or feel comfortable with. You will need a quiet room, or section of a room, a chair each and about ten free minutes.

Arrange the chairs so that you can face each other comfortably, as close or as far apart as is comfortable to you both.

Person A now has two minutes to tell Person B about their journey to work this morning. (The triviality of the topic is important for this exercise). Person B keeps time but otherwise listens and says nothing. Person A can say anything he or she likes about the journey to work. After the two minutes, swap over: B talks, A listens and keeps time.

After this A and B can talk about what it felt like to have uninterrupted time in which to talk, what it felt like to listen without interrupting.

You may find that you are quite tired. Listening is extremely tiring. This is called 'active listening' and is distinct from what many of us are used to. It is difficult to achieve the balance between listening in this involved way and becoming so involved that the other person ends up listening to you. It is a skill that can be developed and there are many other exercises for doing so. For the purpose of this programme however, we merely encourage all of you to look at your own listening and make a conscious effort both to do more of it and to improve the quality of it

The psychologist and educationalist Carl Rogers talks of the need for unconditional positive regard in counseling relationships. It is crucial, he feels, for counselors to go into the counseling relationship with no negative feelings towards their clients, no prejudice, no criticism. Instead they must be genuinely, positively disposed towards them.

Although we ourselves are not counselors, we do have to deal with people. If we can in any way become better able to demonstrate this unconditional positive regard in our personal dealings with other staff, then we are better for it. This is because it will enable us to suspend judgment and listen.

The third and final part of this brief programme covers Negotiation and Consultation and the Concept of 'Openness'.

Communication (3) Contents

1 Negotiation & Consultation 2 Openness 3 Conclusions

Negotiation and Consultation

We all negotiate, and consult, as we all communicate, every day in both our personal and professional lives. When we agree to adapt programme activities because of end-user feedback we are negotiating. When we ask a staff member what s/he thinks of a new activity schedule, we are consulting Many people, however, see the term 'negotiation' as something to be treated with extreme caution and wariness. This is because they associate negotiating with winning and losing. Many people also see consultation as a way to persuade staff of an already-decided action whilst appearing to seek staff opinion. Both terms have lost their meaning.

Negotiation

In their book Getting to Yes, Fisher and Urey offer very useful, practical advice about negotiating. Just a look at their analytical table of contents provides a useful checklist for negotiating. The section on 'Perception' is particularly relevant to this programme:

Put yourself in their shoes. Don't deduce their intentions from your fears Don't blame them for your problem. Discuss each other's perceptions. Look for opportunities to act inconsistently with their perceptions. Give them a stake in the outcome by making sure they participate in the process. Face-saving: make your proposals consistent with their values Whatever kind of negotiation we might be involved in, whether it is a pay rise, allocation of resources, support staff's leave dates, we can communicate more effectively if we follow Fisher and Urey's advice as highlighted above.

Consider the following task:

You want a new field officer to visit and report on a remote micro-finance project due to another staff member's illness. It is far from the Country Office so will involve considerable travel. The project is an important one for a new donor, and you hope that a successful result from this project may lead to more permanent funding. The field officer has no experience in the specific project area but is, in your view, a flexible and efficient staff member.

The field officer has no experience of micro-finance projects. She is anxious about the amount of preparation she would have to do and what would be expected of her. She is unhappy about the idea of traveling a long way to the project and feels she would miss the contacts and support of the Country Office. Following Fisher and Urey's advice above, how could you prepare for your negotiation with this field officer?

Consultation

In our personal lives we are constantly consulting others - or are we? We ask friends and families for their opinions and advice, we consult them, but we often fail to listen to what they in fact say. We hear them only when they confirm the opinion we already had. (This is the conservative tendency we mentioned earlier.) In management terms, the same often seems to be true of the consultation process.

Case Study

The Director thinks that his organisation needs to review its range of activities / outputs in order to attract more funding. He decides to consult the staff. But when the staff offer their suggestions none of these confirms the Director's privately held view. The staff's suggestions are therefore ignored and the 'consultation' is, effectively, over.

