atoms molecules and ions - itkhmerangkor€¦ · emeronti1 gatum m:uelkul nig giuyu:g atoms...
TRANSCRIPT
emeronTI1 GGaattUUmm mm:: UU eellKKuull nniiggGGII uuyyuu ::gg A t o m s M o l e c u l e s a n d I o n s
taMgBIsm½yburaNmkem:øH EdlmnusSeyIg)anKitBicarNaBIFmμCatirbs;rUbFatu. KMnit rIkcMerInrbs;eyIg sþIBITMrg;énrUbFatu)ancab;epþImecjCarUbragenAedImstvtSTI19enHtamRTwsþI GatUmrbs;elak DALTON. \LÚvenH eyIgdwgfaRKb;rUbFatuTaMgGs;KWbgáeLIgBIGatUm m:UelKulnigGIuy:ug. RKb;EpñkénKImITaMgGs;KWTak;TgeTAnwgEpñkmYykñúgcMeNamEpñTaMgGs;enH. 1 RTwsþIGatUm enAstvtSTI15TsSnviTUCnCatiRkicmñak;eQ μaH Democritus )anbBa¢ak;nUvkareCOCak;fa rbs;Kat;fa RKb;rUbFatuTaMgGs;pSMeLIgBIPaKl¥ittUcbMputEdleKminGacemIleXIj EdlKat;[ eQ μaHfaGatUm. eTaHbICaKMnit rbs;elak Democritus minRtUv)anmnusSmYycMnYnkñúgsm½y kalrbs;Kat;TTYlykk¾eday k¾vaR)akdedayRbkarNamYyEdrenAkñúgsm½yenaH. Psþútag tamkarBiesaFn_EdlGegátedayGñkviTüasaRsþsm½ymun²)anpþl; karKaMRTcMeBaHsBaØaNén GatUm ehIyk¾)anelIkeLIgnUvniymn½yénFatu nigsmasFatu[manlkçN³TMenIb bnþicmþg². karsegátenHKWRtUv)aneFVIeLIgenAkñúgqñaM 1808 edayGñkviTüasaRsþCnCatiGg;eKøs nigCa RKUbeRgonmñak;eQ μaHJohn Dalton EdlKat;)anbegáIteLIgnUvniymn½ymYyy:agc,as;sþIGMBIFatu bgáénrUbFatu[eQμaHfa GatUm. karBiesaFrbs; Dalton )anKUsbBa¢ak;BIcMnuccab;epþIménKImIviTüasm½yTMenIb. sm μtikm μ EdlniyayBIFmμCati rbs;rUbFatuEdleKEp¥keTAelIRTwsþIrbs; Dalton
enaHKWeKGacsegçb)an dUcxageRkam³ 1> FatuEdlRtUv)anpSMeLIgBIPaKl¥ittUc²bMputeKehAfaGatUm.RKb;GatUménFatumYy
dUcKña KWvamanm:as dUcKña maDdUcKña niglkçN³KImIdUcKña. GatUménFatumYy KWvaxusBI GatUménFatumYyeTot.
2> smasFatuKWbgáeLIgBIGatUménFatumYyb¤eRcIn. enAkñúgRKb;smasFatuTaMgGs; pleFobéncMnYnGatUménFatuBIr EdlmanenAkñúgsmasFatuenaHKWCacMnYnKt; b¤Ca cMnYnRbPaKgay.
1-1
3> kñúgRbtikmμKImImYyKWvaTak;TgeTAnwgkarpþac; karbnSM nigkarerobcMGatUmeLIgvij vaK μanplb:HBal; dl;karbegáItb¤karbMpøajrbs;GatUmTaMgenaHeT.
rUb1 KWCarUb tMNagénsmμtikmμBIrdMbUg. bBaØtirbs;elak Dalton cMeBaHGatUmmYyKWmanlkçN³l¥itl¥n; nigc,as;CagRTwsþIrbs; elak Democritus. smμtikmμTImYy KWbBa¢ak;faGatUmTaMgGs;énFatumYy KWmanlkçN³ xusKñaBIGatUménFatumYyeTot. elak Dalton Kat;KμanKMnitGVIedIm,IBnül;faGatUmvamanragdUc GVIenaHeT b:uEnþKat;BitCadwgfa lkçN³xusKñaEdlbgðajedayFatunImYy² dUcCaGIuRdUEsn nig GuksIuEsnGacRtUv)aneKBnül;)anedaykarsn μt;faGatUmGIuRdUEsnTaMgGs; KWmindUcGatUmrbs; GuksIuEsneT. smμtikm μTI2)anesñIeLIgfa edIm,IbegáIt)ansmasFatumYyBitR)akdeyIgminEmn RtUvkarEtGatUménFatu EdlmanRbePTRtwmRtUvb:ueNÑaHeT b:uEnþeyIgRtUvkarcMnYnCak;lak;én GatUmenaHpgEdr. KMnitenHKWCaKMnitEdlbnþBI c,ab;mYyEdle)aHBum<pSayenAqñaM 1799eday elak Joseph Proust CaKImIviTUCnCati)araMgmñak;. c,ab;smamaRtkMNt; rbs;elak Proust
)anbBa¢ak;fa PaKsMNakxusKñaénsmasFatudUcKñaEtgEtmanFatupSMrbs;vakñúgsmamaRtCa m:asdUcKña. dUecñHRbsinebIeyIgRtUvviPaKeTAelIPaKsMNakrbs;]sμ ½nkabUnDIGuksIut EdlTTYl )anmkBIRbPBxus²KñaenaH eyIgnwgRbTHeXIjfaenAkñúgPaKsMNaknImYy² pleFobCam:as rbs;vadUcKñaBIkabUneTAGuksIuEsn dUcenHvasmehtuplEdlfa RbsinebIpleFobCam:asén FatunImYy²xusKñakñúgsmasFatumYy EdleK[vakMNt;enaHpleFobGatUmrbs;FatuTaMg Gs;enAkñúgsmasFatuenaHk¾RtUvEtefrpgEdr. smμtikm μTI2rbs;elak Dalton KaMRTeTAelIc,ab;d¾mansarsMxan;mYyepSgeTot KWc,ab; BhusmamaRt. eyageTAtamc,ab;enaH RbsinebIFatuBIrGacpSMKñaedIm,IbegáItsmasFatumYy b¤eRcInenaHm:asénFatumYyEdlpSMCamYym:askMNt;énFatud¾éT²eTotKWsßitenAkñúgpleFobcMnYnsrubtUc. RTwsþIrbs;elak Dalton Bnül;c,ab;BhusmamaRty:agsamBaØbMputfa smasFatuxusKña EdlbegáIteLIgBIFatudUcKña KWxusKñaRtg;cMnYnGatUménFatunImYy² EdlpSMKñaenaH. ]TahrN_ kabUnbegáItsmasFatu esßrPaBBIrCamYyGuksIuEsnKW kabUnm:UNUGuksIutnigkabUnDIGuksIut. bec©keTsénrgVas;d¾TMenIbmYy )anbBa¢ak;faGatUmmYy rbs;kabUn pSMCamYyGatUmmYyrbs;GuksIuEsn begáItCasmasFatukabUnm:UNUGuksIut nigCamYy GatUmBIrrbs;GuksIuEsnbegáItCasmasFatukabUnDIGuksIut.
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dUecñHpleFobénGuksIuEsnenAkñúg kabUnm:UNUGuksuItCamYyGuksIuEsnenA kñúgkabUnDIGuksIut KW 1 : 2 lT§plenH KWvaRsbeTAnwgc,ab; BhusmamaRt.
GatUménFatu X GatUménFatu Y smasFatuénFatu X nigFatu Y
¬k¦ ¬x¦ rUb1 k> edayeyageTAtamRTwsþIGatUmrbs;elak Dalton GatUménFatudUcKña KWmanlkçN³ dUcKña b:uEnþGatUménFatu mYyKWxusBIGatUménFatu mYyeTot. x> smasFatuEdlbegáIteLIgBI GatUménFatu X nigY. enAkñúgkrNIenHpleFobénGatUmrbs;Fatu X eFobCa mYy GatUm énFatu YKW 2:1.
sm μtikm μTI3rbs;elakDaltonKWCameFüa)aymYyepSgedIm,ICacMnuccab;epþImkñúgkarsikSa c,ab;rkSam:as EdlEcgfarUbFatuTaMgGs;KWeKminGacbegáItb¤k¾bMpøajva)aneT edaysarEtrUb FatuKWbegáIteLIgBIGatUmEdleKminGacpøas;bþÚr)anenAkñúgRbtikmμKImIehIyvak¾EcgpgEdrfa m:asKWrkSaenAdEdl.KMnitTUlMTUlayrbs;elak Dalton cMeBaHFmμCatiénrUbFatuenaHKWCakar elIkTwkcitþd¾sMxan;sMrab;karrIkcMerIny:agqab;rh½sénEpñkKImIviTüaenAkñúgkMLúgstvtSTI19enH. 2 TMrg;énGatUm tamlkçN³RKW³énRTWsþIrbs; Dalton eyIgGackMNt;fa GatUmmYyKWCaxñatRKw³rbs;Fatu mYy EdlGaccUleTAbnSMKImI. elak Dalton )anRsém:faGatUmCaPaKl¥itmYy EdltUcbMput ehIyeKminGacemIlvaeXIj. eTaHbICay:agNak¾eday k¾karGegátCaeRcIn Edl)ancab;epþIm enAkñúgTsvtSqñaM1850 ehIy)anbnþmkdl;stvtSTI20 enH)anbBa¢ak;y:agc,as;faGatUm Bit CamanTMrg;xagkñúgrbs;va ebIeTaHbICavabgáeLIgBIPaKl¥ittUcCagenHEdleKehAfaPaKl¥itbgá GatUmk¾eday. karRsavRCavenHnaM[mankarrkeXIjBIPaKTaMgbIenHKW eGLicRtug RbUtug nigNWtRtug. 2>1 eGLicRtug
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enAkñúgTsvtSqñaM 1890 GñkviTüasaRsþCaeRcIn)aneFVIkarsikSaeTAelIkaMrsμ I ; karbeB©aj nigkarbBa¢ÚnfamBltamry³lMhGakaskñúgTMrg;Carlk. Bt’manEdlTTYl)anBIkarRsavRCav enH)anpþl;KMnitCaeRcIndl;karyl;dwgrbs;eyIgcMeBaHTMrg;GatUm. ]bkrN_mYy EdleK eRbIedIm,IGegát)atuPUtenHKWbMBg;kaMrsμ IkatUt ¬dUc rUb2¦. vaCabMBg;EkvmYyEdlxül;PaKeRcIn RtUv)aneKdkecj. enAeBlEdlbnÞHelah³BIr RtUv)aneKtP¢ab ;eTArkRbPBEdlmanCnita x<s;bnÞH EdlmanbnÞúkGviC¢manRtUv)aneKehAeQμaHfa katUt EdlCaGñkbeBa©jkaMrsμ I emIlmineXIj. kaMrsμIkatUtKWCakaMrsμ IEdlTajeTArkbnÞHelah³ EdlmanbnÞúkviC¢man EdleK [eQμaHfa GaNUt Edlvaqøgkat;rn§mYyehIybnþeFVIdMeNIreTAcugmçageToténbMBg;. enAeBl EdlkaMrs μ IeTAbuképÞeRsabd¾BiessenaH vabegáItCalkçN³bBa¢ÚnBnøWd¾xøaMgmYy (a strong
fluorescence) b¤BnøWd¾PøWmYy. enAkñúgBiesaFxøHbnÞHelah³EdlmanbnÞúkGKÁisnIBIr nigemEdkmYy KWRtUv)aneKbEnßm
eTAEpñkxageRkAénbMBg;kaMrs μ IkatUt ¬emIlrUb2¦.
rUb2 bMBg;kaMrsμ IkatUtEdlmanEdnGKÁisnI Edlkat;EkgeTAnwgTisedAénkaMrs μ IkatUt
nig Ednm:aej:TicxagkñugnimitþsBaØa N nig S sMKal;[b:UlxageCIg nigxagt,ÚgénemEdk. kaMrsμ IkatUt nwgbukeTAcugmçagénbMBg;enARtg;cMnuc A edaymanvtþmanénEdnm:aej:TicmYy ehIyenAcMnuc C enAeBlEdlmanvtþman énEdnGKÁisnI nigenAcMnuc B enAeBlEdlK μan EdnenAxageRkA rW enAeBlEdlman\T§iBlénEdnGKÁisnI nigEdnm:aej:TiclubelIKñaeTAvij eTAmk.
enAeBlEdlEdnm:aej:TicebIk ehIyEdnGKÁisnIbiT kaMrsμ IkatUtbukcMnuc A. enAeBl EdlmanEtEdnGKÁisnIebIkkaMrsμIbukcMnuc C. enAeBlEdlEdnm:aej:TicnigEdnGKÁisnIbiTb¤enA
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eBlEdlvaebIkTaMgBIr b¤k¾enAeBlEdlvamanlMnwg dUecñHvalub\T§iBlKñaeTAvijeTAmk kaMrsμI enaHbukeTAcMnuc B. tamRTwsþIeGLicRtUm:aej:Tic kareFVIclnarbs;GgÁFatu EdlmanbnÞúk KWRbRBwtþeTAdUcemEdkEdrehIyGaceFVIGnþrkmμCamYy EdnGKÁIsnInigEdnm:aej:Tictamry³kEnøg Edlvaqøgkat;eTotpg.
edaysarkaMrs μ IkatUtRtUv)anTajedaybnÞHelah³ EdlmanbnÞúkviC¢manehIyRtUv)an rujRcaneTAvijedaybnÞHelah³EdlmanbnÞúkGviC¢man enaHvaR)akdCamanpÞúknUvPaKl¥it Edlman bnÞúkGviC¢man. eyIgcat;TukPaKl¥it EdlmanbnÞúkGviC¢manTaMgenHfaCaeGLicRtug.
rUb 3 bgðajBIplb:HBal;énr)aemEdkeTAelIkaMrs μ IkatUt.
rUbviTUCnCatiGg;eKøsmñak; eQ μaH Joseph John Thomson )aneRbIbMBg;
kaMrsμIkatUtmYy ehIycMeNHdwgrbs;Kat;BIRTwsþIeGLicRtUm:aej:Tic edIm,IkMNt;pleFob énbnÞúk GKÁisnIeTAnwgm:as éneGLicRtugnImYy². cMnYnEdlKat;elIkeLIgenaHKW - 1,76. 108 C/g Edl
C KitCaKULM EdlCaxñatrbs;bnÞúkGKÁisnI. cMENkÉenAkñúgBiesaFmYycMnYn EdleK)an GnuvtþenAcenøaHBIqñaM 1908 dl;qñaM 1917 elak R.A. Millikan )anrkeXIjbnÞúkéneGLicRtug mYymantMélesμ I -1.60.10-19 C. BITinñn½yenH Kat;)an KNna m:aséneGLicRtugmYy tamrUbmnþdUcxageRkam ÷
m:aséneGLicRtugmYy=
bnÞúk bnÞúk¼m:as
= 8
19
1076,11060,1×−×− −
= 9,09.10-28 g m:asenHKWCam:asEdltUcbMput.
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2>2 viTüúskmμ enAqñaM 1895 rUbviTUCnCatiGaLWm:g;mñak;eQμaH Wilhelm Rontgen )ankt;sMKal; eXIj fa kaMrsμ IkatUtKWbNþal[Ekvnigelah³beBa©jkaMrsIμminFmμta. karbeBa©jkMedAviTüúskmμ EdlmanfamBlx<s;enH )anFøúHcUleTAkñúgrUbFatuehIy)aneFVI[BN’ex μAenArMuB½T§bnÞHpUtURkahVI nwgbNþal[manPaBxusKñarbs;sarFatuCaeRcIn edIm,IeGaymanBnøW. edaysarEtkaMrsμ I TaMgenHminGaccaMgRtLb;edayemEdk)aneT dUecñHvaminGacmanPaKl¥it EdlmanbnÞúkdUcCa kaMrsμIkatUtenaHeT. elak Rontgen )an[eQ μaHvafaCakaMrs μ I X BIeRBaHEtkaMrsμ Irbs;va minRtUv)aneKsÁal;. eRkaymkminyUrb:unμanbnÞab;BIkarRsavRCavrbs;elak Rontgen ehIyeBlenaHman elak Antoine Becquerel EdlCasaRsþacarürUbviTüamñak;enATIRkug):arIs)ancab;epþImsikSaBI lkçN³PøWrbs;sarFatu. Kat;)anrkeXIjfakarpÞúHEdlbNþal[mankar rMuBT½§BIeRkAy:agRkas; enAbnÞHpUtURkahVI CYnkalman eRKaHfñak;eTotpgcMeBaHsarFatusuT§G‘uyra:j:Úm EdlbNþal[va eLIgex μA ebIeTaHbICaK μankarCMrujBIkaMrsμIkatUtk¾eday. edaykaMrsμ I X EdlCakaMrsμ I)anmkBI smasFatuG‘uyr:aj:Um KWmanfamBlx<s; ehIyminGacgakedaysaremEdkeLuIy b:uEnþva xusKñaBIkaMrsμI X BIeRBaHvaelc eLIgedayÉkÉg.sisSmñak;rbs;elak Becquerel eQ μaH Marie Curie )anesñIeQ μaHeLIgfa viTüúskmμedIm,IBiBN’naBI karbnSayedayÉkÉgrbs;PaK l¥itb¤ viTüúskm μ. bnÞab;mkedaysarEtFatunImYy²bnSayedayÉkÉgRbtikm μviTüúskm μenaH RtUv)aneK[eQ μaHfa viTüúskmμ.
kaMrsμI 3 RbePTRtUv)anbegáIteLIgedaykarbMEbksarFatuviTüúskmμdUcCaGuyr:aj:ÚmCa edIm. kaMrsμ IBIrkñúgcMeNamkaMrsμ ITaMgbIKWRtUv)angakecjedaysarbnÞHelah³ EdlmanbnÞúk viC¢man¬emIlrUb4¦.kaMrsμ I α manpÞúkPaKl¥itEdlmanbnÞúkviC¢man EdleK[eQμaHfaPaKl¥itα dUecñHvaRtUveFVI[manlMgak edaybnÞHEdlmanbnÞúkviC¢man. kaMrsμ I β b¤PaKl¥it β
KWCaeGLicRtug ehIyRtUv)aneFVI[gakedaybnÞHelah³ EdlmanbnÞúkGviC¢man. viTüúskmμ RbePTTI 3 manpÞúknUvkaMrsμ IEdlmanfamBlx<s;EdleK[eQμaHfakaMrsμ I γ . dUckaMrs μ I X Edr kaMrsμI γ K μanbnÞúkeT ehIyk¾Kμanplb:HBal;edaysarEdnxageRkAeT.
