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ernational Journal of

usic Education

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comparison of non-musicians' and musicians' aesthetic response to musicexperienced witd without video

hn A. Lychner

08 26: 21

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OI: 10.1177/0255761407085647

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comparison of non-musicians and musicians

sthetic response to music experienced

th and without video

HN A. LYCHNER

estern Michigan University, USA

stract

e purpose of this study was to examine aesthetic response to music experienced with and withodeo in this case a video produced with a variety of images and not a video of a live performane participants (N 64) were undergraduate and graduate students at a comprehensive universityral-only and aural with visual conditions were isolated to determine whether there would be aater aesthetic response to the aural component when video was paired with it. In addition, theponse of musicians or students majoring in music (n 32) was compared to the response of nonsicians or students not majoring in music (n 32). Results indicated that non-musicians had a

onger response to the stimuli than musicians, particularly when the music was coupled with th

deo. However, video added to an audio stimulus did not appear to enhance participants aesthet
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ponse. In addition, musicians and non-musicians demonstrated notable differences in theirthetic response to the stimulus, in this case a piece of country music.

y words

ective response, audio, aural, music education, visual People have a need to discuss and describ

profound experiences of their lives. The aesthetic experience is among the most difficult to puo words. It seems that a wide variety of experiences are likely to elicit an aesthetic response,luding but not limited to experiences with any of the arts (visual art, music, dance, and theater

ure, and literature. Often these are experienced in combination, and one could assume that thethetic response would be heightened as a result. However, this has not been definitively

monstrated. In fact, studies have indicated that there is no significant increase in aesthetic respen a corresponding video is added (Adams, 1994; Lychner, 2002). In addition, while research ithetic response has focused on western art music, it is likely that almost any genre of music ca

ll elicit an aesthetic response because a wide variety of musical genres are available and populdern society. Therefore, it seems prudent to study aesthetic responsiveness to various genres. T

rpose of this study was to examine aesthetic response of musicians and non-musicians to a piecuntry music experienced with and without its award-winning production video.

TERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION Copyright 2008 International SocMusic Education Vol 26(1) 2132 [(200802)26:1] 10.1177/0255761407085647

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION 26(1)

view of literature

affective response research, there has been considerable discussion regarding the terminology elicit participants responses. Philosophers and affective response researchers have attempted t

dress the difficulty people have with terminology. Langer (1993/1942) considered the problem minology an issue resulting from the multi-faceted nature of words, and later (1953) notedonsistencies in the use of terminology throughout the field of philosophy. In an attempt to clarms and usage with regard to affective response, Price (1986) produced a glossary of common tth definitions drawn from common usage. Later, Lychner (1998) studied terms commonly usedective response research, finding a strong similarity between the terms aesthetic response

d felt-emotional response, but a marked difference between these and the term perceivedsion. In affective response studies using the Continuous Response Digital Interface (CRDI) toasure participants responses, the terms aesthetic response and perceived tension are the most

mmonly employed. While there continues to be debate about the nature of aesthetic response (K
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02), 90 percent or more of the participants asked to indicate their aesthetic response in studies CRDI indicated that they had what they considered to be an aesthetic experience while listenimusic and that their movement of the CRDI dial corresponded to their experience (Geringer,

adsen, & Gregory, 2004).

e terminology chosen can be an impediment for researchers as they discuss results, but seems ts so for participants. All research based on participant self-report is, of course, dependent on thrticipants understanding of the material with which they are to work or to which they are topond. With regard to CRDI research in the area of aesthetic response, it is notable that particip

ponses are highly reliable in testretest experiences and that participants consistently indicate y have had an aesthetic response (Geringer, Madsen, & Gregory, 2004). Participants in aesthetponse studies employing the CRDI have been undergraduate students, graduate students, andiversity faculty. As a result of education and personal experiences, this pool of participants woalmost all cases, have an understanding of and experience with the term aesthetic. Therefore, itpropriate to ask these participants to track or indicate their aesthetic response to a piece of mus

gardless of the terminology chosen, the majority of studies in affective response to music havempared the responses of musicians and non-musicians. Results from research on this topic hav

dicated that musicians and non-musicians have similar responses to the music presented to themdams, 1994; Capperella-Sheldon, 1992; Frego, 1999; Lychner, 1998; Madsen, Byrnes, Cappereeldon, & Brittin, 1993). In early CRDI studies, participants were asked to respond to variousections of western art music most often selections with broad appeal. However, recent studieve indicated that knowledge of a genre may play a role in a participants response to a stimulusoggiola, 2004; Misenhelter & Price, 2001). Price (1986) suggested that the ability to experiencective response to music is a learned behavior resulting from study, practice, or performance.

