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CHAPTER 1

characteristic of modern civilizations

Technological, military, political, scientific andeconomic apparatusEquality (of religion, class, race, sex, etc.)Indo-European

The ancient migrants who came from lands like Iran andIndia to form the Greeks and Romans and who mergedwith and imposed their language on the currentinhabitantsTheir languages include Latin, Greek, Germanic, Slavic,Celtic, and Baltic languagesCaesaropapism

Caesar is a God and is the only sovereign ruler on earthOne man is ruler and Pontiff

successors had spiritual authorityCharelemagne

Frankish king crowned Emperor of the west by the popein an attempt to gain back lands lost to Muslims and tofend off or convert heathen barbarians; unify the lands

Restorationsrevive forgotten ancient learning and spread education atleast among clergySuccesswest was slightly united and somewhat more learnedMethodsbrought scholars to his palace schoolmanuscripts were copiedcreated more reliable coinage based on silverLimitationsnew barbarian attacksrefusal of eastern Christians to recognize westernprimacy of popeFeudalism

Serfdom peasants bound to the soil of the manor ofthe lordFiefs parcels of land given to vassals by lords forserviceOaths vassals took oaths to serve and to advise him inhis courtHomagefealty

ManoralismSelf-sufficiency peasants do farming and simple craftsin return lord gives protectionIntegration with feudalism two way street of supportfrom lord to servantguilds and towns

towns were made by their gaining of political rightsthrough charters given out by a kingguilds were associations of merchants and craftsmenmens guilds were for masonry, smithing, etcwomen could also join guilds but mostly in the clothingindustrymedieval economy and survival

survival in towns was set up by the towns folk: guards,walls, and any other defenses were provided for thegood of the towneconomically trade in towns was like the defense it wasmainly to keep the town running; few worked to make aprofit and those that did were mistrustedEarly parliaments

Started when the king had talks with representatives oftowns, the clergy and the lords

Called cortes in Spain, diets in Germany, EstatesGeneral or provincial estates in France, and parliamentsin BritainUsed by king to publicize and strengthen their rule;convenient to explain policies, request moneyHad no right to dictate the king and his governmentParliaments allowed to state grievancesRepresented not the nation or the people but theestates: First Clergy, Second landed nobles, Third the burghers of chartered townsChurch reform

HRE formed in an attempt to preserve and extendChristian faithCluniac monastery in France Christian ideal to whichall clergy and laity might look up; recognized onlyauthority of RomePope Nicholas II future popes to elected by cardinalsHildebrand (Gregory VII) no marriage in clergy, nonoble could appoint a clergyman Lay investiture process by which the emperor (alayman) conferred on the bishop the signs of his spiritualauthority; prohibited by Gregory VII

CHAPTER 2Vernacular bible

Reading in own language hugely liberating from churchCould salvation be achieved without church?Reformation and institutions of the modern state;

SecularizationModern views on education, progressErasmusSupported reform through educationMade greek and latin new testament, and encouragedreading itWrote Praise of Folly satirizing pretentious clergyweaknesses of the church simony, plural beneficespoor education of priests, etcSimony = selling of church officesNepotism = inheriting church officesIndulgences were sold (Tetzel was notorious for this)Church unable to reform in 13 th centuryThe aims of liberal education for Renaissance

Separate classes by level of educationManners were valuedWell roundedness appreciated

Council of TrentCharles V wanted to have reform council, hampered byFrancis ICouncil wanted to define Catholicism without makingconcessions to ProtestantismAvoided expanding powers of councilsJustification by a combination of faith and works,contrary to LutherReaffirmed seven sacraments, trans-substantiationconfession, and absolutionLatin was to be the language of the MassPriests were to be celibateMonasticism, purgatory, indulgences, saints, the cult ofthe Virgin, images, relics, and pilgrimages wereapprovedIgnatius Loyola

Founded JesuitsOrganized, missionary forcePart of catholic revivalNew Monarchs" of the 15th centuryWhat they didAllied with middle class, defusing feudal power

Developed new foot soldier armies with pikes andlongbowsReplaced feudal law with Roman law, and had ultimateruler decide lawTudor rulers in England began with Henry VII, bannedprivate noble armiesIn France Louis XI Valois built army and taxedLater Francis I secured Concordant of Bologna, tradingmoney for church offices

Ferdinand and Isabella split spain, but it was united bymarriage and faithReligious mystics of northern Europe

Sought religion without church, more personalRenaissance characteristics of personIndividual achievement was valuedHumans were great, everything focused on usValue of scholarshipBoniface VIII

