baby boomers, generation x and generation y

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Baby Boomers, Generation X and Generation Y?

Policy implications for defence forces in the modern era

The Authors

Bradley Jorgensen, Bradley Jorgensen is Principal Adviser (Research and Innovation), Education Queensland,Queensland, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

In recent years there has been discussion in the management and organisational literature on generational differencesand how they may impact on the design of workforce strategies. However, much of the discussion appears to be basedon observation rather than large empirical work. Indeed, I would argue that wider support for the requirement tomanage the workforce around X and Y issues is absent. For example, employers of choice are looking to win talent bytailoring employment policy to capture the dynamism of the modern era rather than discrete generational values.Significantly, the bulk of generational data cited by popular writers is subjective, non-representative, makes use ofsingle-point-of-time data and uses retrospective comparisons. Importantly, scholarly literature does not draw arbitraryand abrupt lines between generations. In seeking to determine a preferred workforce strategy organisations would bebetter served by acknowledging the technical, economic, political and social dynamism of modern life rather than theflawed conclusions of popular generational literature.

Article Type: Research PaperKeyword(s): Baby boomer generation; Baby buster generation; Workforce planning; Strategic planning; Literature;Values. Journal: foresightVolume: 5Number: 4Year: 2003pp: 41-49Copyright © MCB UP LtdISSN: 1463-6689

Introduction

In this paper I begin by introducing the topic of population trends and generationalism. Having done so, I move on totest the applicability of the hypotheses that generational issues should be accounted for in the design of workplacepolicy for the Australian Defence Force (ADF). I then review generational literature followed by a consideration of thepolicy implications associated with the modern trends of globalisation, informationalism and the rise of the networksociety. Having done so, the applicability of popular “generational” literature in its contribution to the ongoingdevelopment of the ADF workforce policies is tested against academic literature. I conclude with a number ofrecommendations for further action.

Population trends and generationalism

Low post-Second World War fertility rates, in combination with other factors will deliver a demographic trough wherecompetition for skilled workers will become an intense reality (Schindlmayr, 2001). Worldwide, the average fertility ratefor developed countries has fallen from 5.0 per cent to 1.6 per cent in the last 30 years (Centre for Strategic andInternational Studies, 2000, p. 2). In Australia, falling fertility rates will continue their slide. In 2016, Australia’s fertilityrate is predicted to be just 0.85 per cent (BIS Shrapnel, 2001, p. 186) and by 2030 Australia will have just two peopleof working age for every person aged 65 years of age and over (Commonwealth of Australia, 2002, p. 19). Worse still,during the decade 2020-2030 only 125,000 new entrants will enter the workforce (Access Economics, 2001, p. 22;Baltzell, 2000) compared with the current rate of 170,000 new entrants who currently join the labour force each year(Sheen, 2001). In the coming decades these trends will see the supply of older workers, relative to the supply ofyounger workers, increase sharply (BIS Shrapnel, 2001, p. 186; Access Economics, 2001). Given the importance ofskilled people to innovation and competitive advantage (Baltzell, 2000) organisations will, increasingly, be forced tolook to older workers to supplement the skills and knowledge that they need to succeed. At the same timeorganisations will also need to find better ways of accommodating the needs of young workers. Popular generational



literature may provide an insight.

Legree (1997), Sharpe (2002), Tulgan (1996), Wong (2000) and Zemke et al. (2000), among others, have argued thatthere are distinct generations with sharp differences among them, and that there are large and dramatic differencesamong youth cohorts in different generations. For example, popular literature states that veterans work best when thereis personal contact, strong leadership and clear direction. The Baby Boomers, who sacrificed themselves to the idealsof a materially rich existence, live for “the now”. They want work that will give them recognition, praise and fame(Kogan, 2001). The so-called members of Generation X are not interested in following the footsteps of their parentsand seek to achieve a work -life balance suited to their individual needs. They learned from their parents that sacrificedoes not guarantee stable family life or long-term employment. They want flexible schedules, independence, interestingwork and professional growth. The members of Generation Y are a culturally and socially diverse group. Like theGeneration X cohort, they are motivated to do well but seek more direction and meaning in their work. They are notafraid to question authority and will challenge management decisions that they deem unreasonable (Tulgan and Martin,2001).

