art. theatre history and the ideology of the aesthetic

8/13/2019 Art. Theatre History and the Ideology of the Aesthetic

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Theatre History and the Ideology of the AestheticAuthor(s): Joseph R. RoachSource: Theatre Journal, Vol. 41, No. 2, Power Plays (May, 1989), pp. 155-168Published by: The Johns Hopkins University PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3207856 .Accessed: 14/05/2013 11:53

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Theatre History AndThe

IdeologyOf The Aesthetic

Joseph R. Roach

TheDisciplinef he Eye: s, Advancing he ye;grounding he ye;resting he ye;priming he ye; ocking he ye;

and giving irewith he ye;... inscrib'd o the adies.-Advertisement or he isciplinef he ye 1712)

WhenNapoleon Bonaparte

et forth n hisEgyptian ampaign

of 1798,he hadincluded mong the ndispensable rovisions iscorps eballet. he troupe mbarkedalongwith hemoremundane objects ssembledby Galliclogisticians--the annons,the cognac, the pat --under orders of the commander n chief: Tell those youngladies to behave themselves, r I'll give them general for director, nd he'll makethem march ike oldiers. ' Ofcourse,Napoleonthe tactician newsomething boutmoving highly isciplined odies through pace in proper ime;his interest n theperfection f balletic outineswas legitimately rofessional. ut his Egyptian xpe-dition lso sought oproject herevolutionary echnical nd organizational chieve-ments of the Englightened West throughout he Orient s far s India. Is it not atleast plausibleto suppose that uch miniaturized ituals f subjection s the theatreaffords might onveniently dvertise heregularities f ever arger rders?

That skeptics ind omewhat bizarre heattribution f such far-reaching tility othe performing rts s, I suppose, yet another measure of an abiding confidence ntheir marginality nd irrelevance. his confidence nderlies widely hared histo-riographical ssumption f heatre cholars, erived rom erman dealist hilosophyand eighteenth-century heories f art, that the aesthetic xists s an autonomouscategory, ranscending he ublunary phere f power relations nd ideologies.Nar-rowly aestheticist eadings of theatre-historical ocuments how natural was theperformance?) ften vacate prefatory ssurances that the theatre n society will

Joseph R. Roach s Professor f Theatre nd English t Northwestern niversity nd director fits nterdisciplinaryoctoral rogram n Theatre nd Drama.Hispublicationsnclude he Player'sPassion: Studies in the Science of Acting, winner f theBarnard Hewitt ward or 1985.

'Cited n LincolnKirstein, ance:A Short istory f Classic heatrical ancing1935;New York:DanceHorizons, 969), 51.

155

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156 / Joseph . Roach

figure rominently s an issue in history exts. A useful historiographic roject,therefore, heoutlines f which an be only partially uggested n this ssay, would

be to unmask hat doctrinewhere t has been assumed by theatre istorians nd todemonstrate ome alternative o the imitations t has imposed on ways of thinkingabout the field.

One of he principal xcitements f current rends n theatre esearch sthat heatrehistorians re now stating heoretical nd historiographical ositions xplicitly ndself-critically.2 aving said that, f course, have incurred minimum bligation oreasonabledisclosure.The approach that most nforms my own was characterizedby Paul Ricoeur as the hermeneutics f suspicion. 3 ess generous critics all itFoucaultian aranoia. ts dark roots run deep in Marxism, eminism, sychoanal-

ysis, the new historicism, nd the emerging nterdiscipline f cultural tudies. ts

positions re diverse, but certain haracteristic estures ecur. Hermeneuticists fsuspicion point the finger t culture nd particularly t established nstitutions fculture s agents of subjection, s projections nd manipulations f power, s eitherhegemonic eployments f the dominant iscourse or (in ways that cannot treathere) as countervailing ubversions f t. As Laura Brown and Felicity ussbaumexplain n the Preface o TheNewEighteenth entury, ew historicists

privilegehe nalysis f omplexystemsf ower nd ontrol ithin ominantdeologies.Andthere s no presumption f value-free bjectivityrevailingn historicalnvesti-gation; ew historicism eflectsn its ownpriorities nd assumptionss ideologicallyconstructed hile eekingo nalyze heworkingsf deologicalroductionn he ultural

documents f he past. fprevious istoricist odels ssumed he nity nd ntegrity fthe ominantdeologiesf he ast, ewhistoricismeads istoricalexts or aps, issures,andpossibilitiesf ncompletelyrticulated ut mergent ounterideologies.4

