Eur J Plast Surg (2006) 28: 441–447DOI 10.1007/s00238-005-0007-0

EURAPS PAPER

Bruno Salazard . Christophe Desouches .Guy Magalon

Auguste and Louis Lumière, inventors at the serviceof the suffering

Received: 20 July 2005 / Accepted: 15 August 2005 / Published online: 16 November 2005# Springer-Verlag 2005

Abstract One evening in 1877 in a cave in Brittany, twochildren with the prophetic name of Lumière swore an oath:they swore they would work together all their lives. Thirtyyears of work followed, with hundreds of scientific paperspresented to scientific societies and over 200 books. To-gether, Auguste and Louis Lumière wrote a masterpiece, acomplete chapter in the history of the world. If historyremembers them for the invention of the cinematograph andthe discovery of autochromatic plates, it should definitelyglorify them for their commitment to the suffering. Theirinvolvement in medical photography and surgical cinemahas enabled generations of medical students to learn exam-ination and surgical techniques. These workers with bighearts spent their lives resolving the problems of humanity.A motto led them throughout their long journey: “Persis-tence in work, look upwards, learn beyond, continue torise.” Louis made the following conclusions on his life: “Ialways enjoyed resolving problems... I was a born en-thusiast—one gets older slower because one is alwayswaiting for something.” During the Great War, their com-mitment to the wounded was total: their generosity andinventiveness enabled them to save hundreds of lives.Auguste Lumière devoted the last 40 years of his life tomedicine and biology. While his neo-Hippocratic theorieswere rapidly contradicted by science, he was an extra-ordinary “stimulator of ideas”, a nonconformist scientist atthe service of those who were suffering socially and med-ically. He concluded: “I have done some good—that is mybest work.”

Keywords History of medicine . Brothers Lumiere .Wound healing . Gras dressing

Introduction

“We have always worked together with a communion ofideas and a profound affection”, declared Louis Lumièrein 1935, explaining the collaboration with his brotherAuguste.

This profound esteem, this shared emulation, which ap-peared very early in their childhood, led them to sign, bytacit agreement, all of their patents, communications andresearch papers with “their two names side by side” [5]. Itwas not until after the Great War that their research tookdifferent directions and they agreed to differentiate theirstudies.

Those 30 years of working together made the Lumièrebrothers the most prolific inventors known in past centuries.Their research domains go from photography to medicine,mechanics to biology, aviation to food processing, acous-tics to chemistry.

In the medical sciences, Auguste’s contribution is con-siderable, whereas Louis was more oriented toward physicsand chemistry. Throughout their lives, however, both ofthem revealed a commitment to reducing social and med-ical suffering. The communion of ideas and their pact donot allow us to differentiate them for this work.

A great history

The beginnings

Fame for the Lumière family began with Antoine Lumière.An orphan at 14, he began as an apprentice with the famousParisian watercolorist Auguste Constantin. He learneddrawing and trained to be a painter. After marrying Jeanne-Joséphine Costille, the couple moved to Besançon, France.Auguste was born in 1862, and 2 years later, Louis was bornin a house next to the house where Victor Hugo had been

B. Salazard . C. Desouches . G. MagalonDepartment of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery,Conception Hospital,147 boulevard Baille,13385 Marseille Cedex 5, France

B. Salazard (*)Service du Pr. Magalon, Hôpital de la Conception,147 boulevard Baille,13385 Marseille Cedex 5, Francee-mail: bruno.salazard@wanadoo.frTel.: +33-610-310380Fax: +33-491-382857

born. Four more children followed: Jeanne, then Juliette,Francine and Edouard [3, 19].