In recent years there has been discussion in management and organisational literature on these generationaldifferences and how they may have an impact on workforce management, employment relations, etc. In particular, thenotion that X and Y generations should be accounted for in employment policy, conditions and management is widelyadvocated within popular literature. Much of the discussion however, appears to be based on observation rather thanempirical work. I now turn to an examination of generational literature.

Popular literature – Baby Boomer, Generation X and Generation Y

Generation X

In popular literature, individuals born between 1963 and 1978 are said to belong to the Generation X cohort (Tulganand Martin, 2001). Members of this cohort are said to have the following characteristics; they:

value autonomy and independence;thrive on open communication;view work from an action-orientation perspective;seek out the “whys” in issues;do not believe in “paying dues”;seek to acquire skills and expertise;do not have long-term loyalty to a company (but are loyal to individuals);believe in balancing work-life objectives;look for a shared crusade (inspirational company vision); andare reluctant to take on leadership roles (CLC, 1998).

Members of the Generation X cohort also regard personal values and goals as more important than goals related towork (Accounting Office Management & Administration Report, 2002). They are much more likely than any othergeneration to leave for a more challenging job, a higher salary and/or improved benefits such as flexible workschedules (CLC, 1997; Hays, 1999). Indeed, tenure for Generation X first-time jobs in the USA is thought to be justone year (CLC, 1998). In fact, by the age 32, many Generation X “members” in the USA would have held, on average,nine jobs (CLC, 1998).

In Australia, statistics indicate that more than half of 19-24 year olds plan to stay in their jobs for less than two years(Defence Personnel Executive, 2001). Australian Generation X graduates, according to the Graduate Report (2001),are looking for jobs that will be fun, interesting and fulfilling (Defence Personnel Executive, 2001). They want theirrelationships with managers to be grounded in participative management practices and to be treated as partners(Defence Personnel Executive, 2001). Generation X members also prefer an equitable salary ahead of otherremuneration options and rate, most highly, the criteria of “boss quality” (CLC, 1999, p. 207; New Focus Research,2000; Sujansky, 2002). Equally so, Generation X members value development opportunities that involve mentoring,coaching and cross-functional employment (CLC, 2002).

Stability of core values

Notwithstanding the observed value differences of the Generation X cohort the core values (honesty, responsibility,ambition and freedom) of Generation X members remain consistent with the values of older workers (CLC, 1999).Indeed, as the Generation X cohort ages some are noting that their values and those of the Baby Boomer cohort arebecoming, increasingly, coincident (CLC, 1999). Interestingly, the vocational instability of the Generation X cohort may



be more related to educational attainment and job satisfaction rather than a marked values shift (Lowe, 2002). Forexample, in a survey by the CLC, the council reported that intention to leave increases markedly in line witheducational attainment (CLC, 1999). Indeed, evidence from research in Canada would suggest that the skills ofuniversity graduates are often underutilised, a factor that contributes to the vocational instability in younger workers(Lowe, 2002). Interestingly, the research data reported by Lowe (2002) are, in part, supported by ADF Exit SurveyData (Table I). Job satisfaction (meaningful work) is a high value criterion for young graduates.

Baby Boomers

Members of the Baby Boomer cohort are predominant in senior positions in most well-established organisations andhave been the prevailing influence for the last decade. This trend will continue for the next decade or so, with mostretiring between 2010 and 2020. Baby Boomers have been the people who have stayed with their organisations.However, Baby Boomers, like the members of the Generation X cohort, are also changing. Now middle-aged andapproaching retirement Baby Boomers are re-evaluating. In the wake of large-scale retrenchments, stock marketfluctuations, war, high levels of divorce and accelerating change, Baby Boomers have discovered a future that they didnot contemplate and do not desire (MacKay, 1999). The Baby Boomer cohort, born in the period 1946-1962 is said tohave the following characteristics; they:

value teamwork and group discussions;view work from a process-orientated perspective;believe that achievement comes after “paying dues”;value company commitment and loyalty;believe in sacrifice in order to achieve success;seek long-term employment;are involved in elder care; andhave older children at home (CLC, 2001, p. 1).

