Aromatic Heterocyclic Chemistry

David T. Davies

-" S

-"eN

.... , Oll'OlD ICII~CI 'UILICATIOHl ' ZENECA ,

Aromatic Heterocyclic Chemistry

David T. Davies

-'" S

-",eN

.... , O~'O.D ICIINCI 'UIL'CAT'O~I I ZENECA

Aromatic Heterocyclic Chemistry

David T. Davies

-'" S

-",eN

.... , O~'O.D ICIINCI 'UIL'CAT'O~I I ZENECA

Aromatic Heterocyclic Chemistry David T. Davies SmrthKline Beecham Pharmaceuticafs, Hariow, Essex

OXFORD VNIVERSITY PRBSS

Contents

Introduction 1

2 Pyrroles, thiophenes, and furans 10

3 Oxazoles, imidazoles, and thiazoles 20

4 Isoxazoles, pyrazoles, and isothiazoles 28

5 Pyridines 35

6 Quinolines and isoquinolines 46

7 Indoles 53

8 Five-membered ring heterocyc1es with three or foUr heteroatoms 61

9 Six-membered ring heterocycles containing one oxygen atom 67

10 Pyrimidines 73

I I Answers to problems 78

Index 87

"

1 ¡ 1. Introduction ?

1.1 Heterocyclic chemistry

Heterocyclic chemistry is a large and important branch of organic chemistry. Heterocyc1es occur in nature, for instance in nuc1eic acids (see Chapter 10) and indole aIkaloids (see Chapter 7). Synthetic heterocyc1es have widespread uses as herbicides (e.g. 1.1), fungicides (e.g. 1.2), insecticides (e.g. 1.3), dyes (e.g. 1.4), organic conductors (e.g. 1.5), and, of course, pharmaceutÍcal products such as the anti-u1cer drug 1.6.

el

N~N H I~ 11 H

EtN ~ N /'--- NEt

1.1

s s [ >-=< ]

s s

1.5

1.2 Aromaticity and heteroaromaticity

1.3

Any ring system containing at least one heteroatom (i.e. an atoro other than carbon - typically nitro gen, oxygen, or sulphur) can be described as heterocyc1ic. This broad definition encompasses both aromatic heterocyc1es

. (such as pyridine 5.1) aild their non-aromatic counterparts (piperidine 1.7).

o N o

H 5.1 1.7

Aromatic heterocyc1es are described as being heteroaromatic, and we shall concentrate on these systems in this book at the expense of more saturated systems. Let us now consider the concept of aromaticity with regard to benzene.

1.6

The compound numbering system in this chapter is not as odd as it might seem. For more on compound 5.1 see Chapter 5, etc .

2 Introduction

H

[ )~XH .. lOo

H ~ H

H

1.Sa

H H

H*H 1 H*H H H

H .4 H H H

H H

l.8b 1.9

The earbon atoms in benzene are sp2 hybridised, and the hydrogen atoms are in the same plane as the earbon atoms. The remaining six p orbital s are at

~ghLanglest()the plane of the rin.g and c~oniaiñ~~~1X1telecftollf. Benzene fulfils the HückeIcrltena for aromatidtyasapplieirtocyclic poI yenes containing 4n + 2 electrons (where n=l in this case) in filled p orbital s eapable of overlap.

Although two mesomeric representations 1.8a,b can be drawn for benzene, this does not imply two rapidly-interconverting forros. Rather, the six 1t

eleetrons are deloealised in molecular orbitals resulting in an annular electron cIoud aboye and below the plane of the ringo Benzene can also be represented by structure 1.9, which emphasises the cyclical arrangement of electrons. In agreementvvitllthistheory, the car~n-carbon bond lengths are all equivalent·

I I

1 J 1

I i ¡ 1 ¡ I ~ ¡ I 1 ¡

f ~

~ (0.14~nm) and intermediate between that oí a~single(Oj54Iiíiü !lri(rao~~l~~~ . (Oj33 nm) carbon-:earboIl bºn~~.The extra~ theriiiódYIJ.amic stabiIisation' ¡

imparted to benzene by this phenomenon of electron delocalisation, called 'resonance', can be determined indirectly. Real, delocalised benzene is thermodynamically more stable than a theoretical cyclohexatriene molecule (i.e. non-delocalised structure 1.8a) by around 150 kJ mol-l.