That swhy henew historicism ivespride fplaceto the xamination f he relationsbetween deology, gender, ace,and class in the constitution f social formations.(That s also why the neoconservative eaction ed by Edward Bennett nd AllanBloompresents doublechallenge: irst, ecause t seeksto rescue he cademy romAfro-American tudies, Women's tudies, nd Roland Barthes; econd, nd farmoreshamelessly, ecause it seeks to resuscitate what it insists s a non-ideologicalcurriculum f Western lassics hat eturns o the tranquil ontemplation f that ime

of disinterested ruth nd innocent eauty when,as

HenryLouis

Gates, Jr. uts t,men were men, and men were white. 5)The phrase n my title, the deologyof the aesthetic, erives from lecture y

the EnglishMarxist erry agleton. ForEagleton, heeighteenth entury ffers hedecisivehistorical oment f deological efinition. hilephilosophers rom haftes-

2See nterpreting heTheatrical ast: Essays n the HistoriographyfPerformance, y Thomas Postlewaitand Bruce McConachie, forthcoming rom he University f owa Press.

3PaulRicoeur, Freud nd Philosophy: n Essayon Interpretation, rans. Dennis Savage (New Havenand London: Yale University ress, 1970),32-36.

'Laura Brown and Felicity Nussbaum, eds., TheNew Eighteenth entury: heory, olitics, nglishLiterature New York: Methuen, 1987),20.

'The New York imes, ducation Section, 21 September 1988.



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IDEOLOGYOFTHE AESTHETIC/ 157

bury oKant were elaborating he deal of aesthetic disinterestedness, ourgeoisaesthetics n fact rticulated nd disseminated deals of beauty nd behavior-under

the guise of transcendence--that nscribed particular morality, hat projectedparticular etwork f interests, nd that sserted a particular egemony ver therealm of daily ife.The separation f aesthetics rom deology s itself n ideologicalstrategy. agleton allsthis trategy he aestheticization f daily ocial ife, ywhichhe means something ike the cultivation f manners s if manners were not politicsextended nto the realm of the quotidian.6One of the goalsof bourgeois estheticsis to make the historically roduced seem natural, niversal, nd timeless. wouldadd that principal nstrument or he aestheticization f daily sociallife, for hemicropolitical nculcation f the deologyof the aesthetic n the eighteenth entury,was the theatre.

Ideology comprises the categories nd judgments hat connect utterances ndpractices o dominant tructures nd powers. Cultural tudies reveal the materialspecificity f such connections. n the theatre, emote bstractions ecomephysicalpractices. n the theatre, hemedia of representation-particularly hebody-insiston what the late Raymond Williams n Marxism nd Literature alled the materialcharacter f the production f a cultural rder. 7 n the theatre, eneralities hatgovern conduct and establish priorities of value-- Taste, Duty, Honor,Beauty --gain n otherwise unattainable pecificity nder conditions f precise

selection nd control.

Historians have already begun the great ask of recovering nd interpreting hecultural emiosisof gesture, movement, nd tableaux n the eighteenth- nd nine-teenth-century heatre. he proliferation f actors' handbooks, horeographicman-uals, and grindingly epetitive reatises n the Passions reflects preoccupation iththe precise description f bodilymovement, rticulated o the ast digit. Read ideo-logically, uch texts form he richest epository rior o the invention f film ndvideo for he kinesthetic, roxemic, nd paralinguistic onstructedness f meanings.8

In the examples that follow will try o demonstrate ome of the ways in whichtheatre istorymight e re-approached nd its principal ocuments e-read. do soin light of three xemplary deologicalmodalities: ) idealization/appropriation; )inscription/erasure; )uniformity/specialization.achmodality laborates ntheatrical

6Terry agleton, The Ideology of the Aesthetic, lecture delivered at Northwestern niversity,8 October 1987, forthcoming n PoeticsToday. am variously ndebted to Eagleton, Criticism ndIdeology 1976; London: Verso, 1978), 64-101, and John Brenkman, Culture nd Domination Ithacaand London: Cornell University ress, 1987),passim.

7Raymond Williams, Productive Forces in Marxism nd Literature Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 1977),93.