In 1870, Antoine and the family moved to Lyon, France.His artistic skills and his natural business sense made him awell-known portrait photographer. He was a great successwith the political and artistic world and innovated by in-stalling electric lighting for his portraits, significantly re-ducing posing time and enabling him to do photography atnight. The children helped their father in the evening afterschool. Auguste and Louis continued their studies at theMartinière Technical High School, where they distin-guished themselves with their precocious wisdom. Louisbrilliantly obtained a diploma in physics and took an in-terest in the photographic process with dry gelatino-bro-mide plates, which at that time was only recently marketedby the Belgian chemical industry. By rationalizing the firststudies made by his father, Louis succeeded, at the age of18, in creating new sensitive surfaces, making photospossible with very short posing times. When Auguste cameback from military service, the two brothers got intoindustrial manufacturing, and the family business under-went a large and rapid extension. A factory was built on theoutskirts of Lyon, and the Lumière Etiquette Bleue (bluelabel) instant dry photographic plate at 4 ASA was a greatsuccess because it revolutionized amateur photography.The entire Lumière family worked in this venture. Theymade 1.3 million plates in 1886. Their plates were sold inevery country in the world until 1945. This ensured thefamily’s financial success and later enabled the two brothersto do their research [3].

Medical photography

The research and creation of new technologies were aconstant necessity for the Lumière brothers. In 1884, East-man discovered flexible film and commercialized a simplecamera called the Kodak. Auguste and Louis quicklyadapted factory production to these new processes and cre-ated family cameras that were used by numerous Frenchfamilies: the Lumière, the Lumirex, the Scoutbox, theDialux, the Sterelux and the Elax [3].

The first communications linking the use of photographyto medical patients appeared 12 years after the discovery ofphotography, in 1851. The first doctor/photographer wasDr. Duchenne de Boulogne, who photographed his experi-ments on electric stimulation—in French called électrisationlocalisée (“localized electrifying”) [11]. The first hospitalphotography workshop was set up at the Salpêtrière Hospital(Paris, France) in 1878. Under the direction of ProfessorCharcot, Albert Londe made a complete iconography ofmental patients [12].

It was in this context that August Lumière perceived theinterest of medical photography (Fig. 1). However, his in-dustrial obligations left him little free time.

The two brothers constantly improved the quality of theirphotographic plates. However, what particularly interestedthem was the idea of color photography. Following GabrielLippmann’s work presented in 1891, Auguste and Louis

had a long collaboration with him, enabling them to im-prove quality and to reduce posing time. They were the firstto present a color portrait in August 1893, thanks to a sys-tem of panchromatic plates that are still used today. Thiswork brought them two prizes in 1894: The Academic Prizeand The Academy of Sciences Medal. The public greatlyacclaimed them at the 1900 Universal Exposition in Paris[6]. In 1908, Gabriel Lippmann received the Nobel Prize forhis work on photography.

During these years, they also had a long collaborationwith Professor Léon Bérard, and in 1901, they presented apaper at the Paris Academy of Medicine entitled “Colorphotography applied to the medical sciences”, the firstproduction of quality color medical photos in the world [1].They presented the advantages of using color photographyin the medical sciences for: clinical teaching; reproductionof anatomic, microscopic and histologic specimens; thestudy of embryology and bacteriology. Four years later,they succeeded (“with great difficulty”) in photographingTreponema pallidum.

However, the most beautiful color medical photos takenby the two brothers were presented a few years later andwere autochrome plates. After numerous years of work,Louis patented autochrome plates that used potato starchgrains. He did a considerable amount of work in order toobtain great photos from a perfect technique. At the end ofhis life, he declared: “It took me 7 years of constant effort. Idid nothing else during that long period. I never gotdiscouraged.”Commercialization was difficult to get going,and it was not until 1907 that it started. International successwas enormous, and autochrome was a world monopolyuntil 1937: the Montplaisir factories made over one millionplates per year. The quality was exceptional, and 100 yearslater, they still have fabulous color and luminosity [2].Collectors all over the world have these fragile little photoswith mottled brightness that appear to vibrate with the poin-tillism of the Belle Epoque (Fig. 2). The medical applicationswere less significant than that of the first Lippmann colorphotos given their high cost.