How does this concept of aromaticity apply to typical heterocycIes such as pyridine 5.1 and pyrrole 2.1? Pyridine can formally be derived from benzene by replacement of a eH unit by an sp2 hybridised nitrogen atom. Consequently, pyridine has a lone pair of electrons instead of a hydrogen atom. However the six 1t electrons are essentially unchanged, and the pyridine is a relatively 3.romatic heterocycIe.

o· N

.0 N H

5.1 :U

A difficulty arises with five-membered heterocycles such as pyrrole, which at first sight would appear to have only four 1t electrons, two short of the 4n + 2 Hückel criteria for aromaticity. The nitrogen atom is sp2 hybridised and formally contains a lone pair of electrons in the remaining p orbital at right angles to the ringo However, the system is delocalised, as shown below.

O~eO~O e el eN eN eN

H H H

r j

'1 I I ¡ !

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 3

Thus, delocalisation of the nitrogen lone pair completes the sextet of electrons required for aromaticity. These two examples illustrate the point that certain heterocycles (closely analogous to benzene and naphthalene) such as pyridine 5.1, pyrimidine 10.1, and quinoline 6.1 are aromati~Q-y right' whereas other heterocyc1es s~ch as pyrrole 2.1, imidazole 3.2, and triazole 8.7 have to 'earn' aromaticity by delocalisation of a lone pair of electrons from the heteroatom. .

o N

es N

5.1 10.1 6.1

o N H

2.1

(~ N H

3.2

What are the consequences of this concept of lone pair delocalisation for a related series of heterocycles such as pyrrole 2.1, thiophene 2.2, and furan 2.3? As delocalisationresults in electron 10ss from the h~teroatom concerned, the éxtelltordelociUIsation (andhence aromaticity) will vary withthe electronegativiW of the heteroatom. The highly electronegative oxygen atom in furaIÍ holds on to electron density more strongly than the heteroatom in thiophene or pyrrole. Furan is generally considered to have a non-aromatic electron distribution fairly close to that depicted by structure 2.3.

o N

1[) s o o

H

2.1 2.2 2.3

In fact the thorny problem as'to how aromatic is a particular heterocyc1e or series of heterocycles has been a preoccupation of physical organic chemists for 'so~e time. Bond lengths, heats of combustion, spectroscopic datií; and theoretica11y-calculated resonance energies have a11 been invoked, but an absolute measure of aromaticity remains elusive. Nevertheless, trends regarding relative aromaticity will be alluded to in this text as they arise.

1.3 Synthesis of heterocycles

There are many syntheses of the major heterocycles and they are often complementary irt that they afford different substitution patterns on the ringo Most of the synthetic inethods we shall examine are fairly classical (indeed some are decidedly ancieiit!) although many of the specific examples are quite modern. Many classical syntheses of hete,rocyc1es revolve around the condensl;ltion reaction in its various guises. Let us consider the mechanism of a simple acid-cataIysed condensation, that of generalised ketone 1.10 and amine 1.11 to give imine 1.12.

Protonation of the l\etone oxygen atom activates the ketone to nucleophilic attack by the amine. Lbss of a proton from 1.13 produces neutral intermediate 1.14. A second protonation, once again on the oxygen atom affords 1.15, which on 10ss of a water molecule and a proton gives the

r¡~\ tz_, ,N N H

8.7

For a review on the concept of heterocyclic aromaticity see Katritzky et al (1991).

..

4 In troductio n

The symbol = denotes a dlsconnection. an analytical process in which a structure is transformed into a suitable precursor

imine 1.12. AH these steps are 'reversible, but in practice if water can be removed from the equilibrium (for instance by azeotropic distillation) then such reactions can be forced to completion. This type of reaction occurs many times in this text, but in future wj~l not be presented in such detail. The student is strongly advised to work through, using pen and paper, the mechanism shown below and the many subsequent mechanisms. Confidence with reaction mechanisms will facilitate understanding of heterocyclic chemistry and organic chernistry in general.