8Dene Barnett, The Performance ractice of Acting: the Eighteenth Century, Theatre esearchInternational -6, Parts -V (1977-1981):157-186, 1-19, 79-93, 1-36, 1-32. The most interesting seof this material o date is Erika Fischer-Lichte's Vom Kiinstlichen um naturalichen eichen heatredes Barockund der Aufklarung, he middle volume of her three-volume emiotik es Theatres: ineEinfiihrung Tuibingen:Gunter Narr Verlag, 1983).



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terms different spect of Terry agleton's phorism: Beauty s political rder slived n the body. 9

Idealization/AppropriationThe success of meticulously repared ableaux n the eighteenth entury eflects

the pervasivepower of dealizing chema. They succeedby constructing eaningsin the name of beauty that ctually derive from heir epresentation f power andthe fixed elations f power. Historians requently escribe he familiar ownstage-curtain-call-line-up f neoclassical taging s arbitrary nd static. The handbooksand manuals of the period tell a different tory. hey nstruct ractitioners n theprotocols f building stage picture hat can be read from tage right o left ikeprint n a page. These protocols rrange bodies to reinforce, n the name of aes-thetically leasing composition, hemicropolitics f daily ife.

GeorgLudwigPeter ievers's reatise n acting, ublished n 1813but retrospectiveof arlier ractice, xemplifies he echnique f eifying he ocialorder: The principalperson stands n the middle of the others; hen these stand according orank, ge,and sexand the relationship hich distinguishes hem rom ne another, o that hemaster s above the servant, he ady above the gentleman, hefather bove the on,and the ldman bove the young man according othe]distinguishing haracteristicsof their osition nd sex. 10 he reiterated airings f clear subordination-masterabove servant, ather bove son, elder above youth-serve a purpose of emphasisand contrast.

heysurround he nverted

air-ladyabove

gentleman-inorder o

fix he female's position for purposes of idealizationwithin he patriarchal rder.Idealization, f which courtesy s a specialized anguage, must separate ts objectsin order o specularize hem, n order osubject hem o tsown designs nd prioritiesofvaluewithin hierarchy. uch a picture enders he ack of utonomy f ndividualbodiespoignantly isible. t assures hebeholder hat here s a placefor verythingand everyone. Beautiful omposition sa system or he ontrol f he body throughits relative osition n relationship o other bodies. The principal erson at thecenter cts upon the others, but is also constrained within imits defined by theproprietary onds that he tableau so incisively epicts. That s how the theatricalrepresentation f courtesy o women--such mainstay f eighteenth-century he-atre-contributes oeffectively o their ubjection nd to everyone lse's: t dvertisesthe social rewards of consentual participation n the rituals favored because theyperpetuate he dominant ulture.

In earning o read anew the tagepictures nd stagebusiness f he past, theatrehistorians hould not think f coercion nd consent s necessarily ntithetical. heywouldbebetter egarded s interdependent ractices nthe stablishment f culturalorder. This s the esson of Antonio Gramsci's oncept f hegemony. t s the essonof Michel Foucault's description, n Disciplinend Punish: TheBirth f thePrison, f

Terry agleton, Ideology of the Aesthetic.'GeorgLudwig Peter Sievers, Shauspieler-Studien1813),cited n Barnett, The Performers ractice

of Acting, Part , Ensemble Acting, TRI 2 (1977):170.



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IDEOLOGYOF THEAESTHETIC / 159

the establishment f the modern arceral ociety. t s arguably he esson of NorbertElias'sTheCivilizing rocessvolumeone, TheHistory f Manners, nd two, Power ndCivility). hese authorities epict heprogressive nternalization f surveillance ndconstraint ithin ndividual ubjects n modern ocieties. They offer ccounts f theproliferation f nstitutions nd technologies f consent: ables of regulations, an-optical penitentiaries, ilitary ormations, onduct books, even hand-writing xer-cises. These entities ave two complementary trategies: heymakebehaviors isiblein minute etail; heyprovide for he self-correction nd improvement f behaviors.Theatre istorians ught o ookat the evidence f modern taging nd actor rainingin this light-as part of the great bourgeois project, he internalization f socialdiscipline.