In 1290 Philip IV (France) and Edward I (England)taxed churchBoniface denounced this and declared pope superiorityto KingsPhilip IV arrested himThis led to 70 years of Babylonian Captivity in France,reducing churchs reputationGreat Schism from 1378 to 1414 between thosefollowing roman and French popeUnam Sanctam

Boniface VIII papal bull declaring papal supremacy (see

above)UltramontanismCatholic interpretation placing pope as really importantLorenzo Valla

Controversial Italian humanist, rhetorician, and educatorCriticized some church higher upsBook of the Courtier

Written by Castiglione demonstrating renaissance ideal person, characteristics being:knowledgeable in classical subjects, proficient in sportsand arms, and able to dance and appreciate musicCondottiere

mercenary soldier leadersPragmatic Sanction of Bourges

Issued by Charles VII of France requiring GeneralChurch Council superior to pope to meet once perdecadeOpposed by popes (obviously)virtu

coined by Machiavelliincludes pride, bravery, strengthqualities desirable for a man

"livery and maintenance"Livery referred to mercenary soldiers uniform showingallegiance to lordMaintenance was payment or legal favorsStar Chamber

English court of law to convict prominent peopleCame to represent corruptionWar of the Roses

Picked up where 100 years war left off (1450s)Private baron armies (see livery and maintainance)Jacqueries

French peasant revolt during hundred years warCatholic Reformation

Initiated by Charles V After Luthers splitCouncil of TrentNew orders (eg. Jesuits)inquisitionJohn Calvin's theology

Similar to Lutheranism but more strictBelieved in predestination with elect going to heavenHonest work was pleasing to GodSisters and brothers of the common life

Took no vowsHelped the poor, emphasized Christian valuesCharles V

His reign constitutes the pinnacle of Habsburg powerRuler of HRE from 1519 to 1556Opposed protestant reformation and council of trentMachiavelli

Wrote The PrinceAimed to convince Italians of need for unityStated that men act in their own political interestThe end justifies the meansOne of many brilliant men in florence

CHAPTER 3

Vasco de Gama

Portuguese man that pioneered trade around Africa withindiesTraveled around cape of good hope in 1498Albuquerque

First governor general of PortugalDeveloped trade stations, very important for PortugalFugger

Family of European bankersReplaced MediciCalvin

When Philip II inherited Netherlands Calvinists revoltedSee below for reactionDuke of Alva

Executed thousands of rebelling calvanists, confiscatedestatesResulted in unity against spainWilliam the Silent

Also called William of orangeleader of the Dutch revolt against the Spanish that set offthe 80 Years' Warsupported freedom of religionMary, Queen of Scots

Allied with William/NetherlandsMany plotted for her to be queen of EnglandCatherine de'Medici

Widow of Henry II in FranceOrdered St. Bartholomews day massacre killinghugonautsSir Francis Drake

renowned pirate awarded knighthood in 1581 by QueenElizabeth Ihero to English, pirate to SpaniardsAdmiral de Colingny

Huguenot leader in the French Wars of ReligionGustavus Aldophus

Founder of Swedish empireLed his armies as king, eventually dying in 30 years warColbert

French minister of finance from 1665 to 1683 under therule of King Louis XIVBrought the economy back from the brink ofbankruptcyRichlieu

After Henry IV was assassinated, was advisor to widowMarieDiscouraged private warfare and duelingpolitiques

Moderates seeking peace to save France from anarchy,Henry of Navarre was oneThe Wars of Religion in France

Protestants led by Admiral de Coligny and Henry ofBourbonCatholics led by Guise familySt. Bartholomews day massacreCommercial Revolution

Steady population growthRising pricesPutting out systemDistributing labor to rural workersAvoided restrictive guildsGreater international trade

Growth of lending for interest which had beendenounced by religionRise of mercantilismEdict of Nantes

Protestantism was to be allowed among nobles or intownsPassed by Henry of Navarre30 years war

War of HRE (germany)German civil war because of religion and governmentproblemsInternational war between Bourbons v. Habsburgs,Spanish v. DutchMercenary soldiers benefittedGermany wrecked as a resultdefenestration

the act of throwing someone out a windowDefenestration of Prague helped start 30 years war whenprotestants attacked catholicsHuguenots

French protestants, disliked by Philip IIAlbert of WallensteinLed army pillaging in 30 years warSupported CatholicismTreaty of Westphalia

Resolved 30 years warRenewed peace of AugsburgMade 300 German states sovereignsiglo de oro

Spanish Golden Age from 1550 to 1650Coincided with Spanish Habsburg dynastyarmanda catlica

Spanish armada defeated by DrakeEncomiendia

Similar to English feudal systemEnglish landowner (in new world) employed nativestrading cities , tol erance and commerce.