RJ cataIytic He Rl 1.12 'F 0 + H2N-R2 .. ¡=N-R2

1.10 Rl 1.11 -H2O Rl

~+He ~-H20 -H

H,e H Rl Cf/H R1,O-H _He R O-H

+He RIX~

~e ~ ><~~H ~ l¡(N,H ~ N ... H

Rl Rl I 'H Rl I Rl I

H2N-R2 Rz, R2 Rz

1.13 1.14 1.15

The disconnection approach to synthesis essentiaHy involves working backwards from a target compound in a logical manner (so-called retrosynthesis), so that a number of possible routes and starting materials are suggested. This approach has been applied mainly to alicyclic, carbocyclic. and saturated heterocyclic systems. Retrosynthetic analyses are presented in this text not as an all-embracing answer to synthetic problems, but rather as an aid to understanding the actual construction of unsaturated heterocycles.

Returning to the condensation presented above, this leads to an important disconnection. The imine-like linkage present in' several heterocycles (generalised structure 1.16) can arise from cyclisation of 1.17, containing amino and carbonyl functionalities.

Now consider condensation of ammonia with ketoester 1.18. The isolated product i8 not imine 1.19 but the thermodynamically more stable enarnine tautomer 1.2.0 which has' a. conjugated doubl~ boIlrl system and a strong intramolecular hydrogen ... bond. Although not a heterocyclic example, 1.20 ' illustrates thatan~enamiD.e:m¡e linkage, as in generalised heterocyc1e 1.21, is also accessible by a condensatio,n reaction. ' ,

~C02Et

O

1.18

~ ~C02Et

NH

1.19 ,

.. OEt

r<? ~N ... H , H 1.20

.....

! f , ! , I 1 i 1, , ¡ í

I I

f

1,.

¡ f

I I ¡

¡ r

¡ ¡

r 1 1 f i ,

¡

j

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 5

In a retrosynthetic sense, formal hydrolysis of the carbon-nitrogen bond of 1.21 reveals enoll.22 which would exist as the more stable ketone tautomer 1.23.· Note that in the hydrolytic disconnection step the carbon becomes attached to a hydroxy group and the nitro gen to a hydrogen atom - there is no change in the oxidation levels of carbon or nitrogen.

§>

1.22 1.23

Unlike our initial imine disconnection which is restricted to nitro gen heterocycles (with one or two specific exceptions such as pyrylium salts, see Chapter 9), the heteroatom in the enamine or enamine-like disconnection could be divalent. Therefore this disconnection is also applicable to oxygen­and sulphur-containing heterocycles, typified by 1.24 and 1.25.

RO . §>

1.24

RO §> R'o-SH 1.25

Let us see how this disconnection approach can rationalize the synthesis of pyrrole 2.16.

~ N -0r-OH NH2

-0r- ~--nr-H

2.16

Retrosynthetic analysis suggests a double condensation between diketone 1.26 and arnmonia. Pyrrole 2.16 can actually be prepared if this way - see Chapter 2.2.

Anpther aid to understanding heterocyclic synthesis in general is the fact that a large number of five- and six-membered heterocycles.can be constructed from various combinations· of small acyclic molecules by complementary matching of nucleophilic and electrophilic functionality.

-rr, 1.26 O O

e-e I ,

!Be e!B

'l-ze) NH

Returning to the synthesis of pyrrole 2.16, dl.ketone 1.26 can be regarded as a four-carbon bis-electropb,ilic fragment and ammonia, in this instance, as a bis-nucleophilic nitro gen fragrnent. Arnmonia can form up to three bonds in a nucleophilic manner.

O OH O O

+ NH3 1.26

6 Introduction

In this particular instance the correct oxidation level autornatically results from the condensation reaction, giving pyrrole 2.16 directly. In other cases cyclisation does not afford the correct oxidation level and an unsaturated systern has to be oXldised to achieve arornaticity. For instance, 1,5-diketones 1.27 react with ammonia to give dihydropyridines 1.28 which can be oxidised to pyridines 1.29.

D NH3 ..