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rUb 4 RbePTbIy:agrbs;kaMrsμ IEdlbeBa©j edayFatuviTüúskmμ. kaMrs μ I β manpÞúknUvPaK l¥itEdlmanbnÞúkGviC¢man ¬eGLicRtug¦ehIy dUecñHvaRtUv)anTajedaybnÞHelah³ Edlman bnÞúkviC¢man. cMeBaHrn§BitR)akdenAEpñk mçageTotsMrab;kaMrs μI α vamanbnÞúkviC¢man ehIyRtUv )aneKTaj[eTArkbnÞHelah³ EdlmanbnÞúkGviC¢man. edaysarkaMrs μ I γ K μanbnÞúkpøÚvrbs; vaKWK μanplb:HBal;edayGKÁisnIxageRkAenHeT. 2>3 RbUtug nigNWtRtug mkRtwmedImTsvtSqñaM 1900 lkçN³BIry:agénGatUmRtUv)aneKbkRsayy:agc,as; favamanpÞúkeGLicRtugehIyvamancrnþGKÁisnINWt. edIm,IrkSaPaBNWtGKÁisnIGatUmmYy RtUv EtmanbnÞúkbUk nigbnÞúkdkes μ IKña. dUecñHelak Thomson )anesñIeLIgfa GatUmmYyeKGaccat; TukfaCaGatUmÉksNæanehIyes<orviC¢manénrUbFatu EdlmanenAkñúgeGLicRtug KWRtUv)aneK bgáb;dUcTMBaMg)ayCUreRkomEdleKbgáb;enAkñúgnMmYyGBa©wg ¬emIlrUb5¦ eFVIEbbenHRtUv)aneK ehAeQ μaHfaTMrg;nMmYydMu (plum pudding model) ehIyCaRTwsþIEdleKTTYlykCaeRcInqñaMmk ehIy . KMeragenHRsedogKñanwgkartMerobrbs;RKab;BN’ex μAenAkñúgEpøRskanaK . enAqñaM1910 GñkrUbviTUrbs;RbeTs New Zealand mñak;eQ μaH Ernest Rutherford Edl )ansikSaCamYyelak Thomson enAsklviTüal½y Cambridge )ansMerccitþeRbIPaKl¥it α
edIm,IBinitüemIlBITMrg;rbs;GatUm. elak Rutherford rYmCamYyCMnYykarrbs;Kat;eQ μaH Hans
Geiger nigsisSeRkay]tþmsikSarbs;Kat;mñak;eTot eQμaH Ernest Marsden )aneFVIBiesaFn_ CaeRcInedayeRbIsnøwkmasesþIg² nigsnøwkelah³d¾éT²mkeFVICatMruy sMrab;PaKl¥it α EdleK ykmkBIRbPBEdlmanFatuviTüúskmμ ¬rUb6¦. eBlenaHeKsegáteXIjfa
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bnÞúkviC¢manRKb;dNþb;elIépÞrbs;dMumUl rUb5³ KMrUGatUmrbs;elak Thomson
EdlCYnkalRtÚv)aneKBiBN’nafa dUcCa KMrUénnMmYyduM. eGLicRtúgCaeRcInRtÚv)anbgáb;enAkñúgduMnMmYyEdlmanbnÞúkviC¢man RKb;dNþb;elI épÞrbs;va.
rUb 6 (a) kMNt;tamry³kareFVIBiesaFrbs;elak therford edIm,I vas;BIkarBRgay énPaKl¥it
kar Ru
α tam ry³snøwkmasmYydMu. PaKl¥it α PaKeRcInqøgkat; tamry³snøwk masmanlMgaktictYcb¤K μanlMgak. manEtBIrbIb NÑaHEdlRtUveFVI[gakedaymMud¾FM. CYnkal manPaKl¥it
:ueα RtUv)anRtlb;gakeTAeRkayvij. (b)CarUbBRgIkénPaKl¥itα kñúgkarqøgkat;b¤
kareFVI[ manlMgakedayéNVyU:. PaKl¥itPaKeRcIn)anTMluHcUlsnøwkenaHTaMgPaKl¥itmingakecj TaMgPaKl¥it Edlgak ecjtictYc.b:uEnþTaMgeBl)aj;TaMgeBleRkay)aj;PaKl¥it α enaHKWenAray):ay b¤k¾gakecj edaybegáItCamMud¾FMmYy. enAkñúg]TahrN_ xøHPaKl¥it)anbnþKñaCaerogrhUttamTisedA Edlva)anmk enHKWCakarrkeXIjd¾KYr[PJak;ep¥IlbMputenAkñúgGatUmKMrUrrbs;elak Thomson ehIybnÞúkviC¢manrbs;GatUmKWsayxøaMgNas;EdlPaKl¥itα viC¢manKYrEtqøgkat;tamry³ snøwk EdlmanlMgaktictYc.edIm,IdkRsg;Rbtikm μdMbUgrbs;RutherfordenAeBlEdlniyay BIrbk KMehIjEdlfavaminKUr[eCOeTenAeBlEdlGñk)aj;RKab;mYymanGgát;p©it #% sg;TIEm:Rt sMedA eTArkRkdasCUtmat;EtmYysnøwkehIyeFVI[sMbkRKab;enHnwwgRtLb;mkbukGñkÉgvijenaH.
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eRkaymkeTotelak Rutherford acBnül;)anBIlT§plénBiesaFBRgayPaKl¥it Gα tamKMrUfμImYyrbs;GatUm. eyageTAtamelak Rutherford GatUmPaKeRcInRtUvEtCalMh TeTr. karBnül;fa etIehtuGVI)anCaPaKl¥it α eRcInelIslb;)anqøgkat;snøwkmas edayman lMgaktictYcb¤KμanlMgakenaH. elak Rutherford )anesñIreLIgfa bnÞúkviC¢manrbs;GatUm TaMgGs; KWsßitenAkñúgéNVy:U EdlCasñÚlkNþalkkmYy ( a dense central core) enAkñúgGatUm. eBlNaEdlPaKl¥it α mkCitéNVy:UmYyenAkñúgkareFVIBiesaFBRgayenaH vaeFVI[mankMlaMg cMranecjd¾xøaMgmYy e dUecñHlMgakrbs;va k¾xøaMgEdr. mü:agvijeTotPaKl¥it hIy α EdleFVI
vaRtUv)aneKrkeXIjfa RbUtugnImYy²mancMnYnbnÞúkes μI²KñadUceGLic RtugEdr
é
d¾tUcmYy. enAeBlEdlRbUtugRtUv)aneK
aFn_ b:uEnþvaminKYrbBa¢ak;
nigGatUmeGlüÚm EdlmanEtRbUtugBIr. dUecñHpleFobCam:asénGatUmeGlüÚm nigGatUm
dMeNIreq<aHRtg;eTArkéNVy:U nwgRtUv)anRcanecjTaMgRsug ehIyTisedArbs;vak¾Rcas mkvijEdr. PaKl¥itEdlmanbnÞúkviC¢manenAkñúgéNVy:U KWRtUv)aneK[eQ μaHfaRbUtug. enAkñúgkar BiesaFdac;edayELkmYy
ehIymanm:as 1,67252 x 10-24 g KWRbEhlnwg 1840 dgénm:asrbs;eGLicRtug Edlman bnÞúk pÞúyKña.
cMeBaHkarGegátenAcMnucenHGñkviTüasaRsþBicarNaeTAelIGatUmdUcxageRkamenH m:as néNVy:UmYypSMeLIgBIm:as PaKeRcInénGatUmTaMgmUl b:uEnþéNVy:UpÞúkmaDrbs;GatUmEtRbEhl
1/1013 b:ueNÑaH. eyIgGacsMEdgvimaRtrbs;GatUm nigm:UelKultamxñat SI EdleKehAfa BIkUEm:Rt ehIy 1 pm = 1 x 10-12 m. kaMGatUmmYyKWmanRbEvgRbEhl 100 pm cMENkÉ kaMénéNVy:UGatUmKWRbEhl 5 x 10-3 pm. eyIgGacelIkykTMhMEdl Tak;TgénGatUmmYy nig éNVy:Urbs;vaedayRsém:fa RbsinebIGatUmmYyCaTMhMrbs;sþatGULaMBik maDénéNVy:Urbs;va KWGaceRbobeFob)aneTAnwgfμb:Rb:HTwk (marble)
kMNt;RBMEdn[ enARtwméNVy:UénGatUmenaHeGLicRtugnwgRtUveKsμan faCaeGLicRtugEdl RtUvray):ayenACMu vij éNVy:UEdlq¶ayBIvaxøHEdr. bBaØtiénkaMGatUmKWmansarRbeyaCn_xøaMgNas;kñúgkareFVIBiesfaGatUmmankar cgsMB½n§ b¤manépÞkMNt;)anl¥enaHeT. enAeBleRkayeTot eyIgnwgeronBI tMbn;xageRkAénGatUmKWvaTak;Tg eTAnwgGVIEdlminc,as; (fuzzy). TMrg;GatUmKMrYrrbs;elak Rutherford )anbnSl;nUvbBaðad¾FMmYy EdlminTan;)anedaH Rsay. bBaðaenaHKW bBaðaGatUmGuIRdYEsnEdlCaGatUmmYysamBaØbMput ehIymanEtRbUtug mYy
1-9
GIuRdUEsnKW 2:1 ¬edaysareGLicRtugKW RsalCagRbUtug dUecñHkar Eckm:as; GatUmmicKW eKGacecal)an¦ b:uEnþeTaHbICay:agNak¾edaykarBitpleFobKW 4:1. elak Rutherford
nigGñkdéTeTot)an (postulated)faRtUvEtmanPaKl¥itbgáGatUmmYyRbePT eTotenAkñúgéNVy:U GatUm. PsþútagKW RtUv)anpþl;[edayrUbviTUmñak;epSgeToteQμaH James Chadwick enAkñúgqñaM
Vy:Ud¾tUcbMputmYy. eGLicRt
1932.
rUb7 RbUtug nigNWtRtug énGatUmmYyKW RtUv)anx©b;enAkñúgéNugEdleKbgðajenH CaBBkEdlenACMuvijéNVy:U. enAeBlelak Chadwick )anbMEbksnøwkesþIgmYyénelah³ebrIlüÚm edayPaKl¥it
α eBlenaHRbtikmμviTüúskm μ EdlmanfamBld¾x<s;RsedogKñaeTAnwgkaMrsμ I γ RtUv)anbeBa©j edayelah³. karBiesaFn_eRkaymkeTot)anbgðaj[ eXIjfakaMrsTaMgenaH BitCamanpÞúknUv PaKl¥itbgáGatUmRbePTTI3mYyepSgeTotEdlelak)anehA eQμaHfaNWtRtug BIeRBaHeK)anrk
sþútag XIjfavaCaPaKl¥itEdlmanbnÞúkGKÁisnINWt ehIymanma:sFMCagRbUtugEtbnþic bnþÜc. Gaf’kM)aMgénpleFobm:as\LÚvenHeKGaceFVIkarBnül;)an. enAkñúg éNVy:UeGlüÚm manRbUtugBIr nigNWtRtugBIr b:uE
μI
P e
nþenAkñúgéNVy:UGIuRdUEsnmanEtRbURtugmYyehIy K μanNWtRtugeT dUecñHpl eFobrbs;vaKW 4:1.
1-10
tarag 1 nig nÞúkénPaKl¥itb
ma:s b gáGatUmbnÞúk
PaKl¥it m:as; (g) ) bnÞúk KitCaKULM (C xñat
eGLicRtug
-24 ,6022.10-19 RbUtug
9,1095>10-28
1,67252.10-24
-1,6022.10-1
+ 1
-1
+1
NWtRtug 1,67495. 10
0 0
rUb7)anbgðajBI TItaMgrbs;PaKl¥itbgádMbUgTaMgGs;enAkñúgGatUmmYyKW ¬RbUtug eGLicRtug nigNWRtug¦ manPaKl¥itbgáGatUmdéT²eTotCaeRcIn b:uEnþeGLicRtug RbUtug nigNWRtug KWCaFatubgábICamUldæanénGatUm EdlmansarsMxan;enAkñúgmuxviC¢aKImIviTüa. tarag1
I
RKb;éNVy:UénGatUmTaMgGs;RtÚvmanTaMgRbUtug NWt ³
bgðajBIm:as nig bnÞúkénPaKl¥itdMbUgTaMgbIenH. 3 elxGatUm cMnYnm:as nigGIusUtUb
eKGacsMKal;GatUmTaMgGs;)antamry³cMnYnRbUtug nigeGLicRtugEdlvaman. elxGatUm EdleKtageday Z KWCacMnYnRbUtugenAkñúgéNVy:UénGatUmnImYy²rbs;FatumYy. enAkñúg GatUmNWtmYycMnYn RbUtugKWesμ InwgcMnYneGLicRtug dUecñHelxGatUmk¾bBa¢ak;BIcMnYn eGLicRtugEdlmanvtþmanenAkñúgGatUmenaHpgEdr. lkçN³sMKal;KImIrbs;GatUmmYy Gac[ eKkMNt;BIelxGatUmrbs;va)an. Ca]TahrN_ elxGatUménGasUtKWes μ I 7 enHmann½yfa GatUmGasUtNWtnImYy²manRbUtug 7 nigeGLicRtug 7 b¤k¾tamTsSn³ epSgeToteKfa enAelBiPBelakeyIgenHRKb;GatUmTaMgGs;EdlmanRbUtugcMnUn 7 eKtMrUv[ehAeQμaHvafaCaGasUt.
cMnYnm:asEdleKtageday A KWCacMnYnsrubrbs;RbUtug nigNWtRtugEdlmanvtþman EdlmanenAkñúgéNVy:U rbs;GatUménFatumYy. elIkElgEtTMrg;d¾samBaØbMputrbs;GIuRdUEsn EdlmanEtRbUtugmYyehIyK μanNWRtug eRBaHnig Rtug . CaTUeTAeKKNnacMnYnm:aseday cMnYnm:as = cMnYnRbUtug + cMnYnNWRtug = cMnYnGatUm + cMnYnNWRtug cMnYnNWRtUgenAkñúgGatUmmYyKWes μ Inwgplsgrvag cMnYnm:as nigelxGatUm b¤es μ I ( A-
Z). ]TahrN_m:as rbs;PøúyGrKWes μ I 19 ehIyelxGatUmrbs;vaKWes μ I 9 ¬bBa¢ak;fa 9 RbUtug
1-11
enAkñúgéNVy:U dUecñHcMnYnNWtRtúgenAkñúgGatUm mYyrbs;PøúyGrKW 19 - 9 = 10. cUrkt;sMKal;fa elxGatUm cMnYnNWtRtug nigcMnYnm:asTaMgGs;RtUvEtCacMnYnKt;viC¢man. GatUménFatumYyminmanm:asdUcKñaTaMgGs;enaHeTeRBaHfa FatuPaKeRcInKWmanGIusUtUb BIr rW eRcIn ¬GIusUtUb KWGatUmEdlmanelxlMdab;dUcKña b:uEnþcMnYnm:as;rbs;vaxusKña¦. ]TahrN_ GIuRdUEsnmanGIusUtUbcMnYnbI mYyKWGIuRdUEsnFmμta EdlmanEtRbUtugmYy ehIyKμanNWRtugeT. GIusUtUbdWetrüÚmmanRbUtugmYy nigNWtRtugmYy cMENkÉ GIusUtUmRTIcUm manRbUtugmYy nig NWtRtugBIr. viFIEdlGacTTYlyk)anedIm,Ikt;sMKal;elxlMdab; nigm:asGatUmrbs;GatUmén FatumYyRtUv)ansMKal;dUcxageRkam³
UecñHcMe HGIusUt r ÷
cMnYnm:as; XA
Z elxlMdab; d Ba Ubrbs;GIuRdUEsneyIgGacsres H1
1
dWetrüÚm RTIcUm t cU TAelIGIusUtUbsamBaØBIrrbs; G‘uyr:aj:Úm Edl
n Edl aneQ
incUlrYmenAkñúgbMErbMrYlKImIenaHeTenAeRkamlkçxNÐFm μta. dUecñH
]TahrN_xageRkamenHbgðajBIkarKNnacMnYnRbUtug NWtRtug nigeGLicRtug eday elxm:as.