Tolerance grew from exposure to different culturesCommerce expanded with new trade routes, especiallyacross continentsTrading cities were colonial centers of trade, bringingrevenue to mother country

CHAPTER 4balance of power- Technique used against universalmonarchy, not to preserve peace, but to preservesovereigntyBousset- advanced teaching that kings power comesfrom God, if king doesnt reflect will of God, thenpeople can overthrow kingCommercial Code- Colbert- replaced much of the localcustomary law with a new model of business andregulation. Built roads and canals, assured quality ofproducts. Subsidies, tax exemptions, monopoliesconflict between the secular and the sacred in the

17th century- France=secular, secular wins in historyCorneille's plays , their themes and the Age of the SunKingDeclaration of Indulgence- Charles II announced thenonenforcements of laws against dissenters. Chuckfavored toleration, but really to support CatholicsDiggers- occupied and cultivated common lands, orlands privately owned. In general a repudiation ofproperty.fast swords" and Richlieu

Glorious Revolution of 1688-portrayed as vindicatingthe principles of parliamentary government the rule oflaw and even the right of rebellion against tyranny.Great Tax Farms- a tariff union set up in France,Levelers- radical political democrats, John Lilburne,appealed to natural rights, universal manhood sufferage,written constitutionLong Parliament-Charles I created it when Englishparliament wouldnt help him raise funds to put downScottish rebellionLouis XIV-expansionist, wanted to get Spain forhimselfNavigation Acts- Cromwell, in effort to further EnglishinterestsBarred dutch ships from carrying goods betweenother countries and England or its colonies.Oliver Cromwell-Protestant, organizedironsides(badasses) in New Model Army 1640, mostpowerful political force in parliamentParlements- French courts of law, each being thesupreme court for a certain area of the country. upheldcertain fundamental laws that the king could notoverstep

Presbyterian- As the price of support from the Scottisharmy in Eng civil war, Solemn League and Covenantsaid that religion in England, Scotland and Irelandshould be best of reformed religions, thus Presb.Pride's Purge and rump- Cromwell drove outparliament leaving about 50-60 left, a rumpRoundheads-English parliamentary forces that hadclose haircuts b/c were Puritan. Gained military victorieswith New Model armyShip money- money raised without parliamentaryconsent by Charles I to pay to modernize navy. Alarmedproperty owners who didnt want to pay for policies theydidnt supportTest Act- officeholders must take communion in churchof England, anit-dissenters, especially CatholicThe Asiento -granted privledge of providing spanishamerica with african slaves. much wealth was built onslave trade. permitted one shipload of british goods to bebrough to Panama

CHAPTER 6

science became modern- intellectual revolution of theseventeenth century. Science now predicated upon truth,

mathematics, varification, and evidence (distinct fromthings like alchemy and astrology that were purely bsscience.The scientific revolution of the seventeenth century

had repercussions- increasingly affected practivalaffairs, intering into health, wealth, and happiness.Changed size of populations and use of materials,revolutionized methods of production, transportation,etc. Changed the ideas of God and religion. Helpedspread certain very deep-seated believes, such as that thephysical universe is essentially orderly and harmonious.Laid foundation for democracy and better socialrelations (people cite phycholgy of freud).Leonardo da Vinci renaissance man: he was an artist,as well as a scientist. His science was not published. Heis a human example of how science requires ontransmission of thought and experimentation.Francis Bacon and Ren Descartes- the two wereprophets of a scientific world. Both asked how is ispossible for human beings to know anything withcertainty, shared in doubts of their day, branded formerthought (w/ exception of religion) as wrong, attacked

earlier methods of seeking knowledge, rejectedshoolmen and scholastics, rejected Aristotle. Bacon:pioneer of inductive reasoning (only make conclusionsupon fact, not based upon unsupported assumptionssucha s deductive reasoning). Wrote the Great Renewaland was an advocate of empiricism. Wrote new atlantisabout scientific utopia (ruled by science). Said that trueknowledge was useful knowledge. Descartes: brilliantmathematician. Invented geometry and wrote Discourseon Method. Wrote about Cartesian dualism (that there