1.1.7

H H n R)lNJl.R

H

1.28

[O] Do Ü I /.

R N R -2H

1.1.9

Examples of this cyclisation-oxidation strategy include the synthesis of pyridotriazine 5.32 (page 42) and syntheses of quinolines and isoquinolines (Chapter 6). Sorne examples of nucleophilic and electrophilic fragments are shown in Table 1.1. Several points arlse from the tableo

Consider acylating species such as acid chlorides. Acylation of diamine 1.30 initialIy gives amide 1.31 which undergoes a condensation to produce benzirnidazole 1.32. The carbonyl rnoiety is acting exclusively as an electrophilic centre.

O

~NH2' __ R_)l __ a~ ..

~NH2 1.30

However, deJocalisation of the nitro gen Jone pair in the arnide linkage (see rnesom~ric representations 1.33a,b) produces a nucJeophilic oxygen atorn which can react with electrophiles as shown. .. .

[ O 0 6

1 R1'NAR ~ .. Rl EBÁ ....N R

, 2 , 2

H t.33a H 1.33b

EEB o-E Ojo

Rl....NJt:R .. RIEBÁ 'N R ,'-' 2 I 2

H H

1

1 i ¡ ! ¡ ¡

I ¡

I !

I '1 ¡ f

I 1 ¡

I r

r ·1 1

1 j ! .'

Nucleopbilic fragments

No. oC ring atolOS

1 NH3 , HzO ,HzS (see Chapters 2 and 5)

2 H2N-NH2 ,H2N-OH (see pyrazole and isoxazole syntMsis, Chapter4)

3

(see thiazole syntMsi~, Chapter 3, and pyrimidine syntMsis, Chapter 10)

(see quinoline syntMsls, Chapter 6)

4 ((1 NH2 (see benzimido.zole syntMsis, Chapter 1)

~ NH2

s ~ (see isoqulnoline syntMsis, Chapter 6) Vl NH2

~ Electrophilic fragmenfs

No. oC ring atolOS

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 7

O

1 RAX (X = leaving group. ego CI- see benzimÚÜl%ole syntMsis. Chapter 1

and isoquinoline syntMsis. Chapter 6)

O

2 ~~R X

O O

3 Rl~R2 R¡. R2 = alkyl or O-a/kyl

(see thiazole syntMsis, Chapter 3)

O

"--.-(~ (see quinoline syntMsis, Chapter 6)

(see pyrazole and isoxazole syntMsis. Chapter4, and pyrimidine syntMsis, Chapter 10)

4 R~R (see pyrrole. thiopMne. andfuran syntheses. Chapter 2) O O

Nucleophilic L Electrophilic fragments

No. Qf.rlrrg atoms

O~ 2

RyX

O

"k" O R

O

3 rtR

U NH2

(see Chapter 1 and oxazole synthesis. Chapter 3)

(see Chapter 1 and coumarin synthesis. Chapter 9)

(see oxazole synthesis, Chapter 3. and Knorr pyrrole

synthesis, Chapter 2)

8lntroduction

The reaction of an acylating species with a nucleophile is shown below.

For the.s¡lke of simplicity in this fext the two-stage process is abbreviated Ihus:

Amides can eyc1ize in this manner as, for example, in the aeylation of amino acids 1.34 to afford oxazolidinones 1.35.

o (o O O

O excess A Rl)f~AR2 R100

R100H

R2 Cl ~

H .... ~yO ~ N~

NH2 1.34 R2 R2 1.35

Aeylating speeies are thus ineluded in both electrophilic and nuc1eophilie/electrophilic eategories in Table 1.1. For a related example see the synthesis of oxazoles in Chapter 3.

1,3-Dicarbonyl compounds, such as malonate derivatives, can also be c1assified under two eategories. As well as reacting simply as a thtee-atom bis-electrophilic fragment (as in the synthesis of barbiturate 10.25 (page 77), an alternative reaetivity is available. Condensation (by nuc1eophilic attaek) of the active methylene earbon and electrophilic reaetion at just one of the carbonyI groups is a two-atom nuc1eophilic/electrophilie profile, as seen in the preparation of coumarin 9.16.