Generation Y

A new group of workers (born between 1977 and 1988) labelled the Net generation/Millennials/Generation Y is alsosaid to have unique generational characteristics (Tulgan and Martin, 2001). The Generation Y cohort:

is information and “media savvy”;has a strong work ethic, entrepreneurial spirit and sense of responsibility;is comfortable with change;is paving the way to a more open and tolerant society (Tulgan and Martin, 2001);blends collaboration, networking and interdependence to achieve goals;has self-confidence and optimism about the future;values skill development and thrives on mentoring/coaching; andis well educated (CLC, 2001, p. 1).

Generation Y members have used computers since a young age and are e-learners (Allerton, 2001). They live to betrained, enjoy the challenge of new opportunities, seek work-life balance and like to be involved in decision making(Allerton, 2001). Indeed, work-life balance is one of the top priorities of graduating university students (Comeau-Kirschner and Wah, 1999).

Generational value diversity – implications

This interesting mix of Baby Boomer, Generation X and Generation Y likes and dislikes has the potential to disruptgeneric workforce planning strategies, consume resources and contribute to the erosion of generational solidarity. Ifgenerational differences are the reality, then the effective management of generational diversity will require thatmanagers develop an understanding of the mind-set of each of the different generations (Kogan, 2001). However,much of the “generational” data may lack the necessary credentials on which to base workforce policy decisions. I nowturn to a review of generational data.

Popular literature generational data

Much of the Zemke et al. (2000) research, like other popular writers, is based on their experiences in performing theirindividual roles as consultants, writers, speakers and trainers. Interviews and group discussions have also been used.Based on their experiences and observations writers of generational literature claim that the values and culture of each

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generation are different to those who have followed. They argue that the modern workforce is “values” diverse (Zemke,et al., 2000, p. 10). However, “popular” research may lack the necessary rigour on which to base future workforcepolicy. If the conclusions and opinions of popular generational writers are to be accepted, greater analysis of theirclaims is required. Evidence, collated through a number of defence surveys assists.

ADF survey data

Tables I-III show the top ten reasons for leaving the ADF endorsed by members belonging to the Baby Boomersgeneration (i.e. those born between 1946 and 1962), Generation X (i.e. those born between 1963 and 1977) andGeneration Y (i.e. those born between 1978 and 1988), respectively. Survey recipients were asked to score the degreeof influence for noted reasons for leaving. Broadly, analysis of these data indicates a strong values correlation (withsome minor exceptions) shared between the so-called Generations, though rank ordering of these common valuesdoes shift with age (Zambelli, 2002).

The data show that members of the Baby Boomer generation were the only generation to list “too much change” and“live in my own home” but did not list “job satisfaction”, which was a top-five factor for members of the Generation Xand Y cohorts. Members of the Baby Boomer and Generation X cohorts also listed a “desire to live in one place”, ano-factor criterion for Generation Y members. However, all groups listed “to make a career change while still youngenough”, “limited promotion prospects”, “insufficient career development opportunities”, “limited reward for what wouldbe considered overtime in the civilian community” and “desire for less separation from family” as influential factors.

In summary, ADF survey data do not support the notion of sharp and strong generational differences. Further, wheredivergence is evident this may be more to do with life-cycle phases rather than divergent generational values. Indeed,as Ryder (1965) observes, an older person may feel obliged to remain in a situation from which an unencumberedperson would readily move. For example, members of the Baby Boomer and Generation X cohorts would haveexperienced several household moves (desire to live in one place) during their careers while Generation Y personnelwould only have experienced the emotion and upheaval of moving home on two (perhaps three) occasions.

Also, as the families of service personnel age one might imagine that the capacity to tolerate further family moves willdiminish over time. Factors, such as education of children and spouse employment/career would, ultimately, becomeinfluential factors for long-serving members. Further, many types of economic and political participation are limited tolater life (Hofstede, 1984). Some members of the so-called Generation X cohort are about to enter the leadership rolesoccupied by Baby Boomers. Thus, the career concerns of Generation X members may reflect a general level ofanxiety regarding the next promotion/career move rather than a unique values shift. Equally so, Baby Boomers whoare approaching the end of their careers may be less interested in career management and more interested in theirpost-service retirement/career – “live in own home”. I now turn to a review of academic literature.