was thinking substance and extended substances,thinking being subjective and extended objectivereasoning). Both believed in the bower of knowledgeand human progress.modern idea of progress held by science advocates:true knowledge is usefull knowledge, the world ismathematical, we should use these principasl and whatwe can empirically verfy to progress society.The Ptolemaic view of the universe- geocentric,everything revolves around the earth. All outside plantesare celestial orbs around the earth. Stars are perfectpoints of light (this was challenged by galileosobservation of the suns spots showing imperfection).Suggested a belief that these were the heavens.Copernicus' great contribution challenged Ptolemaicview. Held that the sun was the center of the solarsystem and the whold universe. He tried to explainmathematically based upon cycles and epicycles of whathe called planets (formerly called heavenly orbs).John Kepler's laws of planetary motion kepler

discovered that the orbits of planets were perfectellipses. Showed the speed at which planets circle thesun is relative to their distance from it. (the proof wasbased on confusing math)Tycho Brahe- greatest authority on the movement oforbs right after copernicus generation and neveraccepted the conpernican theory, his assistant waskepler.Galileo- used a telescope to see moons craters andsimilarity to the earth. Noticed jupiters moon. Sawimperfections in the sun. Proved the Copernican theoryto many. Renounced his learnings at stake of death mythe Catholic church.Newton's law of universal gravitation used hisinvention of calculus to prove. The reason the planetsmove is cause of gravity. Wrote the mathematicalprincipals of modern philosophy.the Royal Society of London and the Academy of

Sciences in France represent the persuit of knowledge being institutionalized.the exploration of the world overseas. helped bymetwons understanding of force and gravity as

constants. Allowed understanding of latitude,mapmaking, and timepieces. Jesuits showed thesimilarity of people overseas to europeans.skepticism newtons theories challenged religiousteachings leading to skepticism since religion cannot beproven.Pierre Bayle- proponent of skepticism. Wrote abouthayles comment. Wrote the historical and criticaldictionary (sortof an encyclopedia of random stuff).witches ability to understand nature based on sciencewas seen as many as the makr of a wtich. These witchtrials eventually stopped due to the rising empahsis onevidence and verifying claims of guilt.paleontology. supported the earth being much olderthan the church claimed. Forced people to reconsiderreligions stance on the history of the world andcreation.chronology. new emphasis that came with morescholarly historical accuracy. Many doubted word ofmouth based history and the motives of historians sothey had to back up their claims about history, which ledto chronology as well.Biblical criticism- sparked by people such as simon andSpinoza. Simon wrote critical history of the oldtestament. He was the first to concluded that Catholicismwas still upheld by the symbolic meaning of the bible,but that genisis and other books were clearly historicallyinaccurate and not true. He was an othrodox catholic.Spinoza was a jew who said that god didnt really existexcept that we contain him in ourselves. (i.e. that all isan aspect of God). He denied devine inspiration and allthat any gov was just. Bassed his teaching on a strictcode of intellectual ethics.John Locke- wrote about two things: about knowledgeand society. He claimed that all are born with blankminds at Tablua Rasa. He said you are shaped bysociety. He said that society is about the pursuit of life,liberty, and property. Property being the big emphasis,he was all about indivdual rights and in some sense wasone of the most modern philosophers. He influencedAmerican revolution as well. He believed in democracytype government.The philosophy of natural law- all are born withnatural rights that arent granted by or stripped by thegovernment or society. Based on the powers of

reasoning and unserstanding. Justified cosmopolitanism(i.e. everyone should be helped, not just the USA)Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf- wrote about lawof nations. Govs should protect common good, thatswhy they exist.Relativism- pretty much the same thing as skepticism,just says morality is relative to culture and not to someover arching good. Says that things are verfyable.

CHAPTER 7

asymmetrical relationship

Elites could share in popular culture by attending publicamusements/ interacting with servanctsPopulars could not share in elite culture withoutexceptional transformation- marriage/eduction- rareAsia market

Gold drain Asians rejected European manufacturedgoods, all Asians wanted was gold in exchange for theirspice, china, cotton, rugs, silksplantation system of the 18th century

economic unit : land + capital investment + forced/slavelabor = cheap sugarThe transmission of culture

Elites books, word of mouth within favored family andsocial circlesPopular- oral difficult to reconstruct- more resistant tochange perspectivesAfrican slaves trade

Increased rapidly with development of plantationeconomy (sugar, cotton)Slaves reached Virginia before pilgrims610,000 slaves brought to Jamaica 1700-1786Dominated by Britain and New EnglandFundamental economic institution that led to the rapidgrowth of trade within the Britiish empire and thephenomenal rise of British capitalismEducation after 1550

Met by wide outburst of philanthropyWide range of social classesIn terms of religion

Religion served as equalizing agentEveryone subject to same moral obligations thattranscended social classDifferences existed where separate churches based onclassElite- becoming skepticalPopular- internal mission work, limited access in someareasSouth Sea Bubble refers to