Fig. 1 Microphotography of yeast culture (Auguste Lumière,1902). Black-coloured cells are dead cells

442

Louis Lumière was also the origin of tomography beforeits medical application. After several years of research, hepatented photo-stereo-synthesis plates that created an im-pression of depth by superimposing six sections of thesubject. No commercial application was proposed, but re-searchers such as Bocage were quick to use this “photo-graphic tomography” technique to implement medicaltomography [9].

The Lumière brothers also afforded the development ofthe first endophotographic devices. The history of the en-doscope began with cystoscopes and gastric endoscopes.The first commercialized photographic cystoscope (GentilleCystoscope in 1914) used Lumière plates for large snap-shots because they were the only ones that had a posingtime of 1 to 3 s (depending on the opacity of the vesicalliquid) [8].

Louis and Auguste sought to improve photography all oftheir lives: from films to developers, from the cameras toprocessing. The medical applications were numerous.However, it was their competitors at Kodakwho understoodthe interest of developing medical photography by creatinga medical research department in 1929 [6].

Cinematography

Since photography was a passion during their childhood, itwas obvious that the two brothers would be interested inmoving pictures. Many researchers worked on animatedimages during the second half of the nineteenth century.The Praxinoscope by Reynaud and the Phénakistiscope byPlateau made it possible to give an impression of move-ment. In 1891, Thomas Edison and William Dickson pat-ented a camera called the Kinétographe and a projector, theKinétoscope, using perforated bands. However, the imagecould only be seen by a single spectator. Auguste and LouisLumière had the brilliant idea of adapting the Kinétographeinto a reversible machine weighing 5 kg that they called the“cinematograph”. They applied for the patent on February

13, 1895 [3, 15]. On December 28, 1895, the Grand Café inParis hosted a public showing of the first film in history:Leaving the Factory. Other films followed rapidly: TheArrival of a Train at La Ciotat, The Sprinkler Sprinkled,The Baby’s Meal... Approximately 100 cameramen weretrained and sent all over the world to bring back images ofthe French colonial empire. The number of cinemas mul-tiplied throughout the world. The Universal Exposition of1900 in Paris witnessed the apotheosis of cinema projec-tions for the two brothers: on a 336-m2 screen with filmsmade all over the world [3]. However, it was at this momentthat Auguste and Louis decided to stop production andcommercialization of films. They decided to return to theirreal passions: photography for Louis and biology forAuguste.

The “cinematograph” played a fundamental role inmedical and surgical teaching. The first medical film canbe attributed to Auguste Lumière: in 1895, he filmed amilitary doctor examining three patients in front of barracks(Fig. 3). Doctors very quickly discovered the pedagogic andmedia interest of medical and surgical cinema. The father ofsurgical films was Eugène-Louis Doyen, a Parisian sur-geon, who took a very early interest in the “cinematograph”.He contacted Clément Maurice, a friend and collaborator ofAntoine Lumière who hadworked for numerous years at theMontplaisir factory and, above all, was the organizer of thefirst public projection of December 28, 1895. After 2 yearsas manager-concessionaire of the Grand Cafe projectionroom, he set himself up as a professional photographer inParis and started working with Eugène-Louis Doyen in1898. The first surgical films were made with a LumièreCinematograph (Fig. 4). On July 29, 1898, at the annualBritish Medical Association Meeting in Edinburgh, Dr.Doyen presented three films on his newly created operatingtable, a hysterectomy and a craniotomy. These films wereshown everywhere in Europe—sometimes illegally. Hisapotheosis was in 1902, with the film showing the sep-aration of the Siamese twins Doodica and Radica Neik ofthe Barnum and Bailey Circus. He spent the last years of his

Fig. 2 Intestinal mucous membrane on autochrome plate (AugusteLumière, 1905)

Fig. 3 The first medical film (1895). Inspection of three patients bya military doctor in front of barracks

443

life developing a color cinematographic system. The filmsappeared to be ready a short time before World War I butwere not officially presented. His great merit was to un-derstand the pedagogic and scientific interest of surgicalcinema: “Students will no longer needlessly crowd oper-ating rooms... Before being admitted in an operative room,they will have to attend preoperative courses. Specialoperations will be described with films to back them up”[12, 13].