ggiola (2004) suggested that experience with a genre (in this case, jazz) is likely to result in an

hanced or stronger response to that genre, especially when the music is more complex.

affective response studies using devices to record participants responses as they listen, the

mposite graph results tend to be unique for each musical selection. Among the various devicesve been developed (Fredrickson, 1994), Nielsens tongs and the CRDI have demonstrated thisrticular graphic result. Nielsen (1983) used a pair of tongs with spring resistance and atentiometer to record participants perceived tension while


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chnerAesthetic response to music experienced with and without video 23

ening to Symphony No. 104 by Haydn. Madsen and Fredrickson (1993) replicated the Nielsendy using the CRDI. The CRDI, a potentiometer (in dial format) whose readings are recorded by

mputer as a string of numbers, is specifically designed to record ongoing responses to music


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thout disruption of the listening process. Lychner (1998) noted: quantitative analysis of the grathis study and previous CRDI studies indicate that each musical selection is unique. That is, e

oup of subjects that listen and respond via the CRDI will produce a similar graph for a givensical selection.

317)

was also noted that variation in individual participant graphs may be substantial, but that the grtcome would be basically the same. Lychner (1998) described this as a musical footprint (p. 3

is phenomenon was also seen in subsequent studies (Coggiola, 2004; Frego, 1999; Lychner, 20ss) where there was high testretest reliability.

other factor that may play a role in the level or magnitude of response is the addition of a relatmulus. Music is often paired with another art form dance, theater, or film; however, in almoses, the music can be performed and appreciated without the paired art form. In addition, art fo

ve been combined or examined simultaneously in education to promote better understanding. H970) found that the visual arts can be used effectively to enhance the development of musicalncepts. At the same time, there was a growing interest in interdisciplinary arts programs, also

own as

lied arts or related arts programs. Knieter (1971) indicated that programs of music educationceived as aesthetic education stress the sensitive, intelligent, and creative development ofsicality through the fundamental avenues of expression: creativity, performance, and response

). Gardner (1993) included music and visual/spatial in his list of intelligences, and he suggestt as an aesthetic form, music lends itself especially well to playful exploration with other modintelligence and symbolization (p. 126).

number of studies have examined music paired with a visual stimulus in varied combinations o

dio alone, video alone, and audio with video. Some of these studies focused on teaching, reheard evaluation of performance, while others concen-trated on the participants affective and cognponses.

rbrough and Hendel (1993) had high-school and elementary students rate teacher effectivenesshearsal. The students who were rating the teacher experienced the rehearsal in one of four taped

sentations audio and video, audio only, video only, or script only. They rated the script only dio and video higher than the other two presentations.

eldon (1994) used the CRDI to measure the effect of paired visual and aural stimuli on detectiompo modulation, finding that non-musicians benefit from receiving bimodal sensory informatiorticularly aural and visual cues.

wo studies found that the pairing of a visual component with audio resulted in higher ratings of sical performance (Cassidy & Sims, 1991; Johnson, 1991). In these studies, the video was a

rformance video that is, a video of people performing, as opposed to a production video or aoduced video that would include other visual images such as pictures (moving or still), drawingmation, or text.

ringer, Cassidy, and Byo (1996) investigated the effects of visual information on nonmusic


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dents affective and cognitive responses to music using excerpts from works by Bach (abstractkas (programmatic), with results showing no significant difference for the Bach, but higher

gnitive responses for the audio with video group with the Dukas. In a subsequent study of affecd cognitive response, Geringer, Cassidy, and


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o (1997) compared the aural-only (or music-alone) condition with a performance video and aoduction video. Results indicated that cognitive scores were higher for the performance video, ile affective ratings were not significantly different, the production video received a consisten

gher ranking than the other conditions.