H

Br'«: ~ I O

~ OH

O

"Jl-OEt Br'(JC(C02Et

+ ~~ ~ ~ I -..;:: EtO O - H20 ~ O O

-EtOH 9.16

These eoncepts of retrosynthesis and heterocycle construction will help put the syntheses encountered in the following chapters into a broader perspective.

1.4 References

Textbooks

Aeheson, R.M. (1967). An introduction to the chemistry 01 heterocyclic compounds, (2nd edn). Wiley, New York.

Paquette, L.A. (1966). PrincipIes 01 modern heterocyclic chemistry. Benjamin, New York.

Joule, J.A. and Smith, G.F. (1979). Heterocyclic chemistry, (2nd edn). Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. GiIchrist, T.L. (1985). Heterocyclic chemistry.· Longrnan, Harlow.

i f

I .)

f

I

I

r 1 1 1 ;¡ !

'J 1 i

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 9

The first two (Acheson and Paquette) are still very good texts even today. Of the more recent pair, both are warmly recommended. Joule and Smith is possibly a more introductory text than Gilchrist, which contains many joumal references and is pitched at the advanced undergraduate/postgraduate leve!. See Gilchrist for a discussion of the nuc1eophilic/electrophilic fragment approach to heterocyclic synthesis.

Warren, S. (1978). Designing organic syntheses, p.l50-172. Wiley, Chichester.

Warren S. (1982). Organic synthesis - the disconnection approach, p. 3260-345. Wiley, Chichester.

Reference books and series

Coffey, S. (ed.) (1973 - 1986). Heterocyclic compounds (Vols. 4A - 4K of Rodd's chemistry of carbon compounds). EIsevier, Amsterdam.

Elderfield, R.C. (ed.) (1950 - 1967). Heterocyclic chemistry, Vols. 1 - 9. Wiley, New York.

Katritzky, A.R. and Boulton, A.J. (ed.) (1963 - 1989). Advances in heterocyclic chemistry, Vols. 1 - 45. Academic Press, Orlando.

Katritzky, A.R. and Rees, C.W. (ed.) (1984). Comprehensive heterocyclic chemistry, Vols. 1 - 8. Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Katritzky, A.R. et al, (1991). Heterocycles, 32, 127-161. Sammes, P.G. (ed.) (1979). Heterocyclic chemistry (Vol. 4 of

Comprehensive organic chemístry, ed. D. Barton and W.D. Ollis). Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Weissburger, A. and Taylor, E.C. (ed.) (1950 - 1990). The chemistry of 'heterocyclic compounds. Wiley Interscience, New York.

AH of these sources contain exceHent reviews on virtuaHy every aspect of heterocyclic chemistry. In particular, Katritzky and Rees is a thoroughly comprehensive work. For those particularly interested in the synthesis of heterocyc1es as pharrnaceutical agents see:

Lednicer, D. and Mitscher, L.A. (1977, 1980, 1984, and 1990). Organic chemistry of drug synthesis, Vols. 1 - 4. Wiley, New York.

Experimental references

In this introductory text there is Hule detail regarding solvents, yields, workup procedures, etc. However, several chapters reference a relevant experimental procedure (taken from Organic syntheses or Vogel) which the student is strongly encouraged to read. For an excellent selection of experimental procedures for the synthesis of heterocycles see:

Fumiss, B.S., Hannaford, A.J., Smith, P.W.G., and TatcheH, A.R. (1989). Vogel's textbook of practical organic chemistry (5th edn), pp. 1127 - 1194. Longman, Harlow.

<1 The numbering of heterocycles 11 generally starts at the heteroatom

aH Ne H I H

Under extreme conditions of acidity pyrrole is protonated, but at the C2 position.

Note that protonation of the pyrrole nitrogen would lead to a non-aromatic cation.

2. Pyrroles, thiophenes, and,

furans

2.1 Introduction

Pyrrole 2.1, thiophene 2.2, and furan 2.3, are five-membered ring heteroaromatic compounds containing one heteroatom. They derive their aromaticity from delocalisation of a lone pair of electrons from the heteroatom. Consequently the lone pair is not available for protonation and hence these heterocycles are not basic.