Inscription/ErasureInscription s the ideological production f bodily images and behaviors. As a

process of constructing eanings from material orms, t provides dealization ndappropriation with a technical means of expression. nscription oregrounds ndreiterates avored epresentations; rasure occludes the undesirable nes. Theatrehistorians ught to remain lert o this process wherever he archives rovide uf-ficient etail.

When Thomas Southerne, or nstance, dapted for the stage Oroonoko, phraBehn's sensationalnovella depicting South American lave revolt, e retained he

carefullyrafted eroic

magesof Behn's African ero. Her

description xemplifiesthe processof deologicalnscription nd erasure s it operates n Oroonoko's ston-ishing physiognomy nd physique: [Oroonoko]was pretty all,but of a Shape themost xact hat an be fancy'd: he most famous tatuary ou'd not form he Figureof a Man more admirably urned from ead to foot. .. His Nose was rising ndRoman, nstead of African nd flat. His mouth he finest haped that ould be seen;far from hose great turn'd Lips, which are so natural o the rest of the Negroes.The whole Proportion nd Air of his Face was so nobly and exactly orm'd, hatbating his Colour, there ould be nothing n Nature more beautiful, greeable, ndHandsome. The use of classicalstatuary s models for poses and postures n theeighteenth-century tage sfamiliar ohistorians. s the further escription f Oroon-okoreveals, he ameprocessof rasure nd re-inscription arries ver ntobehavior:He had an extreme oodand gracefulMien, and all the Civility f well-bred reatMan. He had nothing f Barbarity n his Nature, but n all Points ddress'd himselfas if his Education had been in some European ourt.

The rigors f nscription nd erasure must bite more deeply as manners erve toproject he llusion fmoral ssences nd the fixity f elations. n Southerne's opularplay, Oroonoko s a PrinceEvery nch of him. He genteelly romises hathe willnever how black ngratitude y murdering he slaveholderswho possess him as

Aphra Behn, Oroonoko; r, theRoyalSlave,ed. Lore Metzger 1688;New York: Norton, 1973),7-8. See Laura Brown, The Romance of Empire: Oroonokond the Trade n Slaves in TheNewEighteenthCentury, 1-61.



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Thomas Southern, Oroonoko, ourtesy of Special Collections, Northwestern niversity ibrary.



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IDEOLOGYOF THEAESTHETIC / 161

an object.Alongwith his public chooldeportment nd delicacy f feature, ebearsthose exaltedmarks f Anglo-Saxon irtue, respect or ree rade, egardless f thecommodity, nd a reverence or private roperty, ven if that property s himself:

Ifwe are laves, hey idnotmake s slaves,But ought s in an honestwayof rade ..They aid ourprice or s andwearenowTheir roperty, part f heir state,Tomanage s they lease.

[III.ii. 105-113]12

The annihilating ower of such theatrical enegification nforms he prohibition fShakespeare's Othellon Charleston n 1807, est by being represented n the stageas characters, o matter how carefully e-inscribed, he slaves of South Carolinamight omehowbegin to think f themselves s personages. 13 his s what meanby erasure.

The transfer f nscription rom mage to behavior s the purpose of many actingtextbooks nd manuals published n the eighteenth entury nd since. The textsadvise the repetition f carefully haped sequences of gestures, ostures, nd Pas-sions, following heschematic rawings rovided by the handbooks. Here behavioris inscribed n a double sense: in the notations, ine-drawings, nd instructions fthe texts, f course, a coded repository f deal behaviors, ut also in the bodies ofthe practitioners ho use the texts nd of the spectatorswho witness the results.The texts urge the correction f ndecorous movements nd

repetitionf dealized

gestures to induce habituation, he spontaneity hat arises from utomatization,conditioned ehavior, secondnature. n other words, they ffer technical meth-odologythat regulates he nternalization f bodily discipline.

Notation f movement rojects n array f fixed points hrough which the bodymust progress, ywhich tsbeautiesmaybe measured, gainstwhich ts deficienciesmay be rendered isible, nd within which ts mastery may be displayed. Notationconfers he power to write movement, oauthorize nd control he activities f thebody, to expose each of ts appendages to a precise urveillance, ut also and con-summately, o inculcate n the body the complementary abits of self-mastery nd

docility.The utility f such a technology f the body n a period of the conceptual irth fmodern systems f industrial roduction nd social control rovides yet anothermodality o which theatre istoriansmight rofitably ttend.