an exploratory study of the visual and aural aspects of listening to music, Madsen, Legette, andke (1993) found that music majors and non-music majors responded similarly and that each exs rated differently depending upon condition (visual-only, aural-only, and combined visual/aur

ing the same three conditions, Adams (1994) studied felt-emotional response to music. Compaponses from musicians and nonmusicians, he found a significant difference between musiciann-musicians for the visual-only task, with musicians demonstrating an ability to focus longer ok, but no other differences were found between musicians and non-musicians. The Madsen, Led Duke (1993) study used a performance video, while the Adams (1994) study used a produced

deo that included pictures of the cathedral in which the performance took place.

a more recent study, Lychner (2002) examined the magnitude of aesthetic response to a musicundtrack when heard alone and while viewing the corresponding video images. The film sounds selected to comprise music written specifically to accom-pany the film. The visual-only conds not included in order to isolate the aural and aural/visual conditions to determine if there wasater aesthetic response to the aural component when the visual was paired with it. In addition,sic majors and non-music majors were compared. Results indicated no significant differenceween stimuli or major.

rly aesthetic response studies employing the CRDI focused on classical music or western art mdams, 1994; Lychner, 1998; Madsen, Brittin, & Capperella-Sheldon, 1993; Madsen, Byrnes et 93). Recent studies employing the CRDI have begun to explore aesthetic response to other genrluding pop music (Lychner, in press) and jazz (Coggiola, 2004). Given the wide variety of mu

ailable and the wide popularity of such genres as pop, rock, and country, it seems prudent to inse and other genres in the study of affective response to begin to examine the similarities andferences among the various genres of music impacting on society. In addition, the fact that mu

deos are ubiquitous makes one wonder if video in some way enhances the audience perception othetic response to, the music. An understanding of these things may help the music educator b

ps between genres for students.


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e purpose of this study was to examine aesthetic response to a piece of country music experienth and without video in this case a produced video and not a performance video. In addition, ts an attempt to determine if there is a difference in response between musicians (students majomusic) and non-musicians (students not majoring in music).

ethod

e participants (N 64) were undergraduate and graduate students enrolled at a Northernmprehensive university in the USA. Half of the participants (n 32) were musicians (students

joring in music) and half (n 32) were non-musicians (students not majoring in music). In eacoup, half of the participants (n 16) listened to Drive (For Daddy Gene) by Alan Jackson, whiher half (n 16) listened to and watched the video produced for Drive (For Daddy Gene) by Akson. Data were collected in two ways

the CRDI and via questionnaire.


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rticipants were asked to manipulate the CRDI dial corresponding to their aesthetic response to mulus. Movement of the dial corresponded to the participants personal definition or understan

the term aesthetic. The following instructions were read to all participants after they were sea CRDI station:

structions (for audio with video)

u are going to see and hear a music video. As you watch and listen, please move the dial in frou corresponding to your aesthetic response to the music.

el free to move the dial as much or as little as you like, utilizing as much or as little of the 256gree range as you feel is appropriate. Following the piece, there will be a brief time period for y

answer several questions on the questionnaire at your station. Do not put your name on theestionnaire. You can skip any question on the questionnaire and simply leave it blank. The enti

ocess should take not more than 20 minutes. You can leave, quit, or withdraw from participatiothout prejudice or penalty from the university or the School of Music. Are there any questions?

ase try manipulating your dial and then return the pointer to the far left. [pause]

w, please put on your headphones and we will begin.

structions (for audio alone)


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u are going to hear a piece of music. As you listen, please move the dial in front of yourresponding to your aesthetic response to the music. Feel free to move the dial as much or as lityou like, utilizing as much or as little of the 256 degree range as you feel is appropriate. Followpiece, there will be a brief time period for you to answer several questions on the questionnair

ur station. Do not put your name on the questionnaire. You can skip any question on theestionnaire and simply leave it blank. The entire process should take not more than 20

nutes. You can leave, quit, or withdraw from participation without prejudice or penalty from thiversity or the School of Music. Are there any questions?

ase try manipulating your dial and then return the pointer to the far left. [pause]

w, please put on your headphones and we will begin.