The Director feels that the staff are unrealistic, can't be relied on to come up with useful suggestions and don't appreciate the fact that they are 'consulted' about major policy decisions in the organisation.

The staff feel that 'consultation' is a sham, that they offered some useful suggestions which weren't even listened to, so there is no point in expending mental energy in any 'consultation'.

Managers should realise when to consult and when simply to tell. You cannot make a decision more popular or more 'democratic' by going through an empty process of 'consultation'. If you are not willing, or not ready to listen to what is said, and to listen without any pre-formed idea as to what you want people to say, then you should not consult at all.

If a decision has to be taken by a manager, either because it is too sensitive, or requires information that only the manager has, then consultation is not appropriate. The manager has to tell the staff of this decision, though preferably in such a way as to involve and interest the staff.

Some managers confuse the issues of involvement and consultation; it is certainly possible to inform staff of a decision you have made and to involve them in this decision, but this is not the same as consultation. However, if you genuinely want to know what different sections of your organisation think about a certain issue, if you want to capitalise on the different expertise and knowledge that these people have, then consultation is an appropriate and extremely channel of communication. How much or

how little you consult (either with a small or a capital 'c') has a great deal to do with your underlying philosophy and beliefs about the whole issue of 'openness'.

Openness

Our aim in developing better communication skills is to improve the flow of information so that the information both given and received has the desired effect. In some organisations there is an underlying core-value which is usually described as 'openness'. In these organisations, there is a belief that people should be open with each other, that knowledge should not be concealed or withheld, and that information and communication should flow freely in all directions. However, real openness and apparent openness are not always the same thing. Senge makes the distinction between 'reflective openness' and 'participative openness'. (The Fifth Discipline, 1990).

Participative openness happens when we feel a need to be more open and so adopt more open behaviours - 'expressing our views more forthrightly, soliciting others' inputs and talking more with everyone about our problems' (ibid).

However, this is a 'symptomatic' solution to 'openness' and one which may conceal, and even make impossible, a 'fundamental solution. Senge discusses the way in which, without developing the skills of enquiry, reflection and dialogue, this 'symptomatic openness' may in fact lead to 'open closedness'. This is where 'everyone feels he has a right to air his views, yet no-one really listens and reflects. Talking at one another substitutes for genuine communication and dialogue.' (ibid).

The previous case study illustrates Senge's 'open closedness'. The Director went through the motions of being open, adopting symptomatic openness but was unprepared to listen to and reflect on what was being said. Managers need to be very aware of what openness means and to be sure they are confident and mature enough to develop Senge's reflective openness. If we are not ready, or not prepared to be truly open then it is better not to adopt open behaviour. It would be better not to even talk about 'consultation'. The whole question of openness is vastly complex and relates very closely to personal and cultural beliefs. We can only touch on the issues in this programme, but it is important to bear in mind that:

not everyone believes that being open is a 'good thing' real and apparent openness are often confused real openness requires maturity, commitment and belief Try the following task:

How open is your organisation?

Give examples of behaviour that illustrates both 'symptomatic openness' and 'reflective openness'.

Whether or not you are personally committed to openness, it is worth noting that one of the key characteristics of successful organisations is their high degree of communication (Goldsmith and Clutterbuck, The Winning Streak, 1984). The leaders of the successful companies identified by Goldsmith and Clutterbuck all identified communication as being imperative. They were unafraid of giving their employees sometimes highly confidential information, and they went to great lengths to ensure that their staff were informed. They were all very 'visible' leaders and used a variety of ways to ensure that they heard and listened to the views of their staff.

Information is powerful and it is a common mistake of less experienced managers to try to hang on to that power by limiting the flow of communication. However, as one leader in the field of business has commented, this is an irresponsible attitude:

'When employees learn more from their union representatives than from their management, the power structure is distorted. To communicate is to commit and to commit is to assume responsibility'. (Sir Kenneth Corfield, Standard Telephones and Cables)

Conclusion

In this three-part programme we have looked at

Elements of role theory and its impact on communication The effects of perception on communication the insights that certain psychological disciplines offer (TA, NLP, Rogerian counselling) The importance of listening The question of 'openness' By understanding more of the complexities of even the most ordinary of communications, we can become better able to identify helpful and unhelpful behavioural patterns. Project management is fundamentally involved with people and therefore with communication. Without good communication skills the project manager, no matter how clever, innovative or intelligent he or she might be, can never be truly effective.