H21 H3
1 GIuRdUEsn Ca]TahrN_mYyepSgeTo rBinitüemIlemanm:aserogKñaKW 235 nig238. U235
92 U23892
GuIsUtUbTI1KWRtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IeFVIerGak;T½rnuyekøEGr nigRKab;EbkGatUmic cMENkÉ GIusUtUbTIBIrKWxVH lkçN³caM)ac;sMrab;TegVIenH. edaymankrNIelIkElgcMeBaHGIuRdUEsm μaHxus²KñaBIGIusUtUbmYyeTAGIusUtUbmYy ehIyGIusUtUbénFatuKWsMKal;edaycMnYnm:as rbs;va. dUecñHGIusUtUbBIrxagelIKWeK[eQ μaHfa G‘uyr:aj:Úm 235 nigG‘uyr:aj:Úm 238 .
lkçN³KImIénFatumYy RtUv)aneKkMNt;CadMbUgedayRbUtug nigeGLicRtugenAkñúgGatUm rbs;va cMENkÉNWtRtugmGIusUtUbénFatudUcKña manlkçN³KIimI rbs;vadUcKñakñúgkarbegáItRbePTénsmasFatudUcKña nigkñúg karbegáInskmμPaBdUcKña. eRbIelxlMdab; nig
1-12
] rN_ Tah 1/1 K Mn
eTAnwgcMnYnRbUtugEdrKW 8.
. cMnYnNWRtugKW 200-
8 eGLicRtugKWdUc KñaeTA nwgcMnuc b EdrKW 80.dUecñHRbePTGIusUtUbenAkñúgcMnuc b
cMnuc
C
um b¤ Rslay GaRs½y eTA tamPaBdUcKñaenAkñúglkçN³KImIrbs;va. cUrcMNaMFatu 110, 111 nig 112 KWCaFatuEdleK eTIbEt sMeyaKenAeBlfμ I²enH ebIeTaHbICavaminTan;maneQ μaHk¾eday.
FatuTaMgGs;RtUv)aneKEckecjCabIBYk KWBYkelah³ Gelah³ nigBBYkGMpUETr. elah³ KWCaFatuEdlcMlgkMedA nigcrnþGKÁisnI)anl¥ cMENkÉGelah³ vij KWCaFatuEdlmin sUvcMlgkMedA nigcrnþGKÁisnI b¤k¾cMlgexSay. GMpUETr KWCaFatu EdlmanlkçN³Caelah³pg nigCaGelah³pg. rUb 8 bgðajfaFatuPaKeRcIn EdlsÁal;KW Caelah³ ehIymanEt 17
Nnac YnRbUtug NWRtug nigeGLicRtugkñúgRbePTKImIxageRkamenH. k> O17
8 x Hg19980 K Hg200
80 cMelIy k> elxlMdab;vaman 8 dUecñHvaman 8 RbÚtug. edaycMnYnm:asKW 17
dUecñHcMnYnNWRtugKW 17-8= 9 cMnYneGLicRtugKWdUcKña x> elxlMdab;KW 80 dUecñHvamanRbUtugcMnYn 80. m:asrbs;vaKW 199 dUecñHcMnYnNWRtug rbs;vaKW ÷ 199-80 =119. cMnYneGLicRtugKW 80. K> cMnYnRbUtugénGatUmrbs;FatuenHk¾dUcKñaeTAnwgcMnuc b EdrKW 80
0=120. cMnYnnig c KWmanGIusUtUbEdlman lkçN³KImIRsedogKña nig)artEdr. lMhat;Gnuvtþn_
etImanRbUtug NWtRtug nigeGLicRtugb:unμanenAkñúgGIusUtUbrbs;Tg;Edg Cu6329 .
4 taragxYb FatuKImIEdleKsÁal;rhUtmkdl;sBVéf¶enH RbmaNCaCagBak;kNþalKWRtUv)aneKrk
eXIjenAkñúgcenøaHqñaM 1800 nigqñaM 1900. kñugkMLúgeBlenaHGñkKImIviTU)ankt;sMKal;eXIjfa FatumYycMnYnmanlkçN³dUcKñaeRcIneTAnwg FatumYycMnYneTot. karyl;dwgBIlkçN³ERbRbYl
axYbénlkçN³rUbniglkçN³KImI nigtMrUvkaredIm,IerobcMBt’man EdlGacmanCaeRcInGMBITMrg; niglkçN³énsarFatu naM[mankarbegáItCataragxYbenHeLIg ¬taragxYbKWCataragEdlFatuNa manlkçN³rUb niglkçN³KImIdUcKñaRtUv)aneKdak;enAkñúgRkumCamYyKña. rUb8 bgðajBItaragxYb d¾TMenIb EdlFatuTaMgGs;RtUv)aneKtMerobeTAtamelxlMdab; EdleKbgðajenAxagelInimitþ sBaØaénFatukñúgCYredk EdleKehAfaxYb nigkñúgCYrQrEdleKehAfaRk
1-13
Fatub:ueNn
ee
KUrEtdak;enAxagsaþM
Li Na K Rb Cs nigFrCaedIm FatuTaMgenHRtUv)aneK[eQμaHfaelah³ Gal;kaLaMg nigFatuenAkñúgRkum 2A dUcCa Be Mg Ca
Sr Ba nig Ra CaedIm KWRtUv)aneKehAeQ μaHfaelah³Gal;kalINUETrW b¤u cMENkÉFatuEdl
ÑaH EdlCaGelah³ ehIymanEt 8 FatuEtb:ueNÑaHEdlCaGMpUETr. tamxYblkçN³rUb igKImIrbs;va ERbRbYlCabnþbnÞab;BIeqVgeTAsþaM BIelah³eTAGelah³.
rUbTI8 taragxYbTMenIb. FatuTaMgGs;RtUv)aneK robcMGaRs½yeTAtamelxlMdab; EdlenAxag lInimitþsBaØarbs; vaelIkElgEtGIuRdUEsnecjGelah³KWeKdak;enAxagsþaMbMputéntaragxYb.
elah³TaMgBIrCYredk EdlenAxageRkamtaragFM KWRtUv)aneKbegáIteLIg[q¶ayBIeK edIm,IkMu[ taragxYbenaHFMeBk. karBit Ce KYrEtdak;enA xageRkay La ehIy Th
bnÞab;BI Ac . kardak;RkumBIelx 1-18 RtUv)an[eyabl;eday IUPAC b:uEnþvaminTan;RtUv )aneKeRbICaTUeTAeT. kñúgbribTenHeyIgeRbIR)as;sBaØaNsþg;da U.S. sMrab;elxRkumBI 1A-8A ehIyBI 1B-8B. cMeBaHeQ μaH sMrab;FatuBI 104-109 KWenACECkKñaenAeLIy. KμaneQ μaH NaRtUv)aneKkMNt; sMrab;FatuBI 110 eTA 112 enAeLIyeT.
FatuTaMgGs;KWRtUv)aneKdak;eTAkñúgtaragxYbeTAtamelxRkumdUcCa ¬Rkum 1A,
2A.l.¦. eTaHbICay:agNak¾edayedIm,I[manPaBCak;lak;EfmeTotenaHRkumxøHénFatu KW RtUv)aneK[eQ μaHBiess mYyepSgeTotdUcCaFatuRkum 1A man
1-14
enAkñúgRkum 7A dUcCa F Cl Br I nig At KWRtUv)aneKsÁal;faCaBBYkG ÚEsn ehIyFatu enAkñúgRkum 8A dUcCa He Ne Ar Kr Xe nig Rn KWRtUv)aneK[eQ μaHfa]sμ ½nnicl b¤]s μ ½nkMr. taragxYb KWCa]bkrN_d¾manRbeyaCn_mYyEdleFVI[lkçN³énFatumanTMnak;TMngKñaCa lkçN³RbB½n§ nigCYyeyIg[eFVIkarTsSTayGMBIlkçN³KImI)an. eyIgnwgsikSa[)anlMGiteTA elIEpñk KnøwHKImIviTüaenACMBUkTI 8. emIlKImIviTüaGnuvtþn_ (Chemistry in Action) enATMB½rTI 2-37 BiBN’naBIbMENgEck énFatuenAel
aL
IEpndI nigenAkñúgxøÜnmnusS.
EdlmanGtißPaBCaGatUmeTalenAkñúgFmμCati. cMeBaHehtu
gáIteday GatUm.
énFatucab;BI BIreLIgeTA. Ca]TahrN_]sμ½n GIuRdUEsnKWCaFatusuT§mYy
b:uEnþ m YnK
5 m:UelKul nigGIuy:ug cMeBaHRKb;FatuTaMgGs; man]sμ½nkMrEt 6b:ueNÑaHenAkñúgRkumTI 8A éntaragxYbKWFatu He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe nig Rn plenH eKehA]sμ½n m:UNUGatUm mann½yfaGatUmEtmYy. rUbFatuPaKeRcIn KWbgáeLIgedaym:UelKul b¤ GIuy:ug Edl be5>1 m:UelKul
m:UelKul KWCabNþúMmYyEdlmanGatUmy:agticcMnYnBIrehIymankarerobcMd¾kMNt;mYy edIm,IcgP¢ab;Kñaeday kMlaMgKImI ¬eK[eQ μaHfasMB½n§KImI¦. tamc,ab;smamaRtkMNt; m:UelKul mYyGacmanGatUménFatudUcKñaBIr b¤k¾GatUménFatuepSgKñaeRcIntP¢ab;KñakñúgpleFobkMNt;mYy ¬emIlEpñkTI 1>2¦. dUecñHtamniymn½ym:UelKulmYy ¬EdlminEmnCa smasFatumYycaM)ac;¦ KWbegáIteLIgBIGatUm
vaman :UelKulEdlbgáeLIgBIGatUmGuIRdÚEsncMn BIr. mü:agvijeTot Twk WCasmasFatum:UelKulmYy EdlmanGIuRdUEsn nigGuksIuEsnkñúgpleFobGIuRdUEsnBIr nig
GuksIuEsnmYy. dUceTAnwg GatUmEdr m:UelKulKWmanbnÞúkGKÁIsnINWt. m:UelKulGIuRdUEsn EdlsresrrUbmnþCa H2 RtUv)aneK[eQ μaHfam:UelKulDIGatUm BIeRBaHvamanEtGatUmBIr. Fatud¾éTeTotEdlCaFm μtamanGtßiPaBCam:UelKulDIGatUmenaHKW N2
nig O2 k¾dUcCaFatuenARkumTI 7 A dUcCa F2, Cl2, Br2 nig I2. CakarBitm:UelKulDIGatUm Gac
manGatUménFatuBIrxusKña]TahrN_dUcCa HCl nigCO.
1-15
m:UelKulPaKeRcInmanGatUmeRcInCagBIr.vaGacCaGatUménFatudUcKña dUcCaGUsUn ( O3)
CaedIm EdlbgáeLIgBIGatUmGuksIuEsncMnYnbI b¤GacCabnSMénFatuxusKñaBIrb¤eRcIn. m:UelKulEdlman GatUmeRcInCagBIrRtUv)aneKehAeQ μaHm:UelKulb:UlIGatUm dUcCaGUsUn Twk nigGam:Uj:ak; KWCa m:UelKulb:UlIGatUm. 5>2m:UelKulKMrU
m:UelKulKWtUcNas;sMrab;eyIgsegátedaypÞal;. meFüa)aymYyd¾ man RbsiT§PaB dIm,I emIlvaedayEPñkTeTrenaH KWeRbIm:UelKulKMrU . RbePTsþg;da BIrénm:UelKul
KMrUEdlkMBugEt eRbIR)as;sBVéf¶enH KWKe
MrURKab;)al; cgáw³ rWrUbmnþeRKag (ball- and- stick)
ce- filling)¬rUb9¦. nigKMrUbMeBjkEnøg (spa
rUb9 KMrUGatUm)al;- cgáwH rW rUbmnþeRKag (ball-and-stick) nigKMrUGatUmbMeBjkEnøg(space-
filling)énm:UelKulsamBaØxøH
enAkñúgrUbmnþeRKag (ball-and-stick) GatUmKWRtUv)aneKeFVIBIeQI b¤RKab;)al;C½r Edlman rn§enAkñúgenaH. eQI rWus½rRtUv)an eKeRbItMNag[sMB½n§KImI. mMuEdleKbegáIteLIgrvagGatUm n RbePTénGatUmnImYy² KWtMNagigGatUmmanmMusMB½n§Rbhak;RbEhlKñakñúgm:UelKulBitEdr. RKab;)al;KWmanTMhMdUcKñaehIy
[edayBN’BiessmYy.
1-16
enAkñúgGatUmKMrUbMeBjkEnøg (space-filling) KWeKtageday)al; EdltP¢ab;Kñaeday Rbdab;cgf<k; dUecñHsMB½n§KWminGacemIleXIj)aneT. RKab;)al;KWmansmaRtTMhMrbs;va cMeBaH GatUm.
rUbmnþeRKag (ball-and-stick) bgðajy:agc,as;BIkarerobcMGatUmTMrg;vimaRtbI ehIyva gayRs
KMrUbMeBjcenøaHKWCak;lak;Cag BIeRBaHvabgðajBIbMErbMrYlrbs;TMhMGatUm. eRKOg bnøas;rb
ikmμKImI¦ b:uEnþeGLicRtugEdlmanbnÞúkGviC¢manGac)at; b¤cMeNj. k ;b
G
UlbegáItNas;. mü:agvijeTotRKab;)al; KWbgðajBIPaBminsmamaRtcMeBaHTMhM énGatUm. dUecñHKMrUGatUmEdleFVIBIeQI KWbMepIøscenøaHrvagGatUm nigGatUmenAkñúgm:UelKul y:agFM.
s;va KWfavasIueBlNas;kñúgkardak;vaP¢ab;Kña ehIyvamin)anbgðajBITItaMgvimaDbIrbs; GatUm)anc,as;las;eT. kñúgbribTenHeyIgnwgeRbIPaKeRcInnUvrUbmnþeRKag (ball-and-stick). 5>3 GIuy:ug
GIuy:ug KWCaRbePTmanbnÞúkmYyEdleKbegáItvaeLIgBIGatUm b¤m:UelKulNWtmYyenAeBl EdleGLicRtug)ancMeNj b¤)at;bg;edaysarEtmanbMErbMrYlKImI. cMnYnRbUtugEdlmanbnÞúk viC¢manenAkñúgéNVy:UénGatUmmYyenAEtrkSatMéldEdlkñúgeBlEdlmanbMErbMrYlKImI ¬eK[eQ μaH faRbt
ar)at g;eGLicRtugmYy b¤eRcInBIGatUmNWt eGaylT§plCa kacug mYy Iuy:ugmYyEdlmanbnÞúkviC¢man. ]TahrN_dUcCa GatUm Na Gac)at;eGLicRtugmYy
y:agrh½sedIm,IkøayeTACakacug sUdüÚm EdleKsresrtageday Na+. GatUm Na GIuy:ug Na+
11 RbUtug 11 RbUtug 11 eGLicRtug 10 eGLicRtug
mü:agvijeTotGaj:úg s;va KWGviC¢manedaysarEtcMnYn eGLicRtugekIneLIgmYy. ] tugmYyedIm,IkøayeTACaGIuy:ugkør ( Cl-) .
GatUm Cl GIuy:ug Cl-
KWCaGIuy:ugmYyEdlbnÞúksrubrbTahrN_GatUmkørcMeNjeGLicR
17 RbUtug 17 RbUtug 17 eGLicRtug 18 eGLicRtug
1-17
GMbilsMl (NaCl)KWRtUv)aneKehAeQμaHfa Casma sFatuGIuy:ug BIeRBaHvabegáIteLIgBI kacug nigGaj:úg.
GatUmmYyGac)an b¤cMeNjeGLicRtugmYy b¤eRcIn ]TahrN_GIuy:ugEdlbegáIteLIg edaykar)at; b¤cMeNjeGL g2+, Fe3+ ,S2- nig N-3. GIuy:ugT
bgðajBIbnÞúkrbs;GIuy:ugm:UNUGatUmmYycMnYn edaymankrNI elIkElgBIr b¤bI ela
.