Formed to exploit asiento and other commercialprivileges extorted from SpainHeld government debtsStocks overvaluedStockholders began to sell, panic

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Collapse of company people lose all their moneyFairs, carnivals (farewell to meat) were expressions

of popular culture

Contact with outside world goods and informationfrom outsideEntertainmentPlace for drinking, merrymaking

World turned upside down- role reversal menwearing womens clothes, servants ordering mastersRevolutionary attitudes possible expressedProceeded LentLarge tariff-free internal markets;

France and Britain had huge tariff- free internal marketsGreat deal of economic activity domestic, exchangebetween townsForeign trade becoming increasingly importantThe Dutch

Lost political powerRemain middle men in tradeLed commerce, shipping, finance

Lowest shipping rates in the worldFinanced everythingBritish and French won the commercial rivalry of

18th century

Shows need for diplomatic, military, capital, and navalsupportBritish and French had high levels of domesticproduction and national governments that protectedmercantile interestsLed to immense profits- France leader in Europe andMiddle East, Britain in America and AsiaNew wealth of Western Europe in the 18th century

Married with aristocratsMainly happened if you were a merchantEx. Thomas Pitt in England, Jean-Jospeh Laborde inFranceThe relationship between the wealthy and national

governments during 1700s

If wealthy supported government by taxes and loans, itwas strong (Britain)If wealth did not support government, it failed(France)Merchants who grew wealthy in the global trade of

the 18th centuryThomas Pitt in England worked in India interloper traded in defiance of legal monopoly of East IndiaCompanyBought diamond which sold for many time its valuegot seat in House of Commonsprominent children Wiliam PittJean-Jospeh Laborde in FranceBuilt vast plantations in Santo Domingo- raised hugeamounts of money to pay for revolutions (American,French)guillotinedLouis XV

Got throne at young age, nobles took advantage of weakregent Duke of OrleansReemergence of aristocracyIndolent, selfishParliament

Different from parlements of FranceEffective machine for conduct of public businessCorrupt, slow, expensive- but effectiveHouse of Lords, House of Commons- made up of thewealthy and mainly representing money interestsThe global economy of the 18th century

dominated by Dutch, British and FrenchCompanies such as the East India Company:

Set up to trade internationallyBecame holders of government debt and receivedmonopoliesBritish and French companies succeededCardinal Fleury ;

Came to power after bubbles in FranceAimed at peace like Walpole, drawn into small warRepudiated debtsGeorge I

House of HanoverKing of BritainSupported by Whigs who feared that they would losemoney that they had lent to government if James IIIcame and took overAlso feared they might lose principles of GloriousRevolutionWalpole- Britain

Became principal minister to George ISaved principle institutionsDid not default on debts- established a sinking fund bywhich government regularly set aside the money to payinterest and principal on its obligations, and ultimatelypaid all debtsLet the sleeping dogs lieCalled first prime minister and architect of cabinetgovernment- cabinet responsibility to majority inparliamentSaw to it that majority supported him by riggingAvoided sticky issuesSupported Bank, trading compnies, financial interestsJohn Law

Scottish financierFounded Bank of Franceset up Mississippi Company founded New Orleans,absorbed other trading companies- monopoly of coloniatradeshares rose rapidly, confidence was lost and a crashfollowedpicked up entire French government debt proposing topay debts by colonial profits and the right to collect allFrench indirect taxes

working cabinet governmentSet up by Robert WalpoleCabinet government- a system in which the primeminister and the ministers who head the cabinetdepartment are also members of the legislative bodyThe Whig and Tory parties

Parties tended to dissolve after 1714Whigs government and Anglican bishops close togovernment, supported George I of HanoverTories- against government, suspicious"Mississippi" bubbles

See John LawIn the aftermath of the "bubbles"

IndignationDevelopment of joint stock financing slowed downIn France Bank of France endedGrowth of capitalism retarded

Government repudiated debt discouraged peoplefrom lending to government, lost credit. Could not tapwealth of subjectsTax reform prevented

Britain responded better-Walpole saved institutionsDid not default on credit British government gainedtrust and confidence of lendersBubble Act- forbid all companies except thosespecifically chartered by the overnment to raise capitalby sale of stockTrading monopoly

Government got money by chartering companies, givingthem monopokies, and then receiving large cash reserveas a loan happened with companies that had bubblesand collapsed for most part. Ex. South Sea Co.Granted to East India Company and other companiesthat assumed government debtthe national language

national language grammer and spelling regularizedspoken by elites/educated- enabled educated toparticipate in elite institutions of government,commerce, proessionssign of elite until spread of universal educationLocal dialect