Academic literature: generational data

Stability of values

While the size of generational cohorts has varied markedly, scholarly literature does not draw arbitrary and abrupt linesbetween generations (Sackett, 2002). Indeed, scientific research has shown that most indicators of youth attitudes andvalues change slowly and smoothly over time (Sackett, 2002, p. 6). Sackett (2002, p. 6) refers to the research resultsfrom the “Monitoring the future project”, which has been sampling representative youth values since the 1970s. Theresearch findings show that:

ratings for important life goals show a high degree of stability and in rank ordering;ratings on important job characteristics remain stable;the value assigned to the importance of work has been largely stable;there is a continuing upward trend in the value assigned to education (Sackett, 2002, p. 8).

Reinforcing values

Indeed, Hofstede’s (1984) research reminds us that national cultures have been particularly stable over time. Thisconsistency is achieved through a system of constant reinforcement – societal norms lead to particular organisational,intellectual and structural processes which, in turn, lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy which then reinforces societalnorms (Hofstede, 1984). This process has contributed to the “remarkable stability of values” in India and China and thecontinuity in the US character (Hofstede, 1984, p. 234). The core principles of national cultures (values) remainstrikingly robust.

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Value orientations

Value orientations are the complex and patterned influences that result from the interplay of the three evaluativeelements – cognitive, affective and directive (Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, 1961). These processes give order to thestream of human acts and thought (Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, 1961). The directive tendency of the human valuesystem provides for order and continuity. Indeed, a degree of stability and predictability is pre-requisite to effectiveperformance (Ryder, 1965). However, social norms do not exist at a point or at a very narrow band around a point(Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, 1961). Change occurs developmentally through the interlocking of dominant and variantpatterns over time (Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, 1961). New cultural values cannot be introduced quickly (Brislin, 1993).Values are passed on from generation to generation and are learned during childhood. Mental models are internalisedearly and once inculcated shift slowly (Mead, 1970). Indeed, in the absence of a drastic event, new values will takeseveral generations to emerge (Brislin, 1993). Generationalists, it appears, apply a structure to the transactionalinterplay between the evaluative processes and are thereby denying the very nature of the human psyche (Kluckhohnand Strodtbeck, 1961).

Pre-figurative learning

In the preface to her book Culture and Commitment, Mead noted that in the late 1940s the central problem agitatingyoung people was identity. Later on, in the late 1960s, Mead believed that that the problem was commitment (Mead,1970, p. 1). For example, in the 1960s, in the midst of “tremendous and rapid change”, it was becoming harder andharder for any young individual growing up to find his or her place (Mead, 1970, p. 1). Mead observed the impact ofnew technologies, the emergence of a world community, international media, national tragedy, family breakdown andspace travel as influential factors. The question was at that time: “To what past, present or future can the youngcommit themselves?” (Mead, 1970, p. 1). Mead claimed that in the late 1960s modern society was based on a pre-figurative culture (adults learn from children) where the young had taken on a new authority. Because of the rapidity ofchange the young could not share the memories of their parents (Mead, 1970). Indeed, Mead (1970) claimed that thefuture was so deeply unknown that it could not be handled.

Relentless change

MacKay (1993) also points to the relentless social, cultural, economic, political and technological change associatedwith living in the modern era. MacKay (1993) observed rising levels of stress and society’s emerging incapacity in theface of continuing change. According to MacKay (1993), individuals have increasingly been left with the feeling ofbeing alone and have had to find new models of behaviour. For many, the model has been that of theircontemporaries, a type of pre-figurative learning. MacKay (1999) echoes Mead’s (1970) theme when he notes that ourlives are so dominated by choice that we must construct our own identities. Davis (1997) also observes that thephysical distance between Baby Boomers and their offspring (parents retreat, extended working hours, day care, etc.)combined with the fragmentation associated with the rapid uptake of new technologies has forced those who havefollowed to find new models of behaviour.