GñkKImIeRbI rUbmnþKImI edIm,IbBa¢ak;BIbnSMrWsmasPaKénm:UelKul nigsmasFatuGIuy:ug nimitþsBaØaKImI. tamkarbnSMenaHeyIgminEmncg;niyayEteTAelIEtFatu Edlmanvtþman
ÑaHeT b:uEnþeyIgEfmTaMgcg;niyayBIpleFobrbs;GatUmTaMgLay EdlcUlpSMpgEdr. enA arykcitþTukdak;eTAelIrUbmnþTaMgBIrRbePT KWrUbmnþm:UelKul nigrUbmnþ
y.
icRtugEdleRcInCagmYyenaHKW GIuy:ug M
aMgenHk¾dUcCaGIuy:ug Na+ nigCl- EdrKWeK[eQ μaHfa GIuy:ugm:UNUGatUm BIeRBaHvamanEt GatUmmYy. rUb10
h³manTMenarbegáItCakacug cMENkÉGelah³manTMenarbegáItCaGaj:úg. CagenHeTAeTotGatUmBI b¤eRcInGacpSMKñaedIm,IbegáItCaGIuy:ugmYy EdlmanbnÞúksrub
viC¢man b¤GviC¢man. GIuy:ugb:UlIGatUm dUcCaGIuy:ug OH- , CN-,nigGIuy:ug NH +4 KWCaGIuy:ug
EdlmanGatUmeRcInCagmYy.
rUb9 GuIy:ugm:UNUGatUmsmBaزEdl)anerobcMGaRs½yeTAtamTItaMgrbs;vaenAkñúgtaragxYb. cUrkt;sMKal; fa GIuy:ug)artmanGatUm2 ¬ Hg ¦+2
2
6 rUbmnþKImI Cab:ueNTIenHeyIgkMBugEtmankga
1-18
6>1 rUbmnþm:UelKul rUbmnþm:UelKulmYy bgðajnUvcMnYnBitR)akdénGatUmrbs;FatunImYy² enAkñúgxñatd¾tUc bMputrbs;sarFatumYy. enAkñúgkarBiPaKSaBIm:UelKulTaMgGs;rbs;eyIg ]TahrN_nImYy²
v)aneK[mkCamYyKñanwgrUbmnþm:UelKul EdleKdak;enAkñúgvg;Rkck. dUecñH H2
uGIuRdUEsn O2 KWCarUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;GuksIuEsn O3 KWCarUbmnþ
K
IuRdUEsnBIr nigGatUmGuksIuEsnBIr. UEsn nigGuksIuEsnenAkñúgm:UelKulenaHKW 2:2 b¤ 1:1.
T
RtUKWCarUbmnþm:UelKul sMrab;Fatm:UelKulrbs;GUsUn ehIy H2O KWCarUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;Twk. snÞsSn_EdlsresrCaelx
WbBa¢ak;BIcMnYnGatUm Edl taMgenAkñúgFatumYyenaH. cMeBaH O K μansnÞsSn_CaelxeTenAkñúgTwk BIeRBaHmanEtGatUm GuksIuEsnmYyKt;EdlmanvtþmanenAkñúgm:UelKulTwk dUecñHelxmYyrbs;va RtUv)aneKlubecal BIrUbmnþm:UelKul. cUrcaMfaGuksIuEsn O2 nigGUsUn O3 KWCaeRKagénFatu EdlmanTMrg;eRcInrbs;GuksIuEsn. vismrUb (allotrpe) KWTMrg;Ebøk²KñamYyrWeRcInrbs;Fatu mYy. TMrg;eRKagénFatuBIrrbs;kabUnKWeBRC nigRkahVIt ehIymanPaBxusKñay:agxøaMg minRtwm EtlkçN³KImIrbs;vab:ueNÑaHeTEfmTaMgtMéleTotpg. 6>2 rUbmnþgay rUbmnþm:UelKulénGIuRdUEsnEBrGuksIut EdlCasarFatumYyeKeRbICaFatuRbqaMgCMgWkøay nigCaPñak;garbnSr sMrab;kartM)aj nigeFVIsk;enaHmanrUbmnþH2O2. rUbmnþenHbBa¢ak;fa m:UelKul GIuRdUEsnEBrGuksIutnImYy²manpÞúkGatUmGpleFobén GatUmGIuRdrUbmnþgayénGIuRdUEsn EBrGuksIutKW HO. dUecñH rUbmnþgay R)ab;eyIgfa etImanFatu NaxøH EdlmanvtþmanenAkñúg rUbmnþm:UelKulenaH nig BIpleFobMnYnGatUmsrubEdlgaybMput b:uEnþvamincaM)ac;cMeBaHcMnYn BitR)akd énGatUm enA kñúgm:UelKulenaHeT.]TahN_mYy epSgeTotKWeyIgBicarNaeTAelIsmasFatuGIuRdasIun (N2H4) EdlRtUv)aneKeRbI CasarFatueqH r:UEkt. rUbmnþgay énGIuRdasIunKW NH2 . ebIeTaHbICa pl eFobénGasUt nig GIuRdUEsnKW 1:2
aMgenAkñúgrUbmnþm:UelKul N2H4 TaMgenA kñúgrUbmnþgay NH2 manEtrUbmnþ m:UelKuleTEdlR)ab;eyIgGMBIcMnYnBitR)akdénGatUm N EdlmanBIr nig GatUm H EdlmanbYn EdlmanvtþmanenAkñúgm:UelKUlGIuRdasIun.
rUbmnþgay KWCarUbmnþKImIEdlsamBaØbMputeKEtgEtsresrvaedaybnßy snÞsSn_enA kñúgrUbmnþm:UelKuleTACarUbmnþEdlmancMnYnsrubtUcbMput. rUbmnþm:UelKUl KWCarUbmnþBitR)akd
1-19
rbs;m:UelKul . eyIgnwg)aneXIjenA CMBUkTIbIenAeBlEdlGñkKImI viPaKsmasFatu EdleKmin sÁal;mYy ehIyCanic©CakalCMhandMbUg KWkar kMNt;rUbmnþgay rbs;smasFatuenaH. s
Bn_.
mtaNul kør:Upm rUb10
]TahrN_ 1/2 cUrsresrrUbmnþm:UelKulénemtaNulEdlCaFaturMlaysrIragÁ nigCa FatuRbqaMgnwgkMNkBIrUbmnþ eRKag(ball- and- stick)dUckñúgrUb.
rUbmnþ m:UelKulrbs;vaKW CH4O. eTaHbICay:agNak¾edayviFIsþg;damYykñúgkarsresrrUbmnþm:UelKul sMrab;em
lMhat;G
sIR)as;enAkñúgkarpSacnøúH x> C6H12O6 (CasarFatumYyEdl edIrtYCa
s
Mrab;m:UelKulCaeRcIn rUbmnþm:UelKul nigrUbmnþgayKWCarUbmnþEtmYy ehIydUcKña. ]TahrN_ dUcCa H2O, NH3, CO2 nigCH4 CaedIm.
]TahrN_BIrxageRkamenHKWvaTak;TgeTAniwgkarsresrrUbmnþm:UelKulBIKMrUm:UelKul nig karsresrrUbmnþgay BIrUbmnþm:UelKul. cMNaM akürUbmnþgay (empirical) mann½yfaCarUbmnþEdldkRsg;tamBiesaFn_. eyIgnwg eXIjvaenACMBYkTI3 rUbmnþgayKW kMNt;edaykarBiesaF
e
kabUn
GIuRdUEsn
GuksIuEsn
kør
cMelIy manGatUmkabUnmYy GatUmGIuRdUEsnbYn nigGatUmGuksIuEsnmYy. dUecñH
taNulKW CH3OH BIeRBaHvabgðajBIrebobénGatUmnImYy² karcgsMB½n§ enAkñúgm:UelKul.
nuvtþn_ sresrrUbmnþm:UelKulénkør:UpmEdlRtUv)aneKeRbICaGgÁFaturMlay nigPñak;garsMGat mYy . rUbmnþ eRKagrbs;kør:UpmKWdUcmanbgðajkñúgrUb.
]TahrN_ 1/3 resrrUbmnþgaysMrab;m:UelKuldUcxageRkam k> C2H2
(EdlRtÚv)aneKeRbárenAkñúgQam)
K> N2O. ( ]sμ ½nsMeNIc )
1-20
cMelIy k enAkñúgGaesTIELnmanGatUmkabUnBIr nigGatUmGIuRdUEsnBIr. edayEck snÞsSn_ nigBIreyIg TTYl)an rUbmnþgayKW CH.
>
x> enAkñúgkøúykUsmanGatUmkabUncMnYn6 GatUmGIuRdUEsncMnYn 12 nigGatUm ksnÞsSn_ nwg 6 eyIgTTYl)an rUbmnþgayKW CH2O. cUrkt;sMKal;
RbsinebIe:UelKul C2H4O2 KWdUcKñaenAkñúgm:UelKul
U Na Cl ehIyRtUv)aneK
FatudUcenHKWmanpleFob kacugnig Gaj:uúgKW 1:1
dUecñH s
enAelI kacug . RbsinebIbnÞúkmancMnYnesμIKñadUecñHkarsresrsnÞsSn_mincaM)ac;eT. k,ÜnxageRkamenH
GuksIuEsncMnYn6. edayEcyIgEck snÞsSn_nwg3 eyIgnwgTTYl)anrUbmnþgayKW C2H4O2 ebIeTaHbICapleFob
énGatUmkabUn GIuRdUEsn nigGuksIuEsnenAkñúgmC6H12O6 (1:2:1), C2H4O2 KWminEmnCarUbmnþgayCageKbg¥s;eTBIeRBaHsnÞsSn_rbs;va KWminEmnsßitenA kñúgpleFobcMnYnsrubtUcCageKbg¥s;eT. K> edaysarsnÞsSn_enAkñúgm:UelKul N2O KWmancMnYnpleFobsrubtUc bMputrYceTA ehIy dUecñHrUb mnþgay ebs; N2O KWdUcKñanwgrUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;va.
lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ cUrsesrrUbmnþgaycMeBaHkaehVGIun (C8H10N4O2)CafñaMmYy EdleK)anrk eXIjenAkñúgEt nigkaehV.
rUbmnþrbs;smasFatuGIuy:ug Canic©CakalKWdUcKñanwgrUbmnþgayrbs;vaEdr eRBaHsmas FatuGIuy:ug pÞúknrbs;vaminman vÉktam:UelKulNalak;)aMgenaHeT. ]TahrN_PaKsMNakrwgmYy rbs;sUdüÚmkørY (NaCl)manpÞúknUvcMnYnes μ IKñaénGIuy:ug + nigGIuy:ugkør -
imaRtbI. enAkñúgsmastMerobCasMNaj;vmasFatuenaHKWmanbnÞúkGKÁisnINWt. dUcGñkGaceXIjvaenAkñúgrUb11 faK μanGIuy:ug Na+
enAkñúg NaClNamYyRtUv)anpSMCamYyGIuy:ug Cl- EtmYyenaHeT. karBitGIuy:ug Na+ nImYy² KWcges μ I²Kña eday GIuy:ugkør Cl- cMnYn 6 enACMuvij b¤Rcasmkvij (Vice Versa). dUecñH NaCl
KWCarUbmnþgaysMrab;sUdüÚmkørY. enAkñúgsmasFatuGIuy:ugepSg²eTotTMrg;BitR)akdrbs;vaGac xusKña b:uEnþkartMerobkacug nigGaj:úg KWfasmasFatuTaMgenaHmanbnÞúkGKÁisnINWt. cUrcMNaMfa bnÞúkenAelIkacug nigGaj:úgKWminRtUv)aneKbgðajenAkñúgrUbmnþsMrab;smasFatuGIuy:ugeT. edIm,I[smasFatuGIuy:ugmanbnÞúkGKÁIsnINWt luHRtaEtplbUkbnÞúkTaMgGs;enAkñúg kacug nigGaj:úgesμIsUnü ebIsinCabnÞúkenAelIkacug nigGaj:úgmanbnÞúkxusKña eyIgRtUveFVItam k,ÜndUcxageRkamedIm,IeFVI[bnÞúkrbs;vamanbnÞúkGKÁisnINWt ³ snÞsSn_rbs;kacugKWmancMnYn esμ IKñaeTAnwgbnÞúkenAelIGaj:úg ehIysnÞsSn_rbs;Gaj:úg KWmancMnYnesμIKñaeTAnwgbnÞúk
1-21
KW eKGaceRbI)anebI kalNarUbmnþrbs;smasFatuGIuy:ugKWCarUbmnþgay dUecñHsnÞsSn_eKRtUvEt bnßyva[mkenAkñúgtMélEdlmanpleFobtUcbMput.cUreyIgBicarNaeTAelI]TahrN_mYy cMnYn dUcxageRkam ÷
- b:UtasüÚmRbUmY (KBr) kacugb:UtasüÚm K C
y nigGIuy:ug I- mYy KW 2+(-1)=+1 edIm,I[bnÞúkes μ IsUnü eyIgRtUvEtKuNbnÞúk-
nGaj
kacugKW Al3+ ehIyGaj:úgGuksIuEsnKW O2- KMnYstagxageRkam enHGac
+ nigGajú:gRbUmY Br- pSMKñaedIm,IbegáIt asmasFatuGIuy:ug KBr. plbUkbnÞúkKW +1+(-1) = 0 dUecñHkarsresrsnÞsSn_ KWmincaM)ac;eT
dUcenHrUbmnþ rbs;vaKW KBr . - ZnI2 kacug Zn2+ nigGajú:g I- pSMKñaedIm,IbegáIt ZnI2 (sgá½sIRbÚmY). plbUkbnÞúk
énGIuy:ug Zn2+ mY1é :úgnwg2 ehIybEnßm snÞsSn_ 2 cMeBaHnimitþsBaØa sMrab;GuIy:Ut dUecñHrUbmnþsMrab; sgá½sIGIuy:UDY KW ZnI2. - GaluymIj:ÚmGuksIut
CYy[ eyIg[kMNt;BIsnÞsSn_sMrab;smasFatuEdlbegáIteLIgedaykacug nigGaj:úg. plbUkénbnÞúkTaMgGs;KW 2(+3)+3(-2)=0 dUecñHrUbmnþGaluymIj:ÚmGuksIutKW Al2O3.
rUb11 a) TMrg;énGgÁFaturwg NaCl b) karBitkacugKWmanTMnak;TMngCamYyGaj:úg. TaMg a) nig b) KWCaEsVrtUc CagEdlmanvtþmanenAkñúgGIuy:ug Na+ nigCaEsVrFMCagEdlmanvtþmanGIuy:ug Cl-
1-22
7 karehAeQμaHsmasFatu enAeBlEdlKImIviTüa KWCaviTüasaRsþEdleTIbEtnwgekIteLIg ehIycMnYnsmasFatu
EdlRtUv)aneKsÁal;mancMnYntictYc b:ueNÑaH dUecñHvamankargayRsYl eTkñúgkarcgcaMva. eQ μaH mYycMnYn KW RtUv)aneKdkRsg;ecjBIlkçN³rUb rW edImkMeNItrbs;va . ]TahrN_dUcCa TwkedaHeKamaejsüÚm ]sμ ½nsMeNIc fμkMe)ar nig esda lagrbYsCaedIm. sBVéf¶enHcMnYnsmasFatuEdlRtUv)aneKsÁal;c,as;mancMnYnCag 13 lansmasFatu. b:uEnþCa sMNagl¥Edr EdlvamincaM)ac;kñúgkarcaMeQ μaHrbs;vaenaHeT. CaeRcInqñaMmkehIy
r³RbeyaCn_mYy edIm,IbiTpøakeTAelIsarFatu Yy².
eQ μaHFatu nigsmasFatuKImI CadMbUgeyIgRtUvEjk[ dac;rvag
O2) kabUnDIs‘ulPIt
S2)
naH eyIgGacEcksmasFatuGsrIragÁCabYnfñak;KW smasFatuGIuy:ug smasFatu
EdlGñkKImI )anEckRbBn½§y:agc,as;mYyedIm,IehAeQμaHsarFatuKImI. ehIyc,ab;enaH RtUv)an eKTTYlsÁal;CaTUeTA ehIyRtUv)aneKeRbIR)as;edIm,IsMrYlkñúgkarTMnak;TMngKñakñúgcMeNamGñkKImI
Gs; ehIyva)anpþl;nUvmeFüa)ayd¾mansaTaMgnIm Cakic©cab;epþImBiPakSaBIkarehA
smasFatusrIragÁ nigGsrIragÁ. smasFatusrIragÁCaTUeTACasmasFatuEdlmanFatu kabUnpSMCamYyFatud¾éT²eTotdUc CaGuIiRdUEsn/GasUt/GuksIuEsn nigs<an;F½rCaedIm. eRkABIenHsmasFatudéTeTot RtÚv)aneKcat;fñak;Ca smasFatuGsrIragÁ. b:uEnþsmasFatuxøH EdlmanpÞúkCatikabUn dUcCakabUnm:UNUGuksIut (CO) kabUnDIGuksIut (C
(C smasFatuEdlman bgÁúMsüaNU (CN-)/ bgÁúMkabUNat CO −23 nwgbgÁúMkabUNatgGasuIt
(HCO −3 )KWRtUv)aneKcat;TukfaCasmasFatuGsrIragÁ. eTaHbICakarehAeQ μaHsmasFatu
srIragÁ nigminRtUv)aneKBiPakSarhUtdl;CMBUkTI 24 k¾edayk¾eyIgnwgeRbI smasFatusrIragÁxøH edIm,IbBa¢ak;BIeKalkarN_KImItamry³esovePA enHEdr. edIm,IerobcM nigeFVI[manPaBgayRsYlcMeBaHkarpSgeRBgrbs;eyIgkñúgkarehAeQ μaH smasFatuem:UelKul GasIut)as nig smasFatuGuIRdat. 7>1 smasFatuGIuy:ug enAkñúgEpñkTI2>5 eyIg)aneronrYcmkehIyfa smasFatuGIuy:ug KWbegáIteLIgedaykacug ¬GIuy:ugviC¢man¦ nigGaj:úg ¬GIuy:ugGviC¢man¦. edaysarmankarelIkElgd¾sMxan;mYyénGIuy:ug Gam:Uj:Úm NH4
+ kacugTaMgGs; EdlcMNab;GarmμN_rbs;eyIg KWdkRsg;ecjBIGatUmelah³.