Patois in French,Volkssprache in GermanLocal vernacularSpoken by popularsHogarth

Painter of Gin Lane depicting popularity and dangersof alcohol in the lives of Britains working classes-shows public drunkenness in streets of london

RegencyPeriod of the reign of the Duke of OrleansAristocratic reemergenceNon-jurors

Group of Anglican clergy who refused oath of loyaltyOutside official churchGuinea

Gold CoastBecame name of a gold coin minted in Englandputting out system

aka domestic systemEntrepreneurs created division of laborGave group tool to do specific job, and then passed on tonext specialized group to create finished good- cottageindustry

Lasted till industrial capitalismMerchants + producers +buyers and sellersthe old aristocracy and the new rich of the merchant

classes:

intermarriedwomen played essential economic role in carefully

arranged marriage that both protected and increased thewealth of upper class familiesBourgeois and aristocratic mergedJames III

Called the PretenderNewest in line of exiled Stuart throneSupported by JacobitesAttempted to take throne in 1715 and 1745Chartered private companies

Government chartered companies that helped with debtlike East India Company, etcMadness of crowds

possibly related to the frenzies during bubbles18th century warfare

slow, formal, elaborate, indecisivearmies consisted of economically worthless in societyWeaponry- smooth bore muskets, limited cannonFought between governments. Fought for power,prestiegem calculated practical interests, not forideologies, moral principles, or ways of lifeThe War of Austrian Succession:

Frederick the Great of Prussia invaded Silesia, justifiedby reason of state, violated Pragmatic Sanctionpowers(France, Spain, Prussia) united against MariaTheresa of Austria, supported by Hungarians, Holland,British, DutchBritish navy beat French in North America and tookcontrolLower class disturbances in this century

French revolution towards end of the centuryOtherwise, mostly calm even though peasants had a hardtime and bore the burden of taxes

CHAPTER 8

Philosophes French philosopher; approach anysubject in a critical/inquiring spiritPopularizers made ideas of enlightenment accessible tothe growing reading publicMontesquieu Rousseau, VoltaireAge of Democratic Revolution term used todescribe the revolutions between 1776-1848 in whichmodern democratic principles were affirmedRevolutionary movement expressed as a demand forliberty and equalityEverything associated with feudalism, absolutism, and

inherent right (save the right to property) was rejectedFrederick the Great leader of PrussiaOld FritzEnlightenment not based on his ruling innovations buthis intellectual prowessWanted to enlighten his people and make them happyStratified Prussia taxes and land ownerships weredifferent for each classPeasants were considered the lords hereditarysubjectsRelieved serfdom only on his lands but could do nothingto that under the Junkers who controlled the armiesBasic education for children of all classesLimited because he would not allow anyone else tocontrol any affairs of the state and trained no successornecessities of wars at hand which forced concentrationand rationalization of government powerTurgot philosophe and physiocrat contributor to theEncyclopdie; official who became minister to LouisXVI; suppressed guilds; abolished Corvee and replacedit with a tax on all classesCorvee decree that certain peasants labor on the roadsa few days each yearParlement of Paris opposed Turgot with the supportof the Provincial Estates and the ChurchKaunitz Maria Theresas advisor on foreign relationsgreatest good for greatest number of people meaningof the state to Joseph IIMaria Theresa Head of the Empire of Austria; unitedher realm in free trade where most lands were affectedby internal tariffsSystematically attacked serfdom broke power oflanded nobles, issued laws against abuse of peasants,limited labor to three days a weekJoseph II

Less patient than his mother, Maria TheresaAbolished serfdomLiberty of the pressToleration of religionsCivil rights for JewsTried to nationalize German languageCreated secret policeFailed because he tried to everything by himselfSucceeded by brother Leopoldenlightened monarchs rulers who based right to rule

not on the sacred but rather as reasonable and usefulMontesquieu

Aristocrat who held a seat on the Parlement of BordeauxShared aristocratic and antiabsolutist ideals; but beyondself-centered class philosophySpirit of the Laws

First principal idea govts vary in accordance withclimate and circumstances; despotism good for largeempires in hot climates, democracy good for small cities

Second principal idea separation and balance ofpowers; intermediate bodies parlements, provincialestates, organized nobility, chartered towns and thechurchtook no stock in church teachings but thought it useful toundue centralization of govtAdmired English Constitution believing England carriedover feudal liberties of the middle agesThought to be too conservative; in fact he was areactionaryAdmired barbarous Middle AgesAdam Smith