e participants experienced and responded to the country music video Drive (For Daddy Gene)an Jackson on the DVD Alan Jackson Greatest Hits Volume II, Disc 2. The stimulus was choscause of the quality of the performance and production coupled with the availability of video orformance in DVD format that provides consistently high-quality reproduction of both audio an

deo elements. This music video won the Video of the Year at the 2003 Academy of Country Muwards.

in Lychner (1998), an overlay designed to give the visual appearance of a rounded Osgood scath the word less at the far left anchor and the word more at the far right anchor was used once of the CRDI. Before the beginning of each session, participants were asked to place the poihe far left by the word less because, as Adams (1994) suggests and others have observed

ychner, 1998; Misenhelter & Lychner, 1997), participants use the initial moments of a piece ofsic to establish a level of response whereby increase or decrease could be demonstrated (p. 4


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small studio with four CRDI stations, two on either side of a computer station, served as aoratory for this project. Each station is visually separated from the next by wooden partitions aludes a CRDI dial, a set of headphones, a pencil, and a questionnaire that provides instructions

ace for written responses. The audio equipment used to reproduce the audio stimulus included a

WA 120-watt Shelf System with 5 Minidisc Changer, Model XR-H66MD, and KOSS Portablereophone Headphones, Model TD/61.

e shelf system was located in a carrel next to the PC used to collect data from the CRDI dials. Ts no interaction with or among the participants during the running of the stimulus.

ch participant received a questionnaire when they were seated at their station.


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e purpose of the questionnaire was to provide basic instructions for the participant and to deterparticipants familiarity with the music and reaction to the stimuli. Two versions of the

estionnaire were used to expedite data sorting one for audio with video (Figure 1) and one fodio only (not included here). The only difference in the forms was in the heading and a slightlyferent wording of the instructions to accom-modate the difference between listening and watchd just listening.

xteen of the participants (eight music majors and eight non-music majors four from each grouch stimulus) were asked to repeat the process for testretest reliability.

addition, as in previous studies, there was no attempt to define aesthetic or aesthetic responsparticipants.

uestionnaire Country Music(Audio with Video)

RDI #____

ase wait for Instructions. Then, when instructed ...

anipulate the CRDI dial in front of you as you listen to the music and watch the video.

ter hearing the music and watching the video in its entirety, please answer the following: 1. Doognize the tune? (circle one)

ES

O

If yes, can you name the tune?

rcle one)

ES

O

yes, name the tune. _______________________________________

If yes, can you name the artist?

rcle one)

ES

O

yes, name the artist. _______________________________________

Did you have what you consider to be an aesthetic experience(s) while listening to the music


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ection?

rcle one)

O

ES

veral

Did you feel that your movement of the dial roughly corresponded to variations of the abovethetic experience?

rcle one)

ES

O

What was the highest magnitude (intensity) of this experience compared to others that you havd?

rcle one)

w | | | | | | | High

3 4 5 6 7

gure 1 Questionnaire.


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sults

e purpose of this study was to examine aesthetic response to country music experienced with athout video. In addition, there was an attempt to determine if there was a difference in responseween musicians (students majoring in music) and nonmusicians (students not majoring in mus

e graphic data (see Figure 2) indicate that there is a group response to the music both with andthout the video. However, for both musicians and non-musicians, there is a stronger response todio-only condition. With regard to musicians, the audio line is slightly slower to rise, but risesther and remains higher throughout the experience. The non-musician responses are much closneral magnitude, but the audio-only line has more peaks and valleys and, similar to the musiciaults, indicates a generally higher response than the audio with video line for approximately theal two-thirds of the piece.

erall, non-musicians had a stronger response to the stimuli than musicians, particularly when t

sic was coupled with the video (see Figures 2 and 3). The magnitude of the response is much c


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ween these groups when experiencing the audio alone (see Figure 4). However, the musiciansponse rises and then plateaus and is rather flat thereafter through to the end of the piece, whilen-musicians response indicates more defined peaks and valleys relative to changes in the musen experiencing audio without video. This is reversed when the groups experience the audio wvideo. Musicians indicate more defined peaks and valleys relative to the audio with video

mulus, while the non-musicians response rises quickly and then plateaus.

gure 2 Aesthetic response audio and video composite graph.


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gure 3 Aesthetic response audio with video graph.

gure 4 Aesthetic response audio-only graph.