Uniformity/SpecializationWhat s ballet, sked Jean Georges Noverre, but a more or less complicated

piece of machinery? 14 he presence of such topics as Gesture nd Choreography

12Thomas Southerne, Oroonoko, ds. M.E.

Novak and D. S.Jones 1695;

Lincoln:University

fNebraska Press, 1976),64.

'3Charles B. Lower, Othello as Black on Southern Stages, Then and Now in Shakespearen theSouth, d. Philip C. Kolin (Jackson: University ress of Mississippi, 1983),212.

14TheWorks fMonsieurNoverre 1782-83;rpt. New York: AMS, 1978),1: 59.



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among he ntries n ndustrial rocesses nthe great iderot/D'Alembert ncyclopediashows the general preoccupationwith controlledmovement nd time that harac-terizes he most dvanced thinking f the Enlightenment. ndeed, the Encyclopedia'sillustrations ight e best understood s a multi-volume et of nstructions n howto direct odies and appendages to carry ut various asks pertaining o the rts, hearts of manufacture, nd the arts of war. They record he mportant ut neglectedfact hat dance was a pioneer as early as the Choreographyf Feuillet f 1700) nexperimenting ith a system f graphic notation hat could inscribe he changingdistributions f bodies n space. Schematizingmovement s the eriated teps of feetacross a surface, ance notation onferred n those who mastered t a means ofdisseminating heir nscriptions nd their rasures, urging ndividual diosyncracyin the creation f a universal tyle f movement.

Dance notation nd the nnovative echnology f the body it entailed had clearapplication o the developing rts of war. Louis XIV,whose personal devotion oballet s well known to theatre istorians, eld the first mass revue of formations nclose-order rill n 1666.Close-order rill, ikeballet, uildsupon a number f uniformpositions nd movements o construct omplex equences. The fundamental in-esthetic nits ombine nd recombine n the service f ever-more omplicated pe-cialities. his paradox f he imultaneous ntensification f uniformity nd specialityis the contribution f the culture f the eighteenth entury othe twentieth. hesesystems f movement irst xplored he dea that human bodies can be employedmore or essmechanically s interchangeable arts, n important onceptual relim-

inary othe societies f today.Historians hould not uppose that hese pecialized echnologies, allet nd close-

order rill, emained solated s localnetworks f ubjection nd control. he historyofperformative ehaviors rovides lentiful xamples othe contrary. he extensionof the regularizing oncepts of uniform nd specializedbehaviors s particularlynotable n gender-specific estures nd expressions. he technologies nd disciplinesof the body entered daily ife n the form f manners, nd the comedy of mannersprovides rich rchive f pecializedbehaviors ased on the re-combination f unitsfrom basic kinesthetic exicon.

JosephAddison was

seekingo amuse his readers, f course, when he inserted

letter nto Spectator o. 102 27June 1711)describing he foundation f a military-style cademy otrain women n the use of a fan. n this mbition e succeeds. Buthis good-natured aughter might lso be appreciated within parentheses rovidedbythe micropolitics fgender stablished y n incipiently arceral ociety. e vividlyillustrates ow socialdiscipline, ikemilitary iscipline r the discipline f theatricalperformance, equires rigorous ommand f detail.Becauseregulatory etail s theessential eature f close-order rill,Addison's manual s worth uoting t length:

Women re armed with ans s Men with words, nd sometimes o more xecutionwith hem: o the nd herefore hat adiesmy e entire istressesf he Weaponwhichthey ear, haveerected p an Academy or he raining p ofyoungWomen n theExercisef he an, ccording othe most ashionable irs nd Motions hat re nowpractised t Court. he Ladieswhocarry ansundermeare drawn p twice Day nmygreat all,where hey re nstructed n the Useof their rms, nd exercisedythefollowing ords f Command,



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IDEOLOGY OF THE AESTHETIC /165

Handleyour ans,Unfurl our ans,

Discharge our ans,Ground our ans,Recover our ans,Flutter our ans.

Bythe right bservation f these few plain Words of Command, Woman of a tolerableGenius who will apply her self diligently o her Exercise or he Spaceof but one halfYear, shall be able to give her Fan all the Graces that can possible enter nto that ittlemodish Machine.