Wrote Wealth of Nations (1776)Increase national wealth by reducing barriersProphet of free tradeGovt should provide for defense, security, reasonablelaws and fair law courts"intermediate bodies" parlements, provincial estates,organized nobility, chartered towns, and the church;provide for separation and balance of powers

RousseauBorn to lower class; no social status, no money and nofeel for money; paranoid and felt he could trust no oneCriticized French women especially those of salons they do not know anything, although they judgeeverythingDetested civilization calling it a source of evil and that itwould be better in a state of natureWrote 2 discourses Arts and Sciences (1750) andOrigin of Inequality Among Men (1753)Social Contract(1762) seemed to contradict his stateof nature sentiments; good men could only be producedby improved society; men submitted their natural libertyto one anothergeneral will concept of Rousseau in which allindividual will submitted to the general will (fusing ofall individual wills) as the final word sovereign over allkings and emperorsVoltaire

Born into the BourgeoisieNever objected to aristocracy on principleRoyal historian of Louis XV and personal friend of

Frederick the GreatInterested mainly in freedom of thought and an admirerof EnglandWrotePhilosophical Letters on the English (1733) andElements of the Philosophy of Newton (1738) introduced inductive philosophy of Bacon, physics ofNewton, and psychology of sensations of LockePreacher of religious tolerationnatural religion and natural morality God anddifference between good and evil lie in reason alonePolitically neither liberal not democrat; if govt isenlightened its strength is inconsequential; byenlightened govt he meant one that promoted freedomof thought and religion; basically supported enlighteneddespotism"Ecrasez l'infame!" crush the infamous thingVoltairean war cry against religious intolerance"Maupeou parlements" new parlements set up by theChancellor Maupeou after Louis XV had the old onesended; judges confined to purely judicial function andwere paid salaries as government officialsPugachev's Rebellion

Pugachev, a former soldier, claimed to be the true tsarPeter IIIMany followed him: serfs, miners, Cossacks, etcWere formidable until famine struck the forcePugachev betrayed and taken to MoscowMost violent peasant uprising in RussiaEnded up being worse off for serfs since nobles gainedpower and peasants became more constrained" secret police" created by Joseph II to monitornobles, clergy, govt officials, or any others from whomhe might expect troubleCatherine the Great tsarina of Russia (1762-1796)

Domestic ProgramRestricted the use of torture, had a certain support ofreligious toleration, codified legal principles in RussiaForeign AffairsDefeated Turkish forcesDivided Poland among Russia Prussia, and AustriaDecidedly expansionistPotemkin Villages fake villages set up beforeCatherines arrival so that it looked as though hersubjects were happy and at pieceSteven Razin

lead a peasant uprising in 1667, proclaiming war onlandlords, nobles, and priests;captured and executed in 1671;result of uprising was a firmer hold on serfdom inRussia;ideological symbol for Pugachevs rebellionDiderot's Encyclopedia most serious of all philosophe enterprisesFull of scientific, technical, and historical knowledge;represented the skeptical, rational, scientific spirit of theageStrong undertones criticizing existing society andinstitutionsContributors Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau,dAlembert, Buffon, Turgot, Quesnay, etc.Edward Gibbon philosophe who attackedChristianity inDecline and Fall of the Roman EmpireDavid Hume Scottish skeptical philosopher countedas a philosophe"Eastern Question" general contradictory feelingsbetween Russia and Polish-Turkish tractRussia was an enemy of both Poland and the Ottoman

empire but felt religious ties to the Greek OrthodoxChristians of those landsGeorge III patriot king; wished to heighten theinfluence of the crown and overcome factionalism ofparties; created essentially a new faction the kingsfriends to gain control in the CommonsFaith in Progress the belief that every generation isbetter off than the last generation and that by its efforts itwill set up the foundations for the next generation to bebetter than itself"king's friends" faction of Whigs created by GeorgeIII that he gained power over with pensions, favors,promises and dealsReligious fervor and Pietism an opposing religiousmovement to the theory of the watchmaker God;pietism said that inner spiritual experience was moreprofound than that of doctrine; sought inner illuminationPhysiognomy supposed science created by J.C.Lavater in which a persons character could be read bytheir facial expressions and the play of their featuresEssai sur les moeurs Universal History Firstpurely secular conception of world history written by

Voltaire; began with ancient civilizations rather than TheCreation like previous historiesF.A. Mesmer an Austrian physician set up sancesand rituals to heal people; discovered early stages ofhypnosisPublick the reading masses for whom the philosopheswrote; enjoyed reading illicit books during the times ofcensorship