1-23
kacugelah³ykeQ μaH rbs;vaecjBIFatu. ]TahrN_ Fatu eQμaHkacug Na sUdüÚm Na+ GIuy:ugsUdüÚm¬b¤kacugsUdüÚm¦ K b:UtasüÚm K+ GIuy:ugb:UtasüÚm¬b¤kacugb:UtasüÚm¦
g m:ae
KWCasmasFatueTVFatu b¤CasmasFatuEdlbegáIteLIgBIFatu tBIrb
2 GaRs½y eTAelITItaMgrbs;vaenAkñúg
itR)akdmYy Edl H nig KCN
asFatu dlRt eK[e μaHfa Gkçr
ménk cug nigGaj:úgmYycMnYn. _
d
3+ GIuy:ugEhVric
min)anpþl;eGaynUvBt’manEdleKarBeTAtambnÞúkBitR)akdrbs;kacugenaHeT. dUecñH GIuy:ug
M j:süÚm Mg2+ GIuy:ugm:aej:süÚm¬b¤kacugm:aej:süÚm¦ Al GaluymIj:Úm Al3+ GIuy:ugGaluymIj:Úm¬b¤kacugGaluymIj:Úm¦ smasFatuGIuy:ugCaeRcInE :ueNÑaH. smasFatubnSM FatudMbUgKWRtUv)aneK[eQ μaHfaCakacugelah³pSMCamYyGaj:úg Gelah³. dUecñH NaCl KWCa sUdüÚmkørY. eKdak;eQ μaH Gaj:úg enaHedayykEpñkdMbUgéneQ μaH rbs;FatukørehIybEnßmeday GYr . KBr, ZnI2 nigAl2O3 k¾CasmasFatubnSMpgEdr. taragbgðajBInamvløIGYrénGaj:úgm:UNUGatUmsamBaزmYycMnYntaragxYb. karbBa©b;edaymCÇwmbT GYr k¾RtUv)aneKeRbIpgEdrsMrab;bgÁMúGaj:úgBmanFatuxusKñadUcCa bgÁúM (OH-) nigGIuy:ugsüaNU (CN-). dUecñHsmasFatu LiO
KWRtUv)aneK[eQ μaHfalIcUmGIuRduksIut nigb:UtasüÚmsüaNU. smasFatuTaMgenH nigsmGIuy:ugdéTxøHeTotE Uv Q smasFatuRtIFatu. tarag3manrayeQμaHeTA tamRk a elah³BitCaBiesselah³qøg GacbegáIteLIgBIRbePTkacugeRcInCagmYy. ]TahrNUcCaEdk EdkGacbegáItkacug)anBIrKWkacug Fe2+ nigkacug Fe3+. enAkñúgkarehAeQ μaHtam
RbB½næcas;Edl)ankMnt;eGayeyIgehAeQ μaH énkacug EdlmanbnÞúkviC©man ticCagBIr rW bI fa GW “- ous” ehIy kacug man bnÞúkviC©man eRcInCag fa Gic “- ic” :
Fe2+ GIuy:ugEhVrW (ferrous ion)
Fe (ferric ion)
eQ μaHénsmasFatu Edl GIuy:ugEdkenHbegáItCamYyGIuy:ugkørGacCa FeCl2, FeCl3. viFIsaRsþénkarehAeQ μaHGIuy:ug enHmankarkMnt; xus²KñamYycMnYn. CadMbUgmCÄimbT GW nig Gic
1-24
EhVric (ferric ion) KW Fe3+ elIkElgEtkacugTg;Edg (Cu2+) ehAfa KURpric (Cupric) . minEt b:ueNÑaHkareRCIserIsCamunénkarehAmCÄimbT GW nig Gic )anpþl;nUvkareQμaHEtcMeBaHFatu
Ir .l.
WsmasFatum:g;kaENs II GuksIut MnO m:g;kaENs III GuksIut nigm:g;kaENs IVetRtaGuksIut. edayeRbIRbB½n§ Stock eyIgkt; sMKal;eXIjfa GIuy:ug Fe Fe . dUecñHGIuy:ug Fe2+ kalNamanRbtikmμCamYyGIuy:ug
Cl- vak
EdlmankacugxusKñaBIrb:ueNÑaH. FatuénelahHxøHGacsn μtfa manbnÞúkviC©manbI rW eRcInCag enHenAkñúgsmasFatumYy. dUecñHvakøayCamanPaBgayRsYledIm,IkMnt;BIrebob énkarehA eQ μaHkacugxus²KñaCamYynwgelx r:UmuaMg EdleKehAfa RbB½næ Stock . enAkñúgRbB½næenH elx r:UmuaMg I esμ InwgbnÞúkviC©mancMnYnmYy ehay II esμ InwgbnÞúkviC©mancMnYnB xageRkamenH KWCaeQ μaHrbs;smasFatuK
2+ nigGIuy:ug 3+
øayCaEdk II kørY ehIyGIuy:ug Fe3+ kalNamanRbtikmμCamYyGIuy:ug Cl- vakøayCaEdk
III kørY. enAkñúgkarrkSakarGnuvtþn¾TMenIb eyIgnwgeBjcitþkarehAeQμaHsmasFatutamRbB½n§ Stock CageK. ]TahrN_xageRkamenHbgðajBIrebobehAeQ μaHénsmasFatuGIuy:ug nigsresrrUbmnþ m:UelKulénsmaFatuGuIy:ugedayEp¥keTAelIBt’man Edlpþl;[enAkñúgrUb 11 nigenAkñúgtarag 2 nig 3. tarag2 namvløIGYrénGaj:úgm:UNaGatUmsmBaØxøH edayEp¥keTAelITItaMgrbs;vaenAkñúgtaragxYb
Rkum 4A Rkum 5A Rkum 6A Rkum 7A
C kabYr * (C4-) N NIRtY (N3-) O GuksIut (O2-) FPøúySi sIulIsYr(Si4-) P pUsVÜrY (P3-) S s‘ulPIt (S2-)
Se eslINY (Se2-)
Te étlYrY (Te2-)
Cl kørY (Cl
GrY (F-) -)
Br RbUmYr (Br -)
I GIuy:UDY (I-)
* Bakü kabY KW RtÚv)aneRbI cMeBaHGaj:úg 2
2−C pg.
1-25
tarag3 eQ μaH nigm:Uel ug nigGaj:úgG msFatusam
Kulénkac srIragÁéns BaØxøH kacug Gaj:úg GaluymIj:Úm (Al3+)
Gam:Uj:Úm (NH
)arüÚm (Ba2+)
kat;mJÚ:m (Cd2+)
ssüÚm (Cs+)
kUm:at IIIb¤RkUmic (Cr3+)
kU)al;II (Co2+)
Tg;Edg I (Cu+)
)
2+)
(Mn2+)
+)
(Sn2+)
(Zn )
RbkkøkørY (Cl-)
(CrO )
süaNY (CN-)
DIRkUm:at (Cr2O
DIGIuRdUEsnpUsVat (H2PO )
PøúyGrY (F-)
)
(HPO )
‘ulpatb¤b‘Ís‘ulpat (HSO )
-)
(I )
)
)
O )
n )
(O )
(SCN-)
Um:Y (Br-)
abUNat(CO −23 )
r:at (ClO −3 )
+4 )
kal;süÚm (Ca2+) RkUm:at −24
−27 )
−4
eR
Tg;Edg II (Cu2+)
GIuRdUEsn +
GIuRdY (H-)
atb¤b‘ÍkabUNat (HCOGIuRdUEsnkabUNGIuRdUEsnpUsVat
−3
−24
GuIRdUEsnsGIuRduksIut (OH
−4
GIuy:UdY -
nIRtat (NO
nIRtY (N3-
−3
nIRtIt ( −N 2
GuksIut ( 2-O )
EBrm:g;kaNat (M O −4
EBru:ksIut −22
pUsVat (PO 4 )
s‘ulpat −2 )
−3
(SO 4
s‘ulpY (S2-)
s‘ulPIt (SO −2 ) 3
süÚsüaNat
(H )
Edk II (Fe2+)
Edk III (Fe3+)
sMNr II (Pb2+)
lIcUm (Li+
m:aej:süÚm (Mg
m:g;kaENs II
)art I (Hg +2 ) 2
)art II (Hg2+)
b:UtasüÚm (KR)ak; (Ag+)
sUdüÚm ( a+) N
Rság;cUm (Sr2+)
sMN):ahaMgsgá½sI 2+
1-26
] eQ μaHsmasFatuGIuy:ugdUcxageRkam³ k> Cu(NO3)2 x> KH2PO4
nigk> edaysarGIuy:ugnIRtat (N viC¢manmYy ¬emIltaragTI 2>3¦
ehIyGIuy:ugTg;EdgRtUv EtmanbnÞúkviC¢manBIr dUecñHsmasFatuvaKWTg;Edg II nIRtat. x> kacugenaHKW K+ ehIyGaj UE npUsVat¦ edaysarEt b:UtasüÚmbegáItEtGIuy:ugmYy RbePT (K+) dUecñH Q b:UtasüÚm (I) eT. smasFatu en fab:UtasüÚmDIGIuRdUEsnpUsVat. K> kacugenaHKW NH ¬GIuy:ugGam:Uj:Úm¦ nigGaj:úg ClO dUecñHsmasFatu enaHKWGam:Uj:Úmkør:at. lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ cUr[eqμaHsmasFatuxageRkam x> Li2SO3
]TahrN_ 1/5 sresrrUbmnþm:UelKulsMrab;smasFatudUcxageRkam³ k> )art I nIRTIt x>
arag2>3
a
a
3(+2) + 2(-3) = 0
esrrUbmnþm:UelKulsMrab;smasFatuGIuy:ug ÷
7a m:UelKulmanxñatm:UelKuldac;²BIKña EdlCanic©
k 2>μaHsmasFatueTVPaK KWdUcKñaeTAnwgkarehAeQ μaH
F
TahrN_ 1/4 cUr[K> NH4ClO3.
cMelIy O −3 ) manbnÞúkG
:úgKW H2PO −4 ¬DIGIuRd s
mincaM)c;eRbIe μaHaHKWeK[eQμaH
+4
−3
enH³ k> PbO
essüÚms‘ulpY Cs2S K> kal;süÚm pUsVat. cMelIy k> GIuy:ug)art I KWGIuy:ugDIGatUm Hg +2 ¬cUremIlt ¦ehIyGIuy:ugnIRTIt KWNO − dUecñHrUbmnþ rbs;vaKW
2
2 Hg2(NO2)2. x> GIuy:ugs‘ulpYnImYy²manbnÞúkGviC¢manBIr ehIyGIuy:ugessüÚmnImYy² m n bnÞúkviC¢manmYy¬es süÚmKWenAkñúgRkum dUcsUdüÚmEdr¦. dUecñHrUbmnþrbs;vaKW 1A Cs2S. K> GIuy:ugkal;süÚmnImYy²m nbnÞúkviC¢manBIr ehIyGIuy:ugpUsVatnImYy² (PO −3
4 )man bnÞúkGviC¢mancMnYnbI.edIm,IeFVI[plbUkbnÞúksrubesμ IsUnüeyIgRtUvEttMrUvcMnYnkacug nigGaj:úg ÷
dUecñH rUbmnþrbs;va KW Ca3(PO4)2
lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ ³ cUrsrk> ruyb‘Íj:Úms‘ulpat x> )ar:üÚmGIuRdY
>2 smasFatum:UelKul mindUcsmasF tuGIuy:ugeT smasFatu
alRtUv)aneKpSMeLIgBIFatuGelah³ ¬emIlrUb 8¦ . smasFatum:UelKulmYycMnYn KWCasmasFatueTVFatu. karehAeQsmasFatuGIuy:ug eTVPaKEdr. eyIgdak;eQ μaHsmas atudMbUg kñúgrUbmnþenAxagedIm ehIyFatuTIBIrRtUv)aneKdak;eQ μaHedaybEnßm GYr eTAEpñkxagcug énFatuTIBIrenaH.
1-27
]TahrN_ HCl GIuRdUEsnkørY , HBr GIuRdUEsnRbUmY , SiC sIlIsüÚmkabY tarag4 bc©wmbTrbs;RkicEdlRtUv)aneKeRbIkñúgkarehAeQ μaHsmasFatum:UelKul
bc©wmbT karehAeQ μaH 1 m:UNU 2 DI
RTI 3
etRta 4
b:g;ta 5
Guicsa 6
Guibta 7
Gukta 8
NUNa 9
edka 10
vaKWCakarsamBaØbMputsMrab;KUrénFatumYy kñúgkarbegáItsmasFatuxus²KñamYycMnYn.
kñúgkrNIenHkarP½nþRclMkñúgkarehAeQμaHsmasFatu KWRtUv)aneKeCosvagkareRbIR)as;bc©wmbT rbs;Rkic edIm,IsMKal;BIcMnYnGatUménFatunImYy² Edlmanvtþman ¬cUremIltarag2>4¦. BicarNaeTAelIrUbmnþdUcxageRkamenH³
kabUnm:UNUGuksIut kabUnDIGuksIut s<an;F½rDIGuksIut S s<an;F½rRTIGuksIut GasUtDIGuksIut DIGasUtetRtaGuksIut karENnaMxageRkamenH RtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,ICYykñugkarehAeQμaHsmasFatuCamYynwg
bc©wmbTrbs;va³
CO
CO 2
SO 2
O 3
NO 2
N O 2 4
1-28
- bc©wmbT m:UNU GacRtUv)aneKlubecalcMeBaHFatudMbUg. ]TahrN_ PCl3 KWRtUv)an eKehAeQ μaHfapUsVrRTWkørY minEmnehApUsVrm:UNURTIkørYeT. dUecñHkarK μanbc©wmbTsMrab;Fatu Edl enAxagmuxenHCaTUeTA KWmann½yfa manEtGatUmmYyeTcMeBaHFatuxagmuxEdlmanenAkñúgm:Uel KulenaH
a a eBlxøHeKRtUvlubecal. ]TahrN_ N2O4
GacRtUv gkarehAeQ μaHfa DIGasUtetRtaGuksIut. R ic KWsmasFatum:UelKulEdlmanGIuRdUEsn.
BImun s Mn μaHeTA tamk,Ün
_ B2H6 DIb‘r:an
PH3 pUsVIn
eKsresrmun cMENkÉ smas FatudéT²eTotKWRtUv)aneKsresrenAxageRkay. karsresrrUbmnþcMeBaHsmasFatum:UelKulCanic©Cakal KWeKsresrRtg;eTAmux . dUecñH enAkñúgsmasFatuGaesnicRTIPøúyGrY mann½yfa manGatUmGaesnikmYy (As) nigmanGatUm F
cMnYnbIen m:UelKulrbs;vanImYy²KW AsF3. cUrkt;sMKal;fa lMdab;énFatuenAkñúgrUbmnþm:UelKulenaHKWdUcKñaenAkñúg eQ μaHrbs;va. ]TahrN_ 1/6 cUrehAeQ dUcxageRkam³ k> SiCl4 x> P4O10. cMelIy
. - cMeBaHGuksIut karbB ©b;edaybc©wmbT G)aneKehAeQ μaHfa DIGasUtetRtuksIut CaCakarelIkElgcMeBaHkare bIR)as;bc©wmbTRkmasFatuTaMgenHmYyc Yn RtUv)aneKehAeQ μaHy:agsamBaØbMput KWminehAeQ
b¤k¾ehAeQ μaHeTAtamcMnYnGIuRdUEsnEdlmanvtþmaneT. ]TahrN CH4 emtan SiH4 sIuLan NH3 Gam:Uj:ak;
H2O Twk H2S GIuRdUEsns‘ulpYr cUrkt;sMKal;falMdab;énkarsresrFatuenAkñúgrUbmnþm:UelKulsMrab;smasFatuGIuRdUEsn
KWmineTotTat;eT. enAkñúgsUluysüúgGIuRdUEsns‘ulpY nimitþsBaØa H RtUv)an
Akñúgm:UelKulrbs;vanImYy² ehIy
μaHsmasFatum:UelKul k> edaysarmanGatUmkørcMnYn 4dUecñHsmasFatuenaHKWsIlIkUnetRtakørY.