Recurring generational themes

The young people that Mead (1970) observed and commented on in 1969 were the young Baby Boomers. Thesimilarities with the Generation X cohort are curiously coincident. Generation X members were first described ascommitment phobic, lazy and self-interested (Tulgan, 1996). In 1969 the issue was also a lack of commitment. Indeed,Mead’s view that pre-figurative cultural learning will produce a short-lived divergence between generations is alsoholding true. More recent data now indicate that the Generation X cohort is driven more by traditional and rationalneeds than presently accepted. Generation X members now want job security, interesting and challenging tasks, openand effective workplace communication, and integrity in workplace practices (CLC, 1999). Young people are not emptyof politics and are engaged (Davis, 1997). Indeed, research undertaken by Penn (1977), which measuredintergenerational value differences between parents and their offspring, tends to support the proposition that thetraditional values of honesty, responsibility, ambition and freedom are given high priority by each group. Althoughdifferences between the offspring and their parents occurred in the ordering of values, both groups possessed similarvalue orientations with regard to specific traditional values (Penn, 1977).

Generationalism and modernity

In Gangland, Davis (1997) sees the notion of “generationalism” as one taken up by the increasingly conservative BabyBoomers. As MacKay (1997) observes, the Baby Boomers are reacting to the generation gap that they never



expected. Davis (1997) sees the notion of discrete generations as a construction, a product of incomplete self-reflectivity. Generationalism is modernistic, a relic of the industrial era that does not belong in the era of knowledgecapitalism, and, according to Davis (1997), is a rejection of pluralism, conservative and white. Generationalism is littlemore than a new way of ushering in a whole new raft of products (Davis, 1997). The parallels between the “teenager”of the 1950s and the modern era are readily apparent (Davis, 1997).

Based on the foregoing, the claims put forward by generational writers regarding the need to manage the modernworkforce through generationally targeted mechanisms lack the necessary rigour on which to base workforce policydecisions. Rather academic literature appears to support the notion of individualisation and tailored measures ratherthan bulk or generic workforce policy approaches.

The rise of self

Brookeman (1984) observed that the pre-war pressures that forced the USA to drift towards a “vital centre” of core andagreed democratic values gave way, in the post-war years, to a move away from neo-conservatism. The idea of “self”began to emerge. The values of efficiency, equality, equity and the fulfilment of self were a rejection of the masspolitics of Stalin and Hitler and the censorship of McCarthyism (Brookeman, 1984). Individualism and meritocracy wereegalitarian, anti-communist and were “capitalism’s main device” (Brookeman, 1984). Individualism, however, was notaccompanied by a wholesale abandonment of pre-existing values. Popular generational writers have looked toonarrowly at modern developments. Indeed, the post-modern and post-Fordist influences that have been associatedwith rapid change have impacted all of society. The cross-sectional analysis conducted by popular writers denies thepast and fosters the illusion of an immutable structure (Ryder, 1965).

Cohort shifts

As Ryder (1965, p. 847) observes, “rarely are changes so localised that the burden would exclusively fall on onecohort”. While generational shifts can occur these shifts would normally be associated with a drastic event. Importantly,most drastic events also have a system-wide effect that impacts on all levels of society regardless of age. More even-paced change tends to be associated with the processes of maturation and seniority. Indeed, complaints about the“younger generation” are not new and have been found in ancient Egyptian manuscripts, Greek texts, Roman literatureand in Shakespeare’s plays (Hofstede, 1984). Interestingly, individual preferences are more likely to be skewed byfactors such as employment, educational background and skill level rather than generational influences (Hofstede,1984).

Ages and stages

While Hofstede (1984) showed that culture changes and develops over time he also observed no lasting generationaleffects. People, subject to individual factors, have adjusted through the chronology of their lives. For example,individualism and self-assertion decrease with age, while security, personal relationships and environment becomemore important (Hofstede, 1984). Goals also shift in their importance according to educational attainment. Highlyeducated people tend to be more individualistic and tolerant of uncertainty (Hofstede, 1984). Also, as Ryder (1965)reminds, different subsets within a cohort have different time patterns of development. Each cohort has a life-cyclewithin which major transitions occur. Indeed, cohorts can be pulled apart by the “slow grind of evolutionary change”(Ryder, 1965, p. 851). Members are dispersed through life-cycle changes such as movement into the labour force,educational attainment and procreation (Ryder, 1965). Thus, while generational commonality may be likely, communityis not (Ryder, 1965). The so-called unique generational values (if valid) would be unlikely to survive the normalprocesses of maturation, socialisation and cultural learning (Mead, 1970).