But to the End that my Readersmay form o themselves right otion of this Exercise,I beg Leave to explain t to them n all its Parts. When my femaleRegiment s drawn upin Array, with very ne her Weapon in her Hand, upon my giving heWord to handletheir ans,each of them hakes her Fan at me with Smile, then gives her Right-handWoman a Tap upon the Shoulder, hen presses her Lips with he Extremity f her Fan,then ets her Arms fall n an easy Motion, nd stands n Readiness to receive he nextWord of Command. All this s done with closeFan,and is generally earned n the firstWeek.

The next Motion s that of unfurling he an, n which re comprehended everal ittleFlirts nd Vibrations, s also gradual and deliberate Openings with many voluntaryFallings sunder n the Fan it self, that re seldom learned under a Month's Practice.

Upon my giving heWord o dischargeheir ans, heygiveone generalCrack hatmaybe heard at a considerable istance when the Wind sits fair. . .15

Theapparatus fproduction fmeaning xtends tsdomain naway that oucault'slanguageof corporeally xplicit ower relations omprehends: Over the whole sur-face of contact between the body and the object t handles, power is introduced,fastening hem to one another. t constitutes body-weapon, body-tool, ody-machine omplex. ''16he nscription f manners s a style f behavior, ikethe rigorsof training nd drill, lourishes hen a class or a culture equires uniform meansof naturalizing nd universalizing ts dominion. The ideology f the esthetic tandsin relation o society s that ittle modish Machine does to the adies in Addison'shypothetical cademy. t is an instrument ontrolled y well-trainedmanipulators,but inevitably t inserts tself nto the bodies of the manipulators hemselves. m-powering gestures, t pinions ouls.

There s no document f civilization, rote Walter Benjamin, which s not atthe same time document f barbarism. '7 believe hat hetheatre oes not escapethe rigor f this phorism, hat he aesthetic ontributes ts share o the constructionof relationships f power and ideology, nd that t n turn s shaped by their eeds.

5Thepectator,d. Donald F. Bond Oxford: larendon ress, 1965),1: 426-27.For valuableaccount of performance n relationship omanners, ee J. L. Styan, Restoration omedy n Performance(Cambridge: Cambridge University ress, 1986).

'6MichelFoucault, Discipline nd Punish: The Birth f the Prison, rans. Alan Sheridan (1975;NewYork: Vintage Books, 1979),153.

'7Walter enjamin, Theses on the Philosophy of History n Illuminations, d. Hannah Arendt,trans. Harry ohn (NewYork: hocken Books, 1969),256. Zohn's translation f Kultur s civilizationplays upon the distinction n German usage between Kultur, with its implications f national andracial identity, nd Zivilisation, ith ts suggestion of a process of acquiring manners. See NorbertElias, The Sociogenesisof the Difference etween Kultur nd Zivilisation n German Usage in The



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Balletreplaced the tournament s the courtly pectacle under the watchful yes ofthe sovereign, isplacing he ancient hivalric ode of ndividual ombat with theconcept of a modern disciplinary nsemble. By mproving iscipline nd mannersinterdependently, oltaire aid of LouisXIV, the King ucceeded nmaking hithertoturbulent ation peaceful eople dangerous nly o ts enemies. 18 ust ow muchmoredangerous rancewouldbecomewhen the Revolution dded mass conscriptionto the new disciplinary echnologies f the body, her enemies would discoverwhenNapoleonmarched n their orders, ielding ot thousands, ut hundreds f thou-sands of bodies arrayed with the precision f choreography.

In this ightNapoleon's provision f ballerinas s a kind of military imulacra ada logic of its own. This was all the more ogical n a war of imperial xpansion,extending he organizational echnologies f the Century f Light past the bordersof Europe to the Dark Continents eyond. One of the chief elling-points f self-mastery s the power it confers o bestow ts benefits pon millions f others llaround the world. Since the eighteenth entury, he mproved iscipline f bodieshas been a growth ndustry n the West, nd it remains principal xport.

History fManners, rans. Norman Jephcott 1939;New York: Urizen Books, 1978),3-10, and WalterBenjamin, lluminationenFrankfurt M.: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1961),271-72: Es ist niemals ein Dok-ument der Kultur, hne zugliech ein solches der Barbarei u sein.

18Voltaire, ieclede LouisXIV, in OeuvresCompletesParis: Garnier, 878),14:516.

art. theatre history and the ideology of the aesthetic

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