1-29
BIeQμaHedka.
BIrdUecñHrUbmnþKW CS2. x> manGatUmsIulIkUnBIr nigGatUmRbUmYcMnYn6 dUecñHrUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;vaKW Si2Br6.
k> s
7 +
:úg
e
HCl GuIRdUkøricGasIut masFatumYyKWGaRs½yeTAnwglkçN³rUbrbs;va.kñúgPaBCa
masFatum:UelKulmYyEdleK[eQ μaHfaGIuRdUEsnkørY. enA
sarFatuenaHRtUv)aneKehAeQ μaHfaGIuRdUkøricGasIut.
x> manGatUmpUsVrcMnYn 4 ehIymanvtþmanGatUmGuksIuEsncMnYn10 dUecñHsmasFatu enaHKWetRtapUsVr edkuksIut. cUrcaMfaeKlub Ga ecjlMhat;Gnuvtþn_ cUrehAeQ μaHsmasFatum:UelKuldUcxageRkam k> NF3 nigx> Cl2O7
]TahrN_ 1/7 cUrsresrrUbmnþm:UelKulcMeBaHsmasFatudUcxageRkam k> kabUnDIs‘ulPY x> DIsIulIkUnGiucsa RbUmY. cMelIy k> edaysarmanvtþmanGatUmkabUnmYy nigGatUms<an;F½r lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ sresrrUbmnþKImIcMeBaHsmasFatum:UelKuldUcxageRkam³
<an;F½retRtaPøúyGrY x> DIGasUtb:g; tuksIut. 7>3 GasIut nig)as >3>1 karehAeQμaHGasIut
GasIut RtUv)aneKcat;TukfaCasarFatumYy Edl[CaGIuy:ugGIuRdUEsn (H ) enAeBleK rMlayvaeTAkñúgTwk.
kñúgrUbmnþrbs;GasIutmanGatUmGIuRdUEsnmYyb¤eRcInEdledIrtYCaRkumGaj:úg . GajEdlmaneQ μaHbBa©b;edayGYr ehIy GIuk begáItGasIutedayeRbIbc©wmbT GIuRdU dUcEdl)anbgðaj nAkñúgtarag5.kñúgkrNIxøHeKGacehAeQ μaHsmasFatumYy)anBIry:agdUckñúgkrNIxageRkam ÷
HCl GIuRdUEsnkørY eQ μaHEdleKkMNt;cMeBaHs]sμ ½n b¤GgáFaturav suT§ HCl KWCaseBleKrMlayvaeTAkñúgTwk m:UelKul enaH)anbMEbkeTACaGIuy:ug H+ nigGIuy:ug Cl- enAkñúgPaBenH
GuksUGasIut KWCaGasIutTaMgLayNaEdlmanGIuRdUEsn nigGuksIuEsn nigFatudéT² epSgeTot ¬FatukNþal¦. rUbmnþénGuksUGasIutCanic©CakalRtUv)aneKsresrCamYy H dMbUg ehIyenAxageRkayvamanelah³kNþal nigbnÞab;mkKWelah³ O EdlRtUv)anbBa¢ak;eday ]TahrN_xageRkam ÷
1-30
H2CO3 GasIutkabUnic
¤eRcInEtgEtmanGatUmkNþaldUcKña b:uEnþ
e
GasIutEdlRtUvnwgva
HNO3 GasIutnIRTic H2SO4 GasIuts‘ulpUric HClO3 GasIutkøric
Cajwkjab;kalNaGuksUGasIutmancMnYnBIr bcMnYnGatUmGuksIuEsnxusKña. edaycab;epþImBIGuksUGasIutEdleQ μaHvabBa©b;eday Giuc eyIg RbIk,ÜnvadUcxageRkamedIm,IehAeQ μaHsmasFatuTaMgenH.
tarag5 GasIutsmBaØmYycMnYn Gaj:úg F- PøúyGrY HF GasIutGIuRdUPøúyGric Cl- kørY HCl GasIutGIuRdUkøric
HBr GasIutGIuRdURbUmic HI GasIutGIuRdUGIuy:UDic
Br- RbUmY I- GIuy:UdY CN- süaNU HCN GasIutGIuRdUsüaNic S2- s‘ulpY H2S GasIutGIuRdUs‘ulpUric rUb 12 bgðajkarehAeQ μaH BBYk GuksUGasIut nig GuksU Gaj:úg
GuksUGasIut d ; GuksU Gaj:úg + [O] - [O]
kGIuy:ugGIuRdUEsn (H+)TMagGs
- [O]
GasuItEB//////////////Gic
GasuIt Gic
GasuIt GW
GasuIt GuIbU: ////////////////GW GuIbU: ////////////////GuIt
/////////////////GuIt
///////////////// Gat
EB/////////////////Gat
1-31
-bEnßmGatUmGuksIuEsnmYyeTAelIGasIutEdlmanbc©wmbT Giuc GasIutenaHRtUv)aneK AeQμaHfaGasIut Edlmanbc©wmbT EBr>>>> Giuc. dUecñHkarbEnßmGatUmGuksIuEsn mYyeTA[
asIut tUvbþÚre asIutkøric eTACaGasIutEB- kardkGatUmGuksIuEsnmYyecjBIGasIut Giuc GasIutenaHRtUv)aneKehAeQ μaHfa
asIut bc©wmb W. dUecñHGasIutnIRTic (HNO IutnIRtW (HNO2). cjGasIut Edlmanbc©wmbT Giuc
asIutenaHRtUv)aneK e HBrO3 tUv) O ehIyGasIutenaHRtUv GIub:URbUmW.
j:úg
aeTA Uv)aneKdkecjBIGa sIutpUsVric.
ør.
ehG HClO3 R Q μaHG rkøric HClO4.
3) køayeTACaGasG Edlman T G - kardkGatUmGuksIuEsncMnYnBIreGR
hAeQμaHfa GasIutGIub:U>>>>>>>>>>>>>GW. dUecñHenAeBlEdlGasIut)aneK[eQ μaHfaGasIutanbMElgeTACa GasIut HBr
c,ab;kñúgkarehAeQμaHGuksUGaj:úg Gaj:úgGuksUGasuItKWmandUcxageRkam ÷
- enAeBlEdlGIuy:ug H TaMgGs;RtUv)andkecjBIGasIutEdlmanbc©wmbT Giuc eBlenaH eQ μaHrbs;Gaj:úg enaHbBa©b;eday Gat. ]TahrN_Gaj:úg CO −2
3
RtUv)aneKdkecjBIGasIut H2CO3 KWRtUv)aneKehAeQ μaHfa GIuy:ugkabUNat. - enAeBlEdlGIuy:ug H+ TaMgGs;KWRtUv)aneKdkecjBIGasIutEdlmanbc©wmbT GWu eQ μaH rbs;Gaj:úgenaH RtUvehAvaedaybBa©b;eday GIut enAxagcug. dUecñHGaClO −
2 EdldkecjBI GasIut HClO2 enaHRtUv)aneK[ eQ μaHfaGIuy:ugkørIt. - eQμaHénGaj:úgEdlmanGIuy:ugGIuRdUEsnmYyb¤eRcInb:uEnþminEmnTaMgGs; tUv)aneKdk ecjenaH eyIgRtUvEtbBa¢ak;BIcMnYnGatUmGIuRdUEsnEdlmanvtþman. ]TahrN_ cUrBicarNelIGaj:úgEdlRt
H3PO4 GasIutpUsVric H2PO −
4 DIGIuRdUEsnpUsVat HPO −2
4 GIuRdUEsnpUsVat PO −3
4 pUsVat cUrkt;sMKal;fa Canic©CakaleyIglubecalbc©wmbTm:UNU enAeBlEdlmanEtGatUm H
mYyenAkñúgGaj:úg enaH. rUb 12 segçbBInamvløIsMrab;GuksUGasIut nigGuksUGaj:úg ehIytarag 2>6 KWCatarag Edl[eQ μaHBIGuksUGasIut nigGuksUGaj:úg EdlmanpÞúkFatuk
1-32
tarag6 eQ μaHénGuksUGasIut nigGuksUGaj:úgEdlmanpÞúkFatukør GasIut Gaj:úg HClO4 GasIutEBrkøric C
HClO3 GasIutkøric HClO
HClO
lO EBrkør:at ClO kør:at
ClO kørIt ClO- GIub:UkørIt
−4
−3 −2 2 GasIutkørW
GasIutGIub:UkørW ]Ta r _xageRh N kamenHvaTak;TgeTAnwgnamvløIcMeBaH GuksUGasIut nigGuksUGaj:úg.
]Tah
nHfaCaGasIut pUsVrW.
atUmGuksIuEsn ticCagGasIutedIm KWGasIut (HIO3) ticCagmYy dUecñHGasIutenHeK[eQ μaHfaEBrIy:UDic. dUecñH G 4 KWeK [eQμaHfaGIuy:ug
þn_³ cUrehAeQ μaHGasIutGuksU nigGaj:úgGuksUdUcxageRkamenH ÷
x> HSO
7>3>2 karehAeQ μaH)as TA
N
Ba(OH)2 )ar:üÚmGIuRduksIut
bIemIlva[kan;EtyUreTA vaCa sarFatum nGIuy:ug GIuRduks enAkñúg rb ;va e a)aseLIy. b:uEnþCakarBitenAeBlEdl
rN_ 1/8 cUrehAeQ μaH GuksUGasIut nigGuksUGaj:úg k> H3PO3 x> IO4 -
cMelIy k> eyIgcab;epþImCamYyGasIutedImrbs;eyIgKWGasIutpUsVric (H3PO4). edaysar H3PO3 man GatUmGuksIuEsnEtBIrbIb:ueNÑaH dUecñHeKehAeQ μaHGasIute
x> GasIutparinKWmanrUbmnþ HIO4. edaysarGasIutenHmanG
aj:úgEdldkecjBI HIO EBrIy:Udat. lMhat;Gnuvt k> HBrO −
4
eKGaccat;Tukfa)as KWCasarFatumYyEdl[GIuy:ug OH- enAeBlEdleKrMlayvaekñúgTwk. xageRkam enHKWCa]TahrN¾mYycMnYnrbs;)as ÷
aOH sUdüÚmGIuRduksIut KOH b:UtasüÚmGIuRduksIut
Gam:Uj:ak;EdlmanrUbmnþmU:elKul NH3 KWCasmasFatum:UelKulmYyEdlsßitenAkñúg PaBCa]sμ½n b¤PaBCa GgÁFaturavsuT§ ehIyk¾RtUv)aneKcat;TukfaCa)assmBaØmYy. ebIemIl mYyEPøteTAvahak;bIdUcCaK μanlkçN³sMKal;Ca)aseT b:uEnþe
YyEdlpþl;GIuy:ug OH- enAeBlEdlvarlayeTAkñúgTwk edaymincM)ac;maIul TMrg;m:UelKul s dIm,IsMKal;C
1-33
m:UelKulGam:Uj:ak;rlaycUleTAkñúgTwkEpñkxøHrbs; NH3 vamanRbtikmμCamYyTwkedIm,IbegáItCa :ug N
7sFatuTaMgLayNaEdlmancMnYnm:UelKulTwkCak;lak;mYy
_ enAPaBsþg;daxñatnImYy²énTg;EdgIIs‘ulpatmanm:UelKul wkcMnYn karehAeQ μaHtamRbB½n§GnþrCati énsmasFatuTg;Edg
GIuy H +4 nigOH- ehtudUecñHehIy)anCaeKcat;TukvaCa)as.
>4 GIuRdat GIuRdat KWCasmaP¢ab;enAnwgva. Ca]TahrN
T R)aM m:UelKulenAP¢ab;nwgva.s‘ulpatR)aMGIuRdaetEdlrUbmnþrbs;vaRtUv)aneKsresrCaCuSO4.5H2O. eKGacdkm:UelKul Twkecj)an edaykardutkMedA. enAeBlEdleyIgdutkMedAeTAsmasFatuEdlenAsl;KW CuSO4
EdleBlxøHRtUv)aneKehAeQ μaHfa Tg;Edgs‘ulpatGanId Edlmann½yfa CasmasFatu EdlKμanTwkenACab;vateTAeTot. CuSO4.5H2O manBN’exov CuSO4 manBN’s.
tarag7 xageRkamenHmaneQ μaHEdleKehAtamRbB½n§smBaØ énsmasFatuxøH rUbmnþ namFmμta namehAtamRbB½n§GnþrCati CaSO4.2H2O mñagsila kal;süÚms‘ulpatDIGIuRdat
Twk DIGIuRdUEsnGuksIut H2O
NH Gam:Uj:ak; RTIGIuRdUEsnnIRtY 3
CO2 Twkkks¶Üt kabUnDIGuksIutrwg NaCl GMbilsMl sUdüÚmkørY N2O ]sμ ½nsMeNIc DIGasUtGuksIut ¬GuksIutnIRtW¦ CaCO3 fμkMe)ar dIs kal;süÚmkabUNat CaO kMe)ars kal;süÚmGuksIut Ca(OH)2 TwkkMe)ar kal;süÚmGIuRduksIut NaHCO3 emnM sUdüÚmGIuRdUEsnkabUNat Na2CO3.10H2O sUdasMrab;lag sUdüÚmkabUNatedkaGIuRdat MgSO4.7H2O Epsom m:aejsüÚms‘ulpatGiubtaGIuRdat GMbilMg(OH)2 m;aej:süÚm sIut TwkedaHeKa m:aejsüÚmGIuRduk
1-34
smasFatuGIuRdatxøH epS2.H2O )ar:
2O lIcUmkørYm:UNUGIuRdat 4.7H2O s‘ulpatGiubtaGIuRd
Sr(NO3)2.4H2O IRtatetRtaGIuRdat7>5 BBYksmasFatuG smasFatuxøH KWRtUv)aneKdwgy:agc,as;edayeQ μaHsmBaØrbs;va CaCagkarcaMeQ μaH rbs;vatamkarehAtamRbB½n§GnþrCati. ]TahrN_smBaزmYycMnYn KWRtUv)aneKdak;enAkñúg tarag 7. karsegçbRBwtþikarN_ nig1. KImIviTüaTMenIbKWcab;epþImB (Dalton) Edl)anEføgfa RKb;rUb-
FatuTaMgGs; KWpSMeLIgBIPaKl¥ittUcbMputEdleKminGacemIleXIjehAfaGatUm ehIyRTwsþI enHEfmTaMgbBa¢ak;fa GatUmTaMgGs;énFatumYyKWmanlkçN³dUcKñaebHbiT. RTwsþIrbs; elak)anbEnßmfa smasFatuEdlmanGatUménFatnigbBa¢ak;eTotfa GatUmTaM va)aneTtamry³RbtikmμKImI
umYy Canic©CakalRtÚv)anpSMeLIgtamsmamaRt
H vaKWCapleFobcMnYnKt;tUcbMput ¬c,ab;BhusmamaRt¦. IyéNVy:UenaHmanpÞúknUvRbUtug nigNWRtug
4.
geTotKW ÷
BaCl üÚmkørYDIGIuRdat LiCl.H
MgSO m:aej:süÚm at Rság;cUmn srIragÁ
bBaØtiepSg² IRTwsþIGatUmrbs;elakdaltun
uepSgKñacUlpSMKñatampleFobCacMnYnKt; gGs;minRtUv)aneKbegáIt b¤b øajMp
¬c,ab;rkSam:as¦. 2. GatUmTaMgLayénFatupSMenAkñúgsmasFat
Cam:asdUcKña ¬c,ab;smaRtkMNt;¦. enAeBlEdlFatuBIrGacpSMKñaedIm,IbegáIt)anCasmas FatueRcInCagmYyRbePTenaH m:asénFatumYyEdlpSMCamYynwgm:askMNt;énFatumYyepSg eTotena
3. GatUmmYymanpÞúknUvduMéNVyU:mYyenAcMkNþal ehEdlmaneGLicRtugvilCMuvijéNVy:UkñúgcMgayeFobmYyBIéNVy:UenaH. RbUtugmanbnÞúkGKÁisnIviC¢man NWRtugKμanbnÞúkGKÁisnIeT cMENkÉeGLicRtugmanbnÞúkGKÁisnI GviC¢man. RbUtug nigNWRtugmanm:asRbhak;RbEhlKña KWRbEhlCa 1840 dgF¶n;Cagm:as rbs;eGLicRtug.