Telephone mannersRegardless of your industry, the telephone has become one of the most vital tools in the business world. While e-mail ranks high as a means of communicating, take a look at how heavily you rely on your cell phone and you'll quickly realize that its import has heightened. As with any tool, we can always learn how to improve our skills and this article will take a 3-fold approach by focusing on tips, techniques and taboos.TIPS:When you initiate a call, more often than not, you'll need to leave a message either via voicemail or with the person answering the phone. Keep these points in mind:1. Overall, listeners have a short attention span, so you want to say what the listener most needs to hear.

2. Listeners typically aren't prepared to recall information they receive from a voicemail. Think about what you can do to assist them. 3. Listeners don't have the advantage of seeing you, which means they're not getting additional visual cues (e.g. as it relates to how something is spelled). 4. Listeners may not be expecting your call and you may be interrupting a meeting or task; you could be inadvertently calling at a "bad" time. 5. When you leave a message for incoming callers, most listeners enjoy hearing something "novel," vs. the traditional ho-hum message. Try something new.

TECHNIQUES:

Thinking back over the aforementioned tips, these techniques will assist you in your approach when using the telephone.1. Strive to make your message succinct; less is more over the phone and helps with the issue of listeners who have a short attention span. 2. Treat your phone call like a public speaking opportunity and be sure to prepare your message. Determine your objective for calling in advance, which helps you speak succinctly. 3. When you state identifying information like your name or your company name, remember that the other party may be unfamiliar with you. You can make things easier by spelling names and using word associations(e.g. my name is Dale Klein; that's D as in David, A, L, E and my last name is Klein; that's K, L, E, I, N as in Nancy). 4. When you offer your phone number, say it two times. This helps with better recall; twice is nice. After all, your goal is to have your phone call returned, right? 5. If you actually reach the party with whom you intended to speak, it's courteous to ask if they are available to speak with you. This saves you the awkwardness of starting to speak, only to be told you've called at a bad time. 6. While on the telephone, whether you're leaving a message or speaking directly to another person, try to visualize the individual. This is relatively easy if you've met them before, but even if you haven't, use your imagination. This is a great form of making eye-contact and makes you sound more interested.7. Remember that the phone message you leave for incoming callers is a great opportunity to connect with them, so why not freshen up your message on a regular basis? Be creative and tell callers something new that you're doing or offering your customers.

TABOOS:

The third critical part to successful telephoning is understanding what to avoid. Some typical behaviors that don't serve us well include the following:1. Resist the temptation to multitask while on the telephone. We may think the person on the other end of the phone won't know because he or she can't see us. The reality is that we will sound distracted; by the way, keypunching can be easily heard.2. Most of us will cradle the telephone receiver between our head and our shoulder. This is very undesirable from an ergonomic standpoint and puts excess strain on the neck and

shoulder. Instead, give consideration to wearing a headset so you can keep your head upright and have your hands free to take notes or to gesture.3. A typical behavior is to pick up the phone and "just wing it" when leaving a message. The problem is that when we do this, we may sound unprepared and less professional. If you're thinking on the fly, you may also overlook having a call to action for the other party. The person you're calling must clearly understand what you expect to happen as a result of the call.4. When leaving a voicemail message, don't do so when you're rushing out the door. The result is that you end up speaking too rapidly and this confuses the other person. Use a normal conversational rate to make it easier for your listener.5. As stated earlier, attention spans tend to be short. Therefore, it's not in your best interests to give excessive information in your message. Keep it succinct and leave out the extra clutter.Successful telephoning is an integral part of transacting business. With proper attention to these tips, techniques and taboos, you can have the impact you desire on those with whom you interact.