Salons well organized meeting places where authorsintroduced new works to critical readers and peoplediscussed ideasGermaine de Stael widely read author; she deploredsubordination of women; post revolutionary salonJohn Wesley and Methodism

an oxford student who took to doing good works forpoor and prisoners and preaching to large crowds inpublichis followers were called Methodists whom despite isefforts broke away from the Church of Englandearlier absolutism ruled solely on the basis ofordination by God and a right to rule through heredityFrench censorship complicated (everyone from thechurch to the printers had a say); however, not strictlyenforced; books written with double meanings for plausible deniabilityEdmund Burke

spokesman for Whig leaders who sensed corruption inparliament when George III and his friends took

control;argued for responsibility and sound judgment inCommons rather than mathematical representation;opposed place menlaissez-faire economic principle of Physiocrats; letthem do as the see fitFreemasonry

Men disposed toward reason, progress, tolerance, andhuman reforms, and were respectful to God as hearchitect of the universeEquality among brothers who were clergy, nobles, andmiddle classesBecause of its secrecy masonry became distrustedPhysiocrats economists; concerned with fiscal andtax reform and increasing the national wealth; opposedguild regulations; laissez-faire as economic principleno one reasons, everyone executes philosophy ofFrederick the Great; he believed that he should be theonly one planning and thinking and that everyone else

should just operate as his tools and complete the taskshe set them

CHAPTER 9

Public Debt precipitated the revolution; debt owed tothe bourgeoisie of the Old Regime and the expenses ofthe govtCahiers a list of grievances allowed to brought to theassembly by each estateVoting by Estates voting took place with all 3 estatesvoting at the same time; 1:1:2 ratio was set up in favorof the Third Estate which represented the largest group;deadlock in the Estates GeneralGreat Fear paranoia of the peasants that the brigandswere coming; armed to defend their houses and cropsthey worked each other up and attacked the manorhouses, burning some down but mostly destroyingrecords of fees and duesTennis Court oath

the Third Estate claimed itself to be the NationalAssemblyLouis XVI under pressure from nobles, closed themeeting hallThe members found an indoor tennis court and took theiroath, affirming that wherever they gathered from then onthey would remain the National Assembly and that theywould not disband until there was a constitutionAugust 4th, Night a night meeting of the Assembly atVersailles where those nobles who showed up (knowingthat few would) surrendered their hunting rights,banalits, rights in manorial courts, and feudalseigneurial privileges in generalRights of man and citizen a declaration issued onAugust 26, 1789To affirm the principles if the new stateRule of lawEqual individual citizenshipCollective sovereignty of the peopleMans natural right held to be liberty, property, security,resistance of oppressionFreedom of thought and religion; no one might bearrested or punished except by law; all persons eligiblefor the public office for which they met the requirementsLiberty freedom to do anything not injurious toanother man, determined only by lawLaw as an expression of general willProperty might only be confiscated under law and withfair compensation

Bastille a stronghold (prison, fortress) for politicalprisonersParisians in fear of gathering troops stormed the fortressto arm themselvesMany political officials were killed in the actHad the effect of showing the power of the Third Estate;the king assented to a citizens committee, and sentaway the troops he had summonedPlaying the mob card using the power of the massesto scare the powers in control in to listening or taking acertain actionJacobin Club Society of Friends of the ConstitutionMiddle class group who used the club as a caucus todiscuss plans and policiesRevolutionaries centered in ParisKings, vetoes and constitutions king was given onlya suspensive veto to postpone legislation desired by theAssembly; was forced to accept status as a constitutionalmonarchBurkes reaction appalled at the thoroughness withwhich the French seemed determined to eradicate theirnational institutions; he did not see why they needed to

destroy these functioning bodiesAdam Smith and the Revolution his economicphilosophy of free trade was representative of thefreedom from control that the leaders of the revolutionwanted; the Assembly abolished the guildsActive and Passive citizens

Both had the same civil rights but only active had theright to voteHad the right to choose one elector for every 100 activecitizensMales over the age of 25 who could pay a small tax wereactiveassignats bonds purchased to be traded in for parcelsof confiscated church lands; money to repay debt owedto the Old RegimeQuarrel with the church

Church viewed as a public authority and as suchsubordinate to sovereign powerFrench bishops jealous of papal power wish to produce aCivil Constitution on their own authorityAssembly refuses, going to the Vatican to try to coercethe bishops into acquiescing

Mary Wollstonecraft English writer; Vindication ofthe Rights of Women (1792)like Olympe de Gouges, asserted womens rights to:divorce under certain conditionsto the control of property in marriageto have equal access to education, careers, and publicemployment