Caricature and fallacy

Sackett (2002, p. 4) characterises popular generational literature, such as Legree (1997), Tulgan (1996), Tulgan andMartin (2001), Wong (2000) and Zemke et al. (2000) as “engaging, entertaining and buoyantly enthusiastic” but lackingin scientific rigour. Davis (1997) agrees that the labels used in popular literature are little more than caricature –exaggerated and distorted to engage popular interest. Sackett (2002) relies on the work of Ryder (1964, 1965) andRiley et al. (1988), among others. Ryder (1964, p. 459) in his discussion on micro and macro analysis notes that “it isinvalid to transform a proposition about populations into a proposition about individuals”. Moreover, people’s ages andfixed dates cannot be used to compare cohorts; “one must first specify the events and experiences that arehypothesised to lead to cohort differences and then systematically test those hypotheses” (Sackett, 2002, p. 4).Significantly, the samples tested by popular writers are often selective or non-representative, use retrospectivecomparisons and/or use single-point-of-time data (Sackett, 2002). Importantly, as Hofstede (1984, p. 20) explains, the



ideological presumptions of researchers affect the way they “observe, describe, classify, understand and predictreality”. While a research bias is more or less inevitable, properly researched data should be able to be corroboratedby others using other research methods (Hofstede, 1984). However, the provoked behaviour of the popular interviewerdoes not appear to have been made subject to any form of “pragmatic validation” (Hofstede, 1984, p. 17). The lack ofcorroboration, in best practice models and academic literature for the notion of discrete generations is significant.

When taken as a whole, the evidence supports the development of workforce policy approaches that provide fortailoring to individual needs rather than bulk or generic (generational) approaches. The employer of choice frameprovides a model for such an approach.

Employers of choice

Evidence from leading US firms further reinforces the argument that popular generational literature lacks the necessaryrigour to warrant the adoption of workforce policies tailored to the needs of discrete generations. Rather, employers ofchoice, in recognising the importance of talent as a source of competitive advantage, are looking to win talent bytailoring employment policy (CLC, 2000) to capture the dynamism of the modern era rather than discrete generationalvalues. Typical measures include improving career development opportunities, providing challenging, inspiring,enjoyable and flexible work, providing progressive benefits, improving incentives and encouraging participation andopen communication (CLC, 2000; Hewitt Associates, 2000; Lowe, 2001). These measures appear to be aimed atdealing with informationalism, the dynamism of the modern era and the growth in individualism rather than specificallytargeting the generational characteristics of members of the Baby Boomer, Generation X and/or Generation Y cohorts.

Informationalism

In the modern era the value-making potential of organisations and labour is very much dependent on the autonomy oflabour to make decisions in real-time (Castells, 2000). Because the traditional disciplinary mode of management doesnot enable innovation and stands in the way of knowledge creation, organisations are seeking to invoke more fluid andprocess-based approaches (Castells, 2000). Organisational hierarchies are being abandoned in favour of networks andvirtual organisations (Kochan and Foote-Whyte, 1999; Michalski et al., 2002). Indeed, informationalism is becoming thebasis for social organisation, and the action of knowledge on knowledge, the source of productivity (Castells, 2000).

Dynamism of the modern era

The intensification of technology into daily life and the growth of embedded knowledge has seen the capacity to makeand implement choice fundamentally affected. Also, the technological, economic and social dynamism of the modernera is enhancing the scope of action available to individuals and is breaking down the old ways of doing things(Michalski et al., 2002). Inevitably, the distribution and exercise of authority is shifting towards individuals (Michalski etal., 2002). Indeed, under the influence of higher levels of education, sustained economic growth and rising productivity,individuals (in the developed world) have gradually become more concerned with quality of life issues (Michalski et al.,2002).