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general terms, the contours of the graphs are similar; however, there are noticeable differencesarson correlations were used to determine how closely the data are related.

r the audio condition comparing musicians and non-musicians, the result was .87.


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wever the correlation for the same groups in the video condition was .75. This relatively lowrrelation is notable because when all other combinations are compared the correlations range fr to .92. The most interesting result with regard to the graphic differences is that in comparingsicians and non-musicians with regard to the video stimulus (Figure 3), the musicians respond

way that closely matched changes in the form of the music. Downward movement of the line anleys corresponded to quieter sections that could be described as verses, while upward movemeline and plateaus corresponded to louder sections with fuller instrumentation that, whileploying different words, seem to function as choruses or refrains. This type of demar-cation, wn much less overtly in the musicians responding to audio only, is not noticeable in either of th

n-musicians lines.

was determined a priori that reliability would be established through an immediate testretestmat and that musicians and non-musicians as well as both stimuli would be equally representearson correlation was calculated to compare the data. Results indicated a reliability of .79 forsicians and .90 for non-musicians. Musicians often had a lower response level during their sec

aring for testretest reliability.

the post hoc questionnaire, 94 percent of the non-musician participants indicated that they had

at they considered to be an aesthetic experience and seven of them indicated that they had sevethetic experiences, while only 56 percent of the musician participants indicated having an aest

perience and only two indicated having several. For both groups, 88 percent of the participantsdicated that their movement of the dial roughly corresponded to the variations in their aestheticperience. With regard to the stimuli, 72 percent of the participants who experienced the audio wdeo indicated having what they considered an aesthetic experience and three of them indicatedving several, while 78 percent of the participants experiencing the audio alone indicated that thd an aesthetic experience and six of them indicated having several.

estionnaire responses indicated that 67 percent of participants did not recognize the tune or theist. All of the musicians who indicated that they recognized the tune and the artist identified borrectly, but three of the non-musician participants who indicated that they could identify the ard not identify him correctly.

e last question on the questionnaire asked the participants to rate the magnitude of this experiecompared to others that they have had. Nearly 30 percent of both groups rated the experience athe seven-point Likert-type scale. The remaining responses were normally distributed for non-sicians, but were skewed low for musicians, with two responses of 5 and no responses of 6 or 7

scussion

e results of this study suggest several things. First, video added to an audio stimulus does notpear to enhance participants aesthetic response. Second, country music appears to elicit anthetic response, as does every type of music that has been studied using the CRDI. Third, musi

d non-musicians demonstrate strong differences in their aesthetic response to this piece of counsic.


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search to date indicates that video added to an audio stimulus does not notably enhance thethetic response of participants (Adams, 1994; Frego, 1999; Lychner, 2002). This study adds w

that idea. It seems logical that visual images would enhance response to an aural stimulus,

pecially those images seen in dance and film that are designed to be experienced together. HowFrego (1999) suggests, the combined visual/aural condition may . . . cause confusion due to th

vision of attention within the task listen, watch, and simultaneously respond (p. 42). Therefopossible that the addition of video to an aural stimulus may actually detract from the participanthetic experience. Further research is needed to clarify this issue.

ople respond to music, and while the aesthetic response studies employing the CRDI began witus on classical music or western art music (Madsen, Brittin, et al., 1993), recent studies emploCRDI have begun to explore aesthetic response to other genres including pop music (Lychner

ss) and jazz (Coggiola, 2004). In all of the aesthetic response studies employing the CRDI,luding this one, most of the participants have indicated having an aesthetic response to the stimardless of genre. This suggests that music in its broadest definition is likely to elicit aestheticponse. Certainly, more work needs to be done to test this theory, but the concept seems plausib

noted earlier, nearly every study concerning aesthetic response to music has compared theponses of musicians and non-musicians to various selections of western art music, with results

dicating that musicians and non-musicians have very similar responses to the music presented tm (Adams, 1994; Capperella-Sheldon, 1992; Frego, 1999; Lychner, 1998; Madsen, Byrnes, et 93). However, it was also noted that recent studies have indicated that knowledge of a genre m

y a role in a participants response to a stimulus (Coggiola, 2004; Misenhelter & Price, 2001).erefore, musicians may have had a less favorable response to country music in this study as a ra lack of knowledge or preference for the genre. Country music is not studied in most collegesiversities. It is possible that musicians have a bias that country music is common or simple andrefore could not possibly elicit an aesthetic response. Musician responses to this study may alslect a bias of this sort and may not be an honest reaction to what they heard or experienced.owledge and bias are certainly areas that need more attention and study as they relate to aestheponse. The effect of preference on aesthetic response is also worth considering and investigatither.