Auguste: his first contacts with medicine

The medical sciences appear to have always been a passionfor Auguste Lumière. His brother Louis thought that hisprivate tutor, Mr. Peronnet, a medical student, had a greatdeal of influence on Auguste throughout his school yearsand gave him a taste for medicine [18].

In 1881, Auguste was preparing for the entrance exam tothe Ecole Polytechnique when he was stricken by violentheadaches. His family sent him to rest in Allevard in theAlps in the house of Dr. Mansord, the village doctor and afriend of the family. It was here that he got to know thescience of Hippocrates and discovered a passion formedicalessays that he spent hours studying. However, upon return-ing from the army, he was obliged to help with the familybusiness and had to postpone the fulfillment of his dream[15].

His first work on human biology was in 1892. Althoughhe had just published a paper on the principles of de-velopers, he revealed the toxicity of these products. How-ever, it was especially the method used that gave himperspectives for the study of biology: a rational scientificmethod using Claude Bernard’s experimental method [17,18].

When family finances improved in 1896, he set up achemical and pharmacodynamic experimental laboratory,where he performed toxico-pharmacologic research onanimals. However, his work at the factory left him little freetime, and he had to pay his research assistants. He thereforeallowed researchers and doctors to work in his laboratory.

One of the consequences was that a young surgeon namedAlexis Carrel came to test new surgical techniques. In 1902,he succeeded, with Auguste’s help in the Lumière labo-ratories, in performing the first venous anastomosis [16,18]. Success came quickly, and in 1904, he went to theRockefeller Institute of Medical Research in New York,where his work on organ transplantation, blood transfusionand cell culturing merited the Nobel Prize in Physiology orMedicine in 1912. The friendship between Auguste andAlexis Carrel continued despite the distances, and a fewmonths before Carrel’s death, they co-wrote a book entitledOfficial Medicine and Heretical Medicines.

Auguste Lumière was someone who was known andrespected in Lyon. He agreed to become a member of theBoard of Directors of the Hospitals of Lyon. He participatedin the debates on renovation of the Hôtel Dieu Hospital inLyon and recommended that the old buildings be torn downin order to improve hygiene. In a 90-page report that hesubmitted in 1908 to the mayor of Lyon, Edouard Herriot,he recommended the creation of two hospitals: one for con-tagious diseases and the other for non-contagious diseases.He fought with incredible energy against the abuses thatcrippled the hospital’s budget [7, 18].

After the death of his daughter during an epidemic ofSpanish flu in 1918, he decided to devote himself only tomedicine and the suffering. Nothing else had much im-portance—the only thing that counted was medical re-search. A short time before his death, he made the followingstatement: “It has almost been 35 years since this disastershattered me and I just have not been able to get over it!”[15].

The Great War

The two brothers got more involved in medicine once theGreat War started. Auguste Lumière’s friends, Léon Bérardand Alexis Carrel, went to the Hôtel Dieu Hospital toreceive the wounded. Both of them insisted on leaving forthe front. It was in this hell that Alexis Carrel and theEnglish chemist Dakin created the famous antiseptic Dakinand the “Carrel–Dakin” method of irrigation. He askedAuguste Lumière to manufacture the indispensable tubing[15].

Free from all military obligations, Auguste asked to bemobilized. In 1914, he joined his friend of 20 years, LéonBérard, at the Hôtel Dieu Hospital in Lyon. For 4 years, heworked with Bérard as a surgical assistant for operations,the rounds and lecture courses. He attended courses at theLyon School of Medicine and made 1-m color photographsof Professor Testut’s anatomical charts. They were useduntil 1940.

In 1914, Léon Bérard made him director of the radiologydepartment. Photography and radiology had had a devel-opment that was often similar since December 28, 1895, theday of the first public cinematographic projection and alsothe day the discovery of Roentgen rays or x-rays was an-nounced. In the first months of 1896, he and ProfessorDestot performed the first radiographies in France. Using

Fig. 4 Surgical film by Clément Maurice showing Eugène Doyenduring a surgical operation on an armpit

444

equipment from his laboratory, he made x-rays of the pa-tients of Professor Ollier, a famous surgeon. It was Augustewho offered Professor Destot, the father of French radiol-ogy, all of the necessary equipment for his radiology de-partment [10, 15]. During the war, Auguste Lumière took18,200 x-rays of wounded soldiers, which he paid for out ofhis own pocket. He became a specialist in locating pro-jectiles with a Marion or Hirtz compass.