The rise of individualism

Evidence also shows a link between the productivity of high performing companies and the effective satisfaction ofvalues such as: autonomy, participation in decision making, and participation in job design (Castells, 2000; Kochanand Foote-Whyte, 1999). In rapidly changing environments, organic organisations that feature less specialisation, flathierarchies and less formalisation have been shown to be more appropriate than industrial bureaucracy (Castells,2000; Hatch, 1997). Accordingly, leading organisations have responded by improving the capacity of individuals toengage and participate in new ways of making and implementing decisions, to encourage invention rather than passivefollowing and to create networks that access the tacit (and the explicit) knowledge of employees. Leadingorganisations have also begun to accept that the hierarchical relationships, habits and traditions that have beeningrained need to be overcome, else the potential benefits associated with the technological, economic and socialdynamism of the modern era would be neutralised (Michalski et al., 2002). The role of the individual is central to thisprocess.

Conclusion

Low post-Second World War fertility rates combined with the influence of ageing populations will lead to anintensification of competition to attract and retain skilled workers. Popular writers have suggested that part of theanswer to the problem of attracting and retaining employees may reside in the creation of strategies that target the



unique generational characteristics of veteran, Baby Boomer, Generation X and Generation Y cohorts. While this paperhas argued that the close cultural similarities shared between the USA and Australia would facilitate the take-up of USworkforce management practices, popular literature lacks the necessary rigour to justify a change in policy direction.Indeed, the bulk of generational data are subjective, non-representative, make use of single-point-of-time data and useretrospective comparisons. Importantly, popular writers have engaged in an ecological fallacy by attempting to convertpropositions about populations to propositions about individuals.

Moreover, data from the Monitoring the Future Project (in the USA) and ADF surveys reject the notion of distinctgenerations. Rather, difference appears to be more related to individual life-cycle stages and the spheres of activitiesthat individuals engage in. Indeed, unique generational characteristics would be unlikely to survive the processes ofsocialisation and maturation. Importantly, workforce management best practice in the USA is looking to capitalise onthe technological, economic and social dynamism of the modern era rather than the flawed observations of popular“generational” writers. Modern employers have acknowledged the increasing democratisation of society, the influenceof ICTs, the need for faster decision making, the value of knowledge creation, the importance of robust external andinternal relationships and the vital role of open communication. Indeed, in rapidly changing environments, organicorganisations have been shown to be more appropriate than industrial bureaucracy. At the same time, higher levels ofeducation, sustained economic growth and rising productivity have led to individuals gradually becoming more andmore concerned with quality of life issues. Best practice employers have responded by providing individuals withimproved career development opportunities, flexible benefits and challenging, inspiring, enjoyable and flexible work.

In summary, I reject the notion of distinct generations and therefore the need to tailor workforce policy to matchdiscrete generational needs. Instead, I agree that organisational and societal change associated with the combinedeffect of demographic trends, democratisation, globalisation and ICTs have contributed to a rise in the importance ofthe individual and the notion of “self”. In turn, society and organisations have begun to move towards models ofemployment that emphasise the individual, work-life balance, quality of employment, worker autonomy, openness,participation, challenging, inspiring and enjoyable work and flexibility – characteristics also advocated by Florida (2002).

Because the USA leads the world in its progress towards a knowledge economy, advances there may providevaluable clues for future workforce developments in Australian organisations. Indeed, the noted cultural similaritiesshared between the USA and Australia underline the importance of considering “best practice” in the USA whendeveloping workforce policy. Accordingly, this paper recommends that the ADF:

avoids workforce policy developments predicated on the notion of distinct generational differences;develops workforce strategies that seek to capitalise on the economic, political, technological and socialdynamism of the modern era, namely policy approaches that emphasise flexible work, reward and benefits,worker participation, individual autonomy, multiple career pathways, streamlined recruitment and selection andinspiring, challenging and enjoyable work;considers the adoption of workforce policy developments and best practice models used in the USA.

Table I –-Top ten reasons for leaving for Generation X



Table II –-Top ten reasons for leaving the ADF for Baby Boomers

Table III –-Top ten reasons for leaving for Generation Y

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