4¡¡-~,? I S~ __ ) 2

NI H

2.1

Th~ basis and extent of their aromaticity is discussed 'in Chapter 1. In summary, the capacity for the lone pair on a particular heteroatom to be deloc3.1.ised is inversely related_t() the. electronegativity of the heteroatom. For, instañce~ .. furan is the least aroma tic of tbe . trio 'because--oxygenhas the greatest electronegativity and hence ~esomeric representations 2.4b-e make relatively less of a contribution to the electronic structure of furan than they do in ~e cases of pyrrole and thiophene. The order of aromaticity is furan < pyrrole < thiophene. We shall see later how this variatÍon in aromaticity affects the reactivities of these tbree related heterocycles.

2.4a X=NH,S,O

2.4b 2.4c

eo ~ ~ X El)

2.4d

y] Me

A small number of simple pyrroles such as 2.5 and 2.6 occur naturally. Far more important are the tetramic pyrrole derivatives (porphyrins) such as chlor.ophyll-a 2.7 and haem 2.8.

2.5

I "

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 11

2.8

Acetylenic thiophene 2.9, found in sorne species of higher plánts, is one of the few naturalIy-occurring thiophenes. However, the thiophene ring is used in several important pharmaceutical products, such as the penicillin antibiotic 2.10.

2.9 2.10

In contrast to the pyrrole and thiophene series, the furan nucleus occurs in many plant-derived terpenes such as 2.11. The most important furan­containing drug is 2.12, which reduces gastric acid secretion and is important in the treatment of ulcers.

NO NHMe

~ N~S~NM~ H O

2.12

2.2. Synthesis of pyrroles, thiophenes, and furans

We shaH first examine a general synthesis applicable to aH three heterocycles, then consider two specific syntheses of pyrroles.

Retrosynthetic cleavage of a carbon-heteroatom bond in 2.13gives enol 2.14 which is equivalent to ketone 2.15. Repeating the process gives us a l,4-dicarbonyl compound and the heteroatom-containing fragment such as a primary amine or hydrogen sulphide.

Chlorophyll-a Is a plant pigment Involved in the crucial photosynthetic process in which the energy 01 sunlight is harnessed to incorporate carbon dioxide into plant metabolism. Haem, however, is lundamental to mammalian biology, belng the oxygen-binding component 01 haemoglobin. Oxygen absorbed Irom the air is transported around the body whlle témporarily co­ordinated to the iron atom of haemoglobin, whlch occurs in the red blood ceUs.

Terpenes are plant-derived natural products constructed of multiples of the five-carbon hydrocarbon isoprene.

12 Pyrroles, thiophenes, andfurans

2.13

The mechanism is illustrated by the preparation of 2,5-dimethyl pyrrole 2.16 and is simply.two consecutive condensatio·ns.

R;z R3

~Rl~R4' O O

+ RNH2,H2S,H20

The forward process is known as the Paal-Knorr synthesis. Tbis is a ver':! straightforward synthesis limited only by the accessibility' of the 1,4-

-CiIcarbonyl precuisors.

1)-H

2.16

-~O ... -(}O H

~H ...... __

H

1l

The Paal-Knorr synthesis can similarly be applied to thiophenes, e.g. compounds 2.17 - 2.20.

PhD--

H2S .~ -h- P2SS ~ ...

HCl Ph S S O O

Ph-i)-Ph

P2SS

O O

O O 2.17 2J8

... ~ Ph~C02Me H2S

HCl • JO----Ph S Ph O O

Ph S C02Me

2.19 2.20

When hydrogen sulphide' is the heteroatom source the mechanism is similar to the pyrrole case.

H2S--.. . ~ Ph-O-- ~ Ph~ ~ HO¡()-

O O If9 EB,.o~o H -cJ O

n -H20!/\/ H -01= \.. /\ J!..J>- .....- ~_/<, -+- Ph Y'f'" Q ....-Ph4-_ 1(-Ph S Ph S OH SH HEB SO

2.17

However, the situation is slight1y difierent when phosphorus (V) sulphide is used. This reagent converts ketones to thioketones, by exchange of a phosphorus-sulphur double bond with a carbon-oxygen double bond.