During the winter of 1914–1915, he was shocked by thefetidness of the overcrowded rooms occupied by thewounded. Wounds were treated by dry dressings thatwere changed every 4 to 5 days and taken off with hydrogenperoxide. The result was pain, infection, hemorrhaging andslow healing. Some physicians used antiseptic dressingswith a mechanical or chemical action (charcoal powder)derived from Lister’s dressing. Others preferred dressingsaccompanied by stimulants such as camphorated alcohol,tincture of iodine, zinc sulfate, copper sulfate, quininepowder, or even aromatic essential oils.

Auguste Lumière observed hundreds of war woundsand had the genius to create a dressing that was revo-lutionary for many of its characteristics: the tulle gras. Hepresented his “dressing-treatment” on April 15, 1915, atthe Therapeutic Society of Paris [17] (Fig. 5). It was (andstill is) a semi-occlusive dressing (open-weave cloth with2-mm meshes) that was non-adherent [coated with afusible (at 30°C) mixture of Vaseline, balsam of Peru andhalibut liver oil]. The tulle was cut into squares that werestacked in metal boxes filled with greasy substance, andsterilized in an autoclave at 120°C for 30 min. The squareswere each separated by sheets of paper in order to facilitatetheir extraction from the box with sterile tweezers. Thelatter element was another new practice. Auguste Lumièreviewed the act of dressing as it is still performed today:antisepsis by projection of a fine mist of a personal mix-ture (idoform, phenol, geraniol, alcohol and ether), thensterile application of the single-use tulle square. He closedthe dressing with a sterile bandage and made sure that thewound was not submitted to rubbing or trauma. Thisdressing was rapidly adopted, and the Lumière familyorganized its commercialization in the Lumière laborato-ry. The great surgeon Raymond Vilain participated in thedevelopment of the product by suggesting a modificationin balsam of Peru for essences that were less allergenic.Another modification was made in 2004.

There is little on the treatment of wounds in the literatureprior to the nineteenth century, and the same is true for thestudy of healing. In 1787, Spallanzani was a precursor with

a work entitled “Experiments on the regeneration ofanimals and plants”. He studied the processes of tissuerepair in salamanders. There was little subsequent work onthis subject until the beginning of the twentieth century,when Alexis Carrel and Lecomte du Noüy came up with amathematical formula for healing [4].

However, Auguste Lumière advanced the understandingof healing mechanisms by strictly applying the methods ofexperimental medicine. He first performed healing experi-ments on 44 dogs and drew the contours of the wounds onsterilized cellophane paper every day (Fig. 6). Secondly, heselected hundreds of war wounds in Léon Bérard’s wardand performed a complete perspective study. He selectednon-diabetic patients who had no defects, general illness,infected wounds and bone/nerve/vascular lesions. With thesame strictness, he made daily measurements, and afteryears of study, he advanced theories on his work in a paperpublished in 1922 entitled “The laws of healing for cuta-neous wounds” [14]. In it, he wrote that healing was aregular process, that the time of healing was generallyproportional to the maximum width of the wound and thatthe wound should heal by approximately 1 mm/day or onehad to look for the cause: infection, foreign body, defectivedressing, nutritional problem. Auguste Lumière also estab-lished the rules for a good dressing. The dressing had to bechanged every day at the beginning, then every other day.The use of tulle gras reduced healing time by 30%. He alsostressed the choice of antiseptic, with a preference for starchiodide. He stated: “Strong antiseptics inhibit tissular regen-eration” and “The overuse of bacteriostatic powders andointments causes eczematous-type reactions around thewound” [10, 14, 17]. During the Great War, the removal oftulle gras by wounded soldiers was considered as an act ofdesertion because it meant that theywould be away from thefront for a longer period.