1-35
5. elxlMdab;énFatumYy KWCacMnYnRbUtugenAkñúgéNVy:UénGatUmrbs;FatuenaH ehIyvaKWCaGñk kMNt;GtþsBaØaNénFatuenaHeTotpg. cMnYnm:as KWCaplbUksrubcMnYnRbUtugnigcMnYnNWRtug EdlsßitenAkñúgéNVy:U. GIusUtUbKWCaGatUménFatudUcKñaEdlmancMnYnRbUtugdUcKña b:uEnþmancMnY6. nNWRtugxusKña.
nGatUmEdlmanenAkñúg
8.
s;smaFatumYy. rUbmnþgaybgðajnUvpleFobgaybMputénGatUm Edl
9.
masFatuGIuy:Unic ¬EdlGIuy:ugviC¢man nigGviC¢mantP¢ab;Kñaeday Ig enA
10.
resr)anBIeQμaHrbs;smasFatuTaMgenaH.
Eprs Etm
ngNak¾eday k¾eKeCOfavamansñÚlxagkñúgmYy rwgEdr EdlPaK
eRcInpSMeLIgBIEdkenAcMBak;kNþalénépÞEpndIehIyenACMviujsñÚl
7. rUbmnþKImI KWpSMeLIgBInimitþsBaØaénFatuKImIEdlcUlrYmTaMgGs; rYmCamYynwgcMnYnKt;snÞsSn_ TaMgGs;rbs;FatuTaMgenaH edIm,IbgðajeGaydwgBIRbePTGatUm nigcMnYÉktad¾tUcbMputrbs;smasFatumYy. rUbmnþm:UelKul)anbgðaj[eXIjBIcMnYnGatUm nigRbePTGatUmCak;lak; EdlcUlpSMenAkñúg m:UelKulnImYy²rbcUlpSMenAkñúgm:UelKulmYy. smasFatuKImIGacCasmasFatum:UelKul ¬EdlkñúgenaHmanÉktatUcbMput KWCam:UelKuldac; edayELk²BIKña¦ b¤CasTMnajeTAvijeTAmk¦. smasFatuGIuy:Unic KWbgáeLIgBIkacug nigGaj:uúgEdlekIteLeBlGatUm)at; b¤cMeNjeGLicRtug. eQ μaHrbs;smasFatuGsrIragÁCaeRcInGacRtUv)aneKkMNt;ehAtamc,ab;samBaزmYycMnYn )an. rUbmnþsmasFatusrIragÁ eKGacs
KImIGnuvtþn¾
bMENgEckFatuenAelIEpndI nigenAkñúgRbB½n§rs;enA GgÁFatuPaKeRcInKWekIteLIgBIFmμCati etIGgÁFatuTaMgenHEbgEcky:agdUcemþcenAelI
ndI ehIyGgÁFatumYyNa Edlmansar³sMxan;enAkñúgRbB½n§ ;enA?
sMbkEpndIKWmankMras; 40KILÚEm:RtBIépÞEpndI edaysar ankarlM)akxagbec©keTseFVI[GñkviTüasaRsþ minGacsikSa BIPaBpSMxagkñúgénEpndI)an RsYldUcsMbkEpndIeT. eTaHbICa )a
y:a
1-36
enaHKW manRs GgÁFatuekþA
Yn 12 EdlbgáeLIgBI dI EdlKitCam:as;mancMnYn99, 7PaKry. FatuTaMgGs;enaHman O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca,
yIg KYr caMfa ³
aHviFId¾smBaØbMputkñúgkaryk
Tab;mYyEdleK[eQμaHfaRsTab;RKbdNþb; ¬Mantle¦ Edlman ehIyGgÁFaturavekþAenaH manpÞúkCatiEdk kabun sIulIkUn nigs<an;F½r. kñúgcMeNamFatuTaMg83EdleKrkeXIjenAkñúgFm μCati manFatucMnsMbkEpnMg, Na, K, Ti, H, P nigMn CaedIm. enAkñúgkarBiPakSaKñaBIPaBelIslb;EdlmankñúgFmμCatiénFatu TaMgGs;e
1> FatuTaMgGs;minEbgEcges μ I²KñaenAelIsMbkEpndIeT 2> FatuPaKeRcInKWekIteLIgkñúgTMrg;EdlpSMCasmasFatu. RBwtþikarN_TaMgenH )anpþl;[eyIgnUvlkçN³RKw³mYycMeB
FatusuT§ecjBIsmasFaturbs;va. GñknwgeXIjviFIenHenACMBUkeRkay.
rUb14 PaKryCam:as; énFatuCaEdlmanvtþmanenAkñúg 100RkaménPaKsMNak
¬a
00
45,5
¬b¦ FatuelIslubenAkñúgxøÜnmnusSKitPaKryCam:as;. taragP¢ab;enHKW)anraymkCamYynUvFatusMxan;²mYycMnYn EdlsßitenAkñúgxøÜnmnusSeyIg
FatuEdlsMxan; TaMgGs;enaHKWdUcCa Fe, Cu, Zn, I, Co CaedIm EdlpSMKñaeTAbegáIt)anCam:as; 1PaKrykñúgcMeNamm:asrbs;xøÜneyIgTaMgmUl. FatuTaMgenHmansarsMxan;Nas;sMrab;muxgar
³dUcC arlUtlas;kardwkCBa¢ÜnGuksIuEsnsMrab;eFVIemtabUlIsnigsMrab;karBarRbqMag nwg gW. e m aMgGs;
enHmanticRCul b¤eRcInRCulyUr²eTAvanwgGacnaM[manCMgWF¶n;F¶r manCMgWviklcrik b¤GacbNþal [søab;eTot pg.
¦ PaKryCam:as;énGgÁFatuEdlmaneRcInelIslubenAkñúgFmμCati. ]TahrN_ PaK eRcInelIslubénGuksIuEsn KW 45,5 PaKry. enHmann½yfaenAkñúg 1 RkaménPaKsMNak rbs;sMbkEpndICamFümmanFatuGuksIuEsncMnYn Rkam.
CIv akCM nAkñúgxøÜn nusSeyIgbrimaNFatuTaMgGs;enHmanlMnwgminmaMmYneT kalNaFatuT
1-37
tarag8 FatusMxan;²EdlmanenAkñúgxøÜnmnusS Fatu PaKryCam:as; Fatu PaKryCam:as;
GuksIuEsn 65 sUdüÚkabUn 18 m:aeGIuRdUEsn 10 Edk 0,05
GasUt kal;süÚm pUsVr b:UtasüÚm s<an;F½r kør
3 1,5 1,2 0,2 0,2
kU)al; Tg;Edg sgá½sI GIuy:Ut eselj:Úm
<0,05 <0,05 <0,05 <0,05 <0,01
0,2
m j:süÚm
PøúyGr
0,1 0,05
<0,01
sMNYr
TMrg;énGatUm lMhat1. cUr[niymn½yénBaküxageRkamenH³ k> PaKl¥it
;rMlwk
α x> PaKl¥it β K>kaMrsμ I γ X>
2. cUr[ HRbePT viTüúskm μEdleKsÁal;faRtUv)anbnSayedayFatuviTüúskm μ.3. cUreRbobeFoblkçN³dUcteTAenH ³ PaKl¥it
kaMrsμ I X
eQ μa
α , kaMrs
4. etIPaKl¥itCamUldæanénGatUm (Fundamental atomi
5. cUrBiBN’naBITsSn³rbs;GñkviTüasaRsþxageRkamenHcMeBaHcMeNHdwgrbs;eyIgsþIGMBITMrg; GatUm³ elak J.J.Thomson, elak R.A.Millikan elak Ernest Rutherford, elak James Chadwick
6. cUrBiBN’naBImUldæanénkarBiesaFcMeB k;faéNVy:UmanpÞúknUvRbPaKtUcbMputmYy GatUm.
μIkatUt, RbUtug/NWtRtug/eGLicRtug.c particles)mann½yfay:agdUcemþc?
aHkareCOCaénmaD rbs;
1-38
lMhat; Ggát;p©iténGa7. tUmeGlüÚmNWtmYyKWmanRbEhl 1x102 pm. edaysn μt;faeyIgGacKUs
epSgeTot l
bI wgTMhM
elxlMdab; cMnYnm:as nigGIusUtUb MNYrrMlwkemeron
. eRbIeGlüÚmEdlmanGIusUtUb4edIm,IkMNt;elxlMdab; nigcMnYnm:as;. ehtuGVI)anCakardwg b;Gac R)ab;eyIgBIkarfycMnYneGLicRtugEdlman vtþmanenAkñúgGatUmmYy)an?
lMdab;dUcKña
11.
lMh12. X
13.
14.
t; cMnYnRbÚtugnig cMnYnNWtRtug enAkñúg éNVy:U
e, He, Mg , Mg , Ti , Br , Pt
=11 ,A=23 x> Z= 28, A= 59
k> Z=74 ,A=186 x> Z= 80, A= 201
bnÞat;GatUmeGlüÚm BIRCugmçageTARCugmçageTotedIm,ITak;TgeTAnwgGatUmmYy)an. etIRbEhlCamanGatUmcMnYnb:un μan Ed eKRtUvkaredIm,I[cMgayBIcugmçageTAcugmçageTotmanRbEvg 1 cm?
8. niyay[BiteTAkaMrbs;GatUmmYyKWFMCagkaMrbs;éNVy:UcMnYn 10.000 dg. RbsineGatUmmYy RtUv)aneKBRgIk[FMenAeBlenaHkaMéNVyUrbs;vanwgmanRbEvg 2 cm KWes μ Inrbs;XøI etIkaMGatUmenaH manRbEvgesμIb:un μan miles?(1mi = 1609 m).
s9
elxlMda10. ehtuGVI)a nCaGatUm TaMgGs;énFatumYymanelx eTaHbICavamancMnYnm:as
xusKñak¾ eday? etIeyIgehAGatUménFatudUcKñaehIymancMnYnm:as;xusKñay:agdUcemþc? at; cUrBnül;BIGtßn½y énBakünImYy²enAkñúgnimitþsBaØaénFatu Z
etIcMnYnm:as;énGatUmEdkEdlmancMnYnNWRtug 28 manb:un μan?
KNnacMnYnNWRtugén Pu-239.
UrkMN
A
15. cMeBaHRbePTKImInImYy²xageRkamenH crbs;va³
3 H2 2 12 12 22 35 78
16. cUrbBa¢ak;BIcMnYnRbUtug/ NWtRtug/ nigeGLicRtugenAkñúgRbePTKImInImYy²xageRkamenH³ 15
7 N, 3316 S , 63
29 Cu, 8438 Sr , 130
56 Ba , 18674 W, 202
80 Hg
4 24 25 48 79 195
17. sresrnimitþsBaØaEdlsmRsbcMeBaHGIusUtUbnImYy²dUcxageRkam³ k> Z
18. sresrnimitþsBaØaEdlsmRsbcMeBaHGIusUtUbnImYy²dUcxageRkam³
1-39
taragxYb sMNYrrMlwk
19. etIGVICataragxYb? ehIyetIvamansar³RbeyaCn_GVIenAkñúgkarsikSaKImIviTüa?
21. μaH nignimitþsBaØacMeBaHFatubYnenAkñúgcMENkfñak;nImYy²xageRkam³ k K> GMpUETr
aLÚEsn X> ]s μ ½nkMr: lMh23. asUdüÚmCaedIm .
aB ERbRbYllkçN³¬BIel ³eTAGelah³b IGelah³eTAelah³vij¦enAeBlKitBIelImkeRkamtamRkum nigBIsþaMmkeqVgtamxYb.
Gacsresr ;sIuettUcCag
;faFatuén
27.
28.
29.
30.
20. cUrR)ab;BIlkçN³xusKñaBIry:agrvagelah³ nigGelah³? sresreQ
> Gelah³ x> elah³ 22.
cUr[niymn½yénBaküxageRkamedayP¢ab;mkCamYynUv]TahrN_BIr²pg³
k> elah³Gal;kaLaMg x> elah³Gal;kalINUETruW K> Gat; FatuEdleQμaHrbs;vabBa©b;eday GUm Canic©CakalvaCaelah³dUcCcUrrkBIGelah³EdleQ μaH rbs;vabBa©b;edayGUmEdr?
24. cUrBIBN’nIg
Ikar ah ¤BEdley
25. BiPakSaBIesovePAsresrTinñn½yrUbnigKImI sYrRKUENnaMrbs;GñkemIlfa etIGñkah³BIrEdlmandgkñúgesovePA sresrenAkEnøgNaedIm,Irk[eXIjBI³ k> el
Twk x> elah³BIrEdlmandg;sIuetFMCag)art K> Rkas;CageKbg¥s;EdleKsÁalelah³rwg X> dg;sIuetFMCageKbg¥s;EdleKehAfaFatu énGelah³rwg.
26. ³dUcKña ³ cUrdak;CaRkúmcMeBaHFatuxageRkamenH eTAkñúgKUEdlGñkKitfa vaman lkçNnig . K, F, P, Na, Cl, N
ulnigGIuy:ug m:UelKsMNYrrMlwk
etIGatUmnigm:UelKulmanlkçN³xusKñay:agdUcemþc? dUcemþcEdlehAfaFatuEdlmanTMrg;vismrUb ¬allotrope¦? cUr[]TahrN_. etIFatuEdlmanKMerag eRcInTMrg;xusKñaBIGIusUtUby:agdUcemþcEdr? tamFmμtacUrBiBN’naBIkareRbIKMrUm:UelKulBIr? cUr[]TahrN_cMeBaHBakünImYy²dUcxageRkamenH. k> kacugm:UNUGatUm x> Gaj:úgm:UNUGatUm K> kacugb:UlIGatUm X> Gaj:úgb:UlIGatUm
1-40
lMh31.
2. cUr[ ahr IrcMe øanI a me
EdlmanGatUménFatudUcKña KulDIGatUmEdlmanGatUménFatxusKña
33. Rkam ÷
N3-. dUcxageRkam ÷
35. etIrU nþm:UelKulxageRkamenHdUcemþc? O4 X> P4O6
36. cm
37. c manrUbmnþ m:UelKulxusKña b:uEnþman r
39. et enAkñúgsmasFatuGIuy:ugdUcemþceTA?
lMhat;ayénsmasFatuxageRkamenHy:agdUcemþc?
x> C6H6 K> C9H20 X> P4O10 g> B2H6
at; cUrbBa¢ak;nUvrUbmnþxageRkamenHfavaCaFatub¤CasmasFatu?
NH3, N2, S8, NO, CO, CO2, H2, SO2. 3 ]T N_B BaHX mYy²x geRka nH ÷
k> m:UelKulDIGatUmx> m:UelK> m:UelKulb:UlIGatUmEdlmanGatUménFatudUcKña X> m:UelKulb:UlIGatUmEdlmanGatUménFatuxusKña
cUrR)ab;BIcMnYnRbUtug nigeGLicRtugenAkñúgGIuy:ugsmBaØnImYy²xageNa+ Ca2+ Al3+ Fe2+ I- F- S2- O2- nig
34. cUrR)ab;BIcMnYnRbUtug nigeGLicRtugenAkñúgGIuy:ugnImYy²K+, Mg2+, Fe3+, Br- , Mn2+, C4-, Cu2+.
rUbmnþKImIsMnYrrMlwkemeron
bmnþKImItMNag[GVI? etIpleFobénGatUmenAkñúgrUbmk> NO x> NCl3 K> N2
Ur[niymn½yénrUbmnþm:UelKul nigrUbmnþgay. etImanGVIdUcKña nigxusKñarvagrUbmnþ :UelKul nigrUbmnþgayrbs;smasFatumYy. Ur[]TahrN_mYykñúgkrNImYyEdlm:UelKulBIrEdlUbmnþgay dUcKña.
38. etI P4 mann½yfay:agdUcemþc? etIvaxusKñanwg 4P y:agdUcemþc? IGVICasmasFatuGIuy:ug? etIPaBNWtGKÁisnIEdlrkSa
40. cUrBnül;ehtuGVI)anCarUbmnþKImIénsmasFatuGIuy:ugEtgEtdUcKñaeTAnwgrUbmnþgayrbs;va?
41. etIrUbmnþg k> C2N2
42. etIrUbmnþgayénsmasFatuxageRkamenHy:agdUcemþc?
1-41
k> Al2Br6 x> Na2S2O4 K> N2O5 X> K 72Cr2O
uksIuEsn nigBN’elOgKWGIuRdUEsn.
WGuksIuEsn nigBN’
EdlmanTMenaredIm,IkøayeTACa
smasFatuGIuy:ug? ehIysmasFatumYyNa EdlmanTMenaredIm,IkøayeTACa smasFatu
46. ? r, BaF2,
CCl4 , ICl, CsCl, NF3.
kasMNYrrMlwkemeron
7. etImanGVIxusKñarvagsmasFatusrIragÁ nigsmasFatuGsrIragÁ? 8. etIEpñksMxan;bYYnrbs;smasFatuGsrIragÁmanGVIxøH? 9. cUr[]TahrN_mYycMeBaHsmasFatueTVrFatu nigsmasFatuRtIFatu?