+

1 I

I 1

1 f

I 1 j 1

1 i i 1 1

1

f t 1

1 I t ¡

I ! 1

.1 I

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 13

For instance, in the synthesis of 2.19, the 1,4-diketone is converted into the corresponding 1,4-dithioketone followed by 10ss of hydrogen su1phide.

--fJ-Ph S Ph

í\ }>2SS í\. - H2S Ph~ /¡-Ph ---. Ph~ tT-Ph ~

O O S S 2.19

Our retrosynthetic ana1ysis of the Paa1-Knorr.synthesis leads to a prob1em when applied to furan, as it implies addition of a water molecule, followed by elimination of two water molecules. In practice, simple dehydration of a 1,4-dicarbonyl compound leads to furans as in the preparation of 2.21.

Returning again to pyrr01es, probably the most widely-used method for their preparation is the Knorr pyrrole synthesis, which is the condensation of a ketone 2.22 with an et-aminoketone 2.23 to give pyrrole 2.13, via enamine

The mechanism 01 the cyclisation step is similar to that of thiophene 2.17.

2.24. A reasonl;l.b1e mechanism is shown below, although none of the (i inter:rrlecliates is isolated.

2.22

R2 R3

W" R¡-1!...N)-.. R4

H

2.13

The a.-aminoketones are often prepared by nitrosation of an active methylene group followed by reduction of the oxime to the amine (e.g. 2.25 to 2.26 to 2.27).

O H~o O O

~C02Et ~ ~C02Et ~C02Et - CsHuOH <><C02Et El)

~ ~ -. .. 2.25 ~ HUNÜH ~

AcOH .. N, o ~CsHll

As a.-aminoketones are prone to se1f-condensation (see page 22 for a dlSCusswnofa=:amiñokeioIlesJ,· tue Ini tiál condensadonstepis fadlifited by ...

--.R2iil2~2roein7f-anelectiÓri~witndiawing group.-This enhánces the -e.lectrophilíc llatureof ihe ketone carhonyl gÍ"oup thereby increasing the rate

of the desired reaction, and favours enamine tautomer 2.24 over the imino

N .... OH

2.26

O

~C02Et Zn .. AcOH NH2

2.27

14 Pyrroles, thiophenes, ami furans

The Knorr pyrrole synthesis consists of a ketone and amine condensing to give an enamine, followed by intramolecular cyclisation of this enamine onto the remaining ketone.

Note that pyrrole reacts with electrophiles on carbon, lika an enamine.

tautomer because of conjugation with the electron-withdrawing group. A selection of Knorr pyrrole syntheses, showing the key intermediate enamines'l is shown below. t

i CO.)Et 0y

C", .. ° E ,lo ~ l' ~ ~ ~ ~NX:O Et - N C02Et H2N C02Et H 2

H '

CO.)Et

~j C1-0:( --E ,lo ~

N N H H

c0.2Et O~,Hll CO Et COlEt C,Hl1

~ 0J:C,Hl1 K-)0

~ I ~ ~ ~ N N COlEt HlN

COlEt H COlEt H

Ph Ph

Ph:t °XPh

~ Ph lL °X

Ph ___t�_ b(

H ° HlN' Ph N Ph N Ph H H

2.3 Electrophilic substitution of pyrrofe, thiophene, and furan

AH three heterocycles undergo aromatic substitution reactions, though their reactivities vary considerably. Let us consider a generalised mechanism and how the stability of the two possible intermediates affects the position of substitution.

COj:'[OE~ eO~ rrfLE Ji: O-E t} XH XH XH X

e e 2.28a 2.28b 2.28c E

)' [ H E 0-. «5 ~ U ~

X=NH,S,O 2.298 2.29b

e -H -.