Before the war, the Lumière laboratories created a newmedicine called sodium persulfate. Its efficacy in the treat-ment of tetanus prompted Léon Bérard to entrust the tetanusward to Auguste Lumière (Fig. 7). He treated hundreds oftetanal wounded with sodium persulfate and, in particular,demonstrated the need for a antitetanal serum booster incases of surgery for a foreign body if the first injection wasmore than 6 days old. This measure was the object of anannouncement in the Official Journal that requested allhospitals to adopt the Auguste Lumière method. He alsostressed the risk of tetanus in subungual hematomas andadvised piercing the nail plate—an innovative idea at thetime [15, 17, 18].

Fig. 5 Communication on tullegras at the Therapeutic Societyof Paris by brothers Lumière

445

Auguste Lumière encountered more problems for hisdiscovery concerning an orally administered anti-typhoidvaccination that was as effective and had fewer complica-tions than the injection. In spite of a gift of 375,000 dosesoffered to the army by Auguste Lumière, it took severalyears for this new vaccination to be officially accepted [17].

The war also provided Auguste Lumière with an oppor-tunity to use medicines that he had created and commercia-lized before the war: Cryogenin for fever (it was used for anumber of years) and Hermophenyl, a very effectivebactericidal antiseptic. He also used allocaine, a loco-re-gional anesthetic as active as cocaine but much less toxic.Thanks to this product, he performed spinal anesthesia.

Louis Lumière also decided to get personally involvedduring the war. He had a 100-bedmilitary hospital built nextto the factory at his expense: the doctors were his brothers-in-law (Gélibert and Koehler), and his wife and sisters werenurses. His creative genius also turned to diverse militarydevices. He also worked to help amputated soldiers with anarticulated hand (Fig. 8). He had Durillon make 5,000 ofthese prostheses, which were given to those in need [3, 16].

The postwar years: theories and discoveries

After the war, Auguste Lumière continued his activitieswith Léon Bérard, who put him in charge of an annex to hiscancer ward. He spent many hours with the cancer patients,dressed wounds himself and paid for the medicines theyneeded. He also organized entertainment for them by in-viting popular singers to the ward [10].

The Lumière Clinic, founded in 1910, was too small.Henri, Auguste’s son and CEO of Lumière Company, had ageneral hospital called the Lumière Institute built in 1930.There, Auguste was able to continue his research andexperiments. This hospital had all types of wards and didthe latest research. Their patients had chronic illnesses suchas asthma, rheumatism, dermatitis, migraines, and pulmo-nary and gastrointestinal ailments. His pharmacodynamicwork enabled him to discover allochrysine (gold thiopro-panolsulfonate), which was first used to treat tuberculosis

Fig. 7 Auguste Lumière during inspection of tetanus patientsduring Great War

Fig. 8 Amputated soldiers using an articulated hand invented byLouis Lumière

Fig. 6 Outlines of contours of the wounds on dogs: evolution ofhealing

446

and then rheumatoid arthritis. He revealed the interest ofalkaline persulfates (persodine) for abdominal pain. Nu-merous other products were created in the Lumière lab-oratories—original acquisitions in the series of chemicaldrug products.

It was in the premises of the Lumière Institute that heelaborated different theories on colloids, aging, sun rays,anaphylaxia, vaccination, cancer and tuberculosis, as wellas vitamins, senility... This work was the object of 30 booksand 730 papers presented to scientific societies [15, 17, 18].Despite not being doctor, he became a member of theAcademy of Medicine of Paris in 1928. His theories,founded on the humoral origin of diseases, were oftencontroversial: the non-contagiousness of tuberculosis, thecicatricial origin of epithelial cancers, the role of colloids inanaphylaxis. In a speech given after the death of AugusteLumière, Professor Lépine said: “Scientific theories, how-ever brilliant and prolific they may be, are destined to beovertaken by established facts and the progress of research.Auguste Lumière got into the field of biology at a timewhenit had not been entirely conquered by the chemical andphysical sciences... Auguste Lumière was a creator of ideasin both medicine and in pure science.” It is impossible toperform a detailed analysis of the scientific work he didduring this period: it is immense and, with the passing oftime, his neo-Hippocratic theories of humoral medicinehave been contradicted by immunology. Moreover, he wasa victim of the uncompromising dogmatism of the mastersof the period, whereas he himself always functioned withthe capital notion of doubt like Claude Bernard: “There areno final truths—the proposed solutions are never more thantemporary.” He uncompromisingly applied scientific meth-ods, up to the point of creating statistical tests.