51.
52.
lMhat; 53. cUrehAeQ μaHsmasFatuxageRkamenH ÷
43. cUrsresrrUbmnþm:UelKulénKøIsIun/CaGasIutGamINUEdlmanvtþmanenAkñúgRb:UetGIun. BN’ RbepHKW kabUn BN’exovKWGasUt BN’RkhmKWG
44. sresrrUbmnþm:UelKuléneGtaNul. BN’RbepHKW kabUn BN’RkhmKelOgKWGIuRdUEsn.
45. smasFatuxageRkamenHetIsmasFatumYyNa
m:UelKul? SiCl4 , LiF, BaCl2 , B2H6, KCl, C2H4
etIsmasFatuxageRkamenHsmasFatumYyNaEdlmanTMenareTArksmasFatuGIuy:ugehIysmasFatu mYyNaEdlmanTMenareTArksmasFatum:UelKul? CH4, NaB
rehAeQμaHsmasFatuGsrIragÁ
4
4
4
50. etIRbB½n§ Stock CaGVI?etIvamansarRbeyaCn_GVI CagRbB½n§cas;kñúgkarehAeQμaHkacug? cUrBnül;faehtuGVI)anCarUbmnþ HCl GactagedayRbB½n§KImIBIrxusKñadUecñH? cUr[niymn½yGasIut )as GuksUGasIut GuksUGaj:úg nigGIuRdat.
BN’elOg BN’Rkhm
BN’exov
BN’Rkhm
BN’RbepH
BN’elOg
BN’RbepH
1-42
k> KH2PO4 x> K2HPO4, K> HBr(g) X> HBr(Twk) g> Li2CO3
c> K2Cr2O7 q> NH4NO2 C> HIO3 Q> PF5 j> P4O6
d> CdI2 f> SrSO4 D> Al(OH)3
÷ K> HNO2 X> KMnO4 g> CsClO3
4 j> NaH
bIj:ÚmnIRTIt x> b:UtasüÚms‘ulPY süÚmGIuRdUEsns‘ulpat
K> GasIutEBrRbUmic düÚmGam:Uj:Úm Vat
(II) (II) P Guks (I)
lMhat;bEnßm 57. aneKrk ankar)at;m:a Ca
nÞab;. cUrBnül etImanGVIekIt aHPaK enaH58. e ñúgKUxage yNa Edlm l ³KImI cUrBn
54. cUrehAeQ μaHsmasFatudUcxageRkam k> KClO x> Ag2CO3
c> KNH SO4 4 q> FeO C> Fe2O3 Q> TiCl
d> Li N f> Na O T. Na O 3 2 2 2
55. sresrrUbmnþsMrab;smasFatudUcxageRkam ÷ k> ruyK> sUdüÚmGIuRdUEsns‘ulPY X> m:aej:süÚmpUsVat g> kal;c> b:UtasüÚmDIGIuRdUEsnpUsVat q> GIuy:UDUGiubtaPøúyGrY C> Gam:Uj:Úms‘ulpat Q> R)ak;EBrkør:at j> brRTIkørY
56.
k> sresrrUbmnþsMrab;smasFatudUcxageRkam ÷
Tg;Edg(I)süaNY x> Rság;cUmkørIt X> GasIutGIuy:UDIRDic g> DIsU pUsc>sMNr kabUNat q> sMNr)a:haMg PøúyGrY C> etRtapUsVrYedkas‘ul ItQ> )art (II) Iut j> )art GIuy:UDY d> eslüÚmGiucsaPøúyGrY.
PaKsMNakmYyénsmasFatuGu‘yr:ajÚmKWRtÜv) eXIj fam sb eLIg knþb ;fa cMeB sMNa ? nAk RkametIKUmY an kçN dUcKña ? ül;.
1 1k H1 nig H +1
59. m
x N7 nig 7 N 12 13
14 −314
K C6 nig C6 MnYn . GuIsUtUbénFatuelahHmYy manc :as; 65 nig man cMnYnNWRtúgenAkñúgéMNVy:U 35
kacug EdlykecjBI GIusUtUb enaH maneGLiRtúg cMnYn 28. cUrsresrnimitþsBaØa cMeBaHkacugenH.
1-43
60. G mYy ancMnYn AkñúgéMNVy:U 74 . G IusUtc
kamenHR)ab;BIcMnYn eGLicRtúg RbÚtug nig NWRtúg enAkñúgGatUm rW GIuy:ug
/ etInimitþsBaØasn μt
GatUmrWG D E F G
uIsUtUbénFatuGelahH m m:as; 127 nig man cMnYnNWRtúgenajú:g EdlykecjBI G Ub enaH maneGLiRtúg cMnYn 54. cUrsresrnimitþsBaØa MeBaHGajú:genH.
61. taragxageRénFatumYycMnYn. cUreqøIynUv sMNYrxageRkamenH k/ etIRbePTKImINaNWt x/ etIRbePT KImINamanbnÞúkGviC¢man K/ etIRbePTKImINamanbnÞúkviC¢man Xrbs;RbePTTMagenHya:gdUcemþc?
Iuy:ugénFatu A B C cMnYneGLicRtúg 5 10 18 28 36 5 9
cMnY 9 nRbÚtug 5 7 19 30 35 5
cMnY 5 7 20 36 46 6 10 nNWRtúg 62. etImanGVIEdlxus rWmann½yminR)akdcMeBaHXøaEdlfa “bYnmU:elKulén NaCl ”
pUsVrsu‘lPY xageRkamenH RtÚv)aneKsÁal;faCa P63. asFatu TAtamc,ab;BhusmamaRt EdrrWeT?
F m:aejsüÚmkørY (MgCl2) eKminehAfa m:aejsüÚm IIkørY ?
)an Áal;tam ³kareh μaHFm μ aCageQ dleh a cUreGay mnþéns atu dUcx Twkkks¶Üt x/ GMbilsMl
begðóTwkEPñk / f μm:ab rW dIs rW f r g/ k s c/ TwkkMe)ar sUdadutnM ag Q/ mñagsila j/ edaHeK ejsüÚm
4S3 ,P4S7 , nig P4S10 etIsmTaMgenH)aneKarB e
64. xageRkamenH etImYyNaCaFatu mYyNaCam:UelKulb:uEnþrminEmnCasmasFatu mYyNaCasmasFatub:uEnþrminEmnCamU:elKul ehIyetImYyNaCasmasFatu pg CamU:elKulpg. k/ SO2 x/ S8 K/ Cs X/ N2O5 g/ O c/ O2 q/ O3 C/ CH4
Q/ KBr j/ S d/ P4 f/ Li
65. ehtuGVI)anCa66. smasFatuxøHRtÚv eKs ry AeQ taC μaH E At
mRbB½næKImI. rUb arF ageRkamenH. k/ K/ ]s μ ½n X μkMe)a Me)ar q/C/ sUdal Twk a m:a
67. cUrbMeBjcenøaHenAkñúgtaragxageRkam³ nimitþsBaØa 54
26 Fe2+ RbUtug 5 79 86
1-44
NWtRtug 6 16 117 136 eGLicRtug 5 18 79 RbB½n§bnÞúk -3 0
68. > masFatuGIuy:ug? x> Fatuelah³mYyNa Edlman
70.
lmanFatukñúgRkum 7A.eFVIdUcKñacMeBaHFatuenAkñúg Rkum 3A, 4A, 5A
72. kñúgcMeNamFatuT EdleK)ansÁal;manEtFatuBIreTEdlsßitenACaGgÁFaturav enA sIutuNðPaB 25 GgSaes. etIFatuenaHCaFatuGVI? ¬tMruy ³ FatumYyKWCaelah³EdleKsÁal; ehIyFatumYyeTotKWsßitenAkñúgRkumTI 7A¦.
73. cMeBaH]sμ ½nkMr:¬FatuenAkñúgRkum 8A He, Ne, , Kr nig
UtugenAkñúgéNVy:UénGatUmnImYy².
énelxlMdab;enH.
5A, 6A, 7A nig8A¦.
VIEdleFVI[vamanlkçN³BiesskñúgkareFVIrUbIvtßú
76.
:c?
k etIFatumYyNamanTMenarbegáItCasTMenarbegáItkacug EdlmanbnÞúkxusKña?
69. etIGIuy:ugNaxøHmanTMenarbegáItsmasFatuGIuy:ug? k> Li x> S K> I X> N g> Al c> Cs
q> Mg? etInimitþsBaØamYyNakñúgcMeNamnimitþsBaØaxageRkampþl;Bt’manbEnßmGMBIGatUm³ 23Na, b¤ 11Na? cUrBnül;?
71. sresrrUbmnþKImI nigeQμaHénGasIutEd nig 6A.
aMg 112
¦ 42
2010
4018 Ar 84
36132
54 Xe.
k> cUrkMNt;cMnYnRbUtug nigNWtRtugenAkñúgéNVy:UénGatUmnImYy². x>cUrkMNt;pleFobrvagNWtRtug nigRbcUrBiBN’naTwsedATUeTANamYy EdlGñkrkeXIjtambMEr:bMrYlpleFobenH CamYynwgkar ekIneLIg
74. cUrR)ab;eQ μaHénFatuTaMgLayNaEdlsßitkñúgPaBCa]sμ ½nenAsItuNðPaBTIBiesaF ¬tMruy ³ eKeXIjFatuTaMg enHenAkñúgRkum
75. elah³enAkñúgRkum 1B dUcCaelah³ Cu, Ag nig Au KWRtuVv)aneKehAeQ μaHfaCa elah³ rUbIvtßú. etIvaman lkçN³KImIGnigeRKOgGlgáar dUecñH? FatuEdlsßitenAkñúgRkum8AéntaragxYbKWRtUv)an eKehAfaCaFatu]s μ ½nkMr. etIGñk GacesñImk emIlfakMr kñúgn½yenHman n½yfaem
1-45
77. rUb uksIut manrUbmnþ d
78. sTaMgGs;rbs; vasßitkñúgRkumCamYyKñakñúgtaragxYbmanlkçN³KImIRsedogKña
Nak¾edayk¾RbPBEtmYyKt;
79.
nÞab;BITIkEnøg?
bsm<½n§TI 1¦ enA
gt,Úg¦ . dWetrIrüÚm
eK[enaHman
82. cxageRkamenH > Al nigF g> F nigO c> Sr nigCl.
83. ccMnYn 36
;kaLaMgmYyEdlmaneGLicRtug36
cMelIy ]TahrN_ Gnuvtþn_
mnþkal;süÚmGuksIutKW CaO . etIm:aej:süÚmGuksIut nigRság;cUmGUcemþc? arFatuEr:samBaØmYyrbs;)ar:üÚmKW)arIt b¤)arü:Úms‘ulpat(BaSO4). edaysarFatu
eyIgk¾RbEhlrMBwg fanwgrkeXIj ra:düÚms‘ulpatxøH (RaSO4) Edl enAlayCamYy)arItEdrdUecñHra:düÚmKWCaFatucugeRkayénRkum 2A . eTaHbICay:agrbs;smasFatur:adüÚm enAkñúgFmμCatienaHKW sßitenAkñúgEr:G‘uyr:aj:ÚmehtuGVI? cUrrayeQμaHénFatucMnYnR)aMEdlFatunImYy² ³
k> RtUv)aneKehAeQ μaHbx> RtUv)aneK ehAeQμaHbnÞab;BImnusS? K> RtUv)aneKehAeQ μaHbnÞab;BIBN’?¬tMruy³ emIl]
80. cUr[eQ μaHRbeTsmYyEdleQ μaHrbs;vaenAbnÞab;BIFatumYy. ¬tMruy ³ RbeTsenH KWGaemricxa
81. PøúyGrmanRbtimkμCamYyGIuRdUEsn nigdWetrIrüÚmedIm,IbegáItCaGIuRdUEsnPøúyGrY nigPøúyGrY EdldWetrüÚm 2
1 H KWCaGIusUtUbrbs;GIuRdUEsn. etIbrimaN PøúyGr EdlRbtikmμCamYyGIusUtUbrbs;GIuRdUEsnEdlmanm:asxus²Kña Edrb¤eT? etIvaxuseTAnwgc,ab; smamaRtkMNt;Edrb¤eT? cUrBnül;. cUrTsSn¾TayrUbmnþnigehAeQμaHsmasFatueTVFatu EdlbegáIteLIgBIFatudUk> Na nigH x> B nigO K> Na nigS X
Urcat;fñak;FatunImYy²xageRkamenH³ k> GaLÚEsnmYyEdlGaj:úgrbs;vamaneGLicRtugx> ]sμ ½nkMr:rbs;FatuviTüúskm μEdlmanRbUtug 86
K> FatumYyenARkum 6AEdlGaj:úgrbs;vamanpÞúkeGLicRtug36
X>kacugelah³Galg> kacugRkum 4AmYyEdlmaneGLicRtugcMnYn 80.
1-46
1-47
x- 2S 6 IP GIub:URbUmU x- GuIy:ug GIuRdUEsns‘ulpat
c8 S(16, 17, 16) ; Cu(29, 34, 29) ;
, 122, 80). 18. (k W
(x) Rkam tamRkúm (x) lkçN³ rbs nig K; P nig N 32. (k) H2
8 4 ): K+ (19, 18); Mg2+ (12, 10);
3 ; C4- 2+( 9 k)
K
s bU:tasüÚmGIub:UkørIt
Guks
3 , (gFatuGIuy:ugRtÚv)anbegáIt
ntina)
1. 29 RbUtug 34 NWtRtug 29 eGLicRtug 2. CHCl3 3. C4H5N2O 4. k- sMN (II) GuksIut lIcUmsu‘lPIt 5. k- Rb O4 x- BaH2 . k- GasUtRT øúyGrY x- DIkørYGiubtaGuksuIt
7. k- SF4 x- N2O5 8. k- GasuItMelIy . 0.12 mi. 14. 145. 16. N(7, 8, 7) ;
(56Sr(38, 46, 38) ; Ba , 74, 56) ; W(74, 112, 74) ; Hg(80
201 IcuHeTAe) 186
74
80 Hg 24. (k) lkçN³rbs;elahH ekIneLIg BIel B nig Cl ; Na;elahH fycuH IelIeqVgeTAsþMatamxYb 26. F
) S nig P 34. (RbÚtug NWRtúg nig F2 (x) HCl nig CO(KF 3+( ; B - e 26, 23) r (35, 36) ; Mn2+ (25, 2 ) (6, 10) ; Cu 2 , 27). 42. ( AlBr3
(x) NaSO2(K) N2O5(X) 2Cr2O7 44. C2H6O 46. smasFatuGIuy:ug ³ NaBr, BaF2, CsCl masFatumU:elKul ³ CH4 , CCl4 , ICl , NF3 .
(x) R)ak;kabUNat (K) GasuItnIRTW (X) bU:tasüÚmEBm:g;kaNat 54. (k)
(g) essüÚmkøra:t (c) bU:tasüÚmGamU:jÚ:msu‘lpat (q) Edk (II) GuksuIt (C) Edk (III)
uIt (Q) TItan(IV) kørY (j) sUdüÜmGIuRdÜ (d) lIcUmnIRtÜ (z) sUdüÚm GuksuIt (D)
sUdüÚmEBGuksIut 56. (k) CuCN, (x) Sr(ClO2)2 , (K) HBrO4 , (X) HI , (g)
Na2(NH4)PO4 , (c) PbCO3 , (q) SnF2 , (C) P4O10 , (Q) HgO , (j) Hg2I2 , (d) SeF6 ,
58. C-12 nig C-13 (k) I-(k) NaCl CasmasFatuGIuy:ugmYy 64. (k) SO2 , (x) S8 , (K) Cs,
(X) N2O5 , (g) O ,(c) O2 ,(q) O3 ,(C) CH4 ,(Q) KBr (j) S , (d) P4 , (z) LiF 66. (k) CO2
(rwg) , (x) NaCl , (K) N2O , (X) CaCO ) CaO , (c) Ca(OH)2 , (q) NaHCO3 ,(C)
Na2CO3.10H2O,(Q) CaSO4. 2H2O,(j) Mg(OH)2 68.smaseLIgevagFatuénelahH nig GelahH. 70. 23Na . 72. Hg nig Br2 74. H2 , N2 , O2 , F2,
Cl2 , He , Ne , Ar , Kr , Xe , Rn. 76. minmanRbtikmμ He, Ne, nig Ar KWCaFatu KImInicl 78.
Ra KWCaplitplEdl)an mkBIRbtikm μbMEbkviTüúskmμ rbs;Gu‘yra:jÚm (U-238). 80.
GahSg;TIn (Arge . 82. (k) NaH , sUdüÜmGIuRdÜ (x) BB2O3, DIbrRTIGuksIut (K) Na2S ,
sUdüÜmsu‘lpY (X) AlF3 , GaluymIjÚmPøúyGrY (g) OF2 , GuksIuEsnDIPøúyGrY (g) SrCl2 ,
Rsþg;cUmkørY .