sual analyses of temporal graphs reveal that, while individual graphs are unique, they demonstmilar individual footprints and are generally closely related in shape and magnitude to theirmposite group graph. The concept of a musical footprint provided by CRDI composite groupaphs introduced by Lychner (1998), which suggests that participants are likely to consistentlypond in a way that provides a graphic representation of their aesthetic experience unique to articular piece of music, appears to apply here.

was noted earlier, there is a wide variety of music available, and genres such as pop, rock, and

untry are widely popular. Therefore, it seems prudent to include these genres in the study ofective response to determine the similarities and differences among the various genres of musi
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pacting on society. A better understanding of these similarities and differences may help the mucator bridge gaps between genres for students.

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ggiola, J. C. (2004). The effect of conceptual advancement in jazz music selections and jazzperience on musicians aesthetic response. Journal of Research in Music Education, 52(1), 29

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hn A. Lychner is Professor of Music, Chair of Music Education, and Director of the Universityncert Band at Western Michigan University in Kalamazoo, USA. He received his BME and MA

usic from Northeast Missouri State University and his PhD in Music Education from Florida Stiversity. Lychner taught in the Lindbergh School District in St Louis, Missouri, and at Rickardgh School in Tallahassee, Florida.

dress: School of Music, Western Michigan University, 1903 W. Michigan Avenue, Kalamazoochigan 490085434, USA. Address: [email: [email protected]]

stracts

n Vergleich der sthetischen Reaktion auf Musik mit und ohne

deoprsentationen bei Musikern und Nicht-Musikern

el der Studie war es, die sthetische Wirkung von Musik zu untersuchen, die mit und ohnedeoaufzeichnung dargeboten wurde in diesem Fall wurde ein Videoband mit verschiedenenuellen Reizen, aber nicht ein Video einer Live Auffhrung hergestellt. Bei den Teilnehmern (N) handelte es sich um Studierende einer Gesamtuniversitt. Die Hrbedingungen ohne und die mueller Darbietung wurden voneinander getrennt, um festzustellen, ob eine strkere sthetischeaktion auf die akustische Komponente festzustellen wre, wenn sie mit visueller Darbietung

rbunden wurde. Ferner wurden die Reaktionen der Musikstudenten (n 32) mit denen der Nichtusiker (n 32) verglichen. Es zeigte sich, dass die Nicht-Musiker strkere Reaktionen zeigten a


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usiker, besonders dann, wenn die Musik mit dem Video verbunden war. Allerdings schien dienzufgung eines Videos zum akustischen Stimulus dessen Wirkung nicht zu verstrken.

erdem zeigten Musiker und Nicht-Musiker erkennbare Unterschiede in ihrer sthetischenaktion auf die dargebotene Country Music.

a comparativa de la respuesta esttica de msicos y no msicos a la

sica experimentada con y sin video

propsito de este estudio fue examinar la respuesta esttica a la msica experimentada con y sdeo. En este caso, se trat de un video producido con una variedad de imgenes y la audicin decucin en vivo sin el video. Los participantes (N 64) eran estudiantes no graduados y graduada universidad de amplia oferta educa-tiva. Las condiciones de slo audicin y audicin congenes fueron aisladas, para determinar si la respuesta esttica al componente auditivo cuandona acompaado del video poda llegar a ser mayor. Adems, las respuestas de los msicos o deudiantes de msica (n 32) fue comparada con la respuesta de los no msicos o de estudiantes

pecializados en msica (n 32). Los resultados indicaron que los no msicos respondieron con

rza ante el estmulo que los msicos, particularmente cuando la msica se acoplaba al video. Sbargo, el video agregado a un estmulo auditivo, al parecer no intensific la respuesta esttica participantes. Adems, surgieron notables diferencias entre las respuestas estticas de los mso msicos ante los estmulos, en este caso, una pieza de msica country.


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