Above all, he was an enormous worker who, from 5 a.m.until 8 p.m., worked non-stop to find solutions for man’sills. He was also a member of the Academies of Medicineof Paris, Madrid and Rio de Janeiro, doctor honoris causaof the University of Bern, honorary advisor for Frenchforeign trade, consul of Paraguay and correspondingmember of the Academy of Sciences. During his vacationsat the family property in La Ciotat, he enjoyed fishing. Hewas also a member of the French Society of Magicians. Heconcluded: “I have done some good—that is my bestwork.”

Acknowledgements The authors thank Dr. Trarieux-Lumière, M.Berthier, M. Lesaugnier, Ducasse and Courbé. The authors thankPeter Tucker for helpful English-language review of the manuscript.The authors have no conflicting financial interests.

References

1. Aterman K, Grimaud JA (1983) The brothers Lumiere,pioneers in medical photography. Am J Dermatopathol 5(5):479–481

2. Barret A (1974) Lumière, les premières photographies encouleurs. Ed. André Barret, Paris

3. Borgé G, Borgé M (2004) Les Lumière, Antoine, Auguste,Louis et les autres. Editions lyonnaises d’Art et d’Histoire,Lyon

4. Carrel A, Hartman A (1916) Cicatrization of wounds. Relationbetween the size of a wound and the rate of its cicatrization.J Exp Med 24:429–450

5. Chardère B (1995) Les images des Lumière. Gallimard, Paris6. Chardère B (1995) Le roman des Lumière. Gallimard, Paris7. Despieres G, Labry R, Bouchet A, Rougier J, Robert JM (1981)

L’histoire de l’hôtel Dieu de Lyon. Conférences d’histoire de lamédecine. Cycle 80–81. A.C.E.M.L., Lyon

8. Dubois de Montreynaud JM (1964) Les appareils endophoto-cinématographiques des origines à nos jours. Rev Med IntPhoto Cinema Telev 3:7

9. Duhamel J, Roques JC (1959) Louis Lumiere and thephotographic origins of tomography. Presse Med 67:1723–1725

10. Fischer LP, Martinet B, Glas PY (2001) Le premier centreanticancéreux de Lyon (1923). Le chirurgien Léon Bérard etAuguste Lumière. Hist Sci Méd 35(3):253–262

11. Harmant PG (1963) Esquisse d’une histoire de la photographieappliquée aux disciplines médicales. Rev Med Int PhotoCinema Telev 1:190–194

12. Harmant PG (1963) Esquisse d’une histoire de la photographieappliquée aux disciplines médicales. Rev Med Int PhotoCinema Telev 2:26–31

13. Lefebvre T (2002) Eugène-Louis Doyen. Bulletin de la SEMIA2:1–3

14. Lumière A (1922) Les lois de la cicatrisation des plaiescutanées. Gaston Doin, Paris

15. Lumière A (1953) Mes travaux et mes jours. Editions du VieuxColombier, Paris

16. Sadoul G (1964) Louis Lumière. Seghers, Paris17. Vigne P (1931) L’oeuvre scientifique de Auguste Lumière dans

le domaine de la biologie et de la médecine. Léon Sézanne,Paris

18. Vigne P (1942) La vie laborieuse et féconde d’AugusteLumière. Durand-Girard, Lyon

19. Williams TI (1969)A biographical dictionary of scientists. A&CBlack, London, pp 314–342

447