E

Ó X

The intermediate derived from attack at the e2 position has greater delocalisation of the positive charge (mesomeric forms 2.28a,b,c) than that derived from attack at the e3 position (mesomeric forms 2.29a,b). As the charge is more extensively delocalised in the former, this intermediate is at lower energy. This in turn is reflected in a lower activation energy for this pathway and manifested in a selectivity for electrophílic substitution at the e2 position over the e3 position. The 'actual isomer ratio depends on the heterocycle, the electrophile, and the precise conditions,aUhoughin many cases such reactions are virtuaHy regiospecific, and only the e2 substitution

1 J

f 4 l f

1

1 ! ¡

I ~ 1

I !

I i

r . Aromalle hel",ocyelie eheml.<try 15

~ products are isolated. Very reactive electrophiles (such as the nitronium ion ji N02+) exhibít low~r selectivity because they tend to be less discriminating g , as to where they attack the heteroaromatic nucleus. ~ Thi': ease of electrophilic substitution is pyrrole > furan > thiophene > li benzene. , ~ pyrrole is extremely reactive towards electrophiles wmle thiophene, the :; most aromatlc of the trio, is much less reactive. At a very rough .~ approximation, the reactivity of thiophene is of the order of a heteroatom-, substituted benzene derivative such as phenol. Despite large differences in

~~ . the rates of electrophilic substitutions there are some important aromatic substitution reactions common to all three heterocycles.

The Vilsmeier reaction is the formylation of reactive aromatic compounds by using a combination of phosphorus oxychloride and N ,N-dimethyIformamide, followed by a hydrolytic workup.

o X

Oyo X=NH,S,O H

The reaction proceeds by formation of the electrophilic Vilsmeier complex 2.30, followed by electrophilic substitution of the heterocycle. The formyl group is generated in the hydrolytic workup. Pyrrole, thiophene, and furan all undergo this formylation which is highly selective for the e2 position.

Cl

H~NM~ ele El)

2.30

AH three heterocycles undergo sulphonation with the pyridine-sulphur trioxide complexo This behaves like a mild source of sulphur trioxide, enabling the sulphonation to be carried out under essentially neutral conditions.

o X

X=NH,S,O Furan and pyrrole are not stable to mineral acids, but acetyl nitrate can be

used for the nitration of all three heterocycles.

T.o give a quantitative feel for these oifferences in reactivity, data for the bromination of three representative derivatives are shown below.

X Relativo Rato

s O 1.2 x lOZ

NH 5.6x 108

.. QyO -HNM~

H

:.~::::~~ ::::::::: a~d furans Whilst!he meohanism shown above applies to pyrrole and !hiophene,!he I important theoretical point: nÍtration of furan with acetyl nitrate gives the 2,5-addition product 2.32, j because furan is not very aromatic V and the driving force to 're- arising from attack of acetate ion on the intermediate cation 2.31. Treatment i aromatise' by loss of a proton is ()f~,"-~g _withI'yridine eliminates the elements of acetic acid proaucing J not very strong¡ cation 2.31 c~n nitrofur!l!!_b33.------ i be intercepted to give 2.32. This O O ~,~!,~'. behaviour is not observed with 11 Ji

pyrrole and thiophene. eo"'~"'O~ ~ O ~ UNO~H~N02_ACOH .. lf:J- ~

Observe that electrophilic substitution occurs at the e3 position when both the C2 and CS positions are blocked.

O (' ~ ES H Ac~ O H O N02 ¡ 2.3 Aod' 2.31 232 Ca 233 ¡

Thiophene, alkyI-substituted furans, and especially pyrrole, undergo Mannich reactions. ~

o CH1O/HNEt1 ~NEtl .. N AcOH N H H

o CH1O/HNM~ ~NMel .. S HCl S

--O CH1O/HNMez ~NM~ .. O AcOH O

This involves condensation of the heterocycle, formaldehyde, and an amine (usually a secondary amine) to give an aminomethyl derivative.

Me1NH+CHzO AcOH ES

CH;¡:=. NMel

.. ~NM~ X

The Friedel-Crafts acylation and aIkylation reactions are fundamental processes in aromatic chemistry. Pyrroles and furans are not stable to the Lewis acids necessary for these reactions, but thiophenes are stable to Lewis acids, and do undergo Friedel-Crafts acylation and alkylation.

o S

O S

PhCOCI- ..

AlCl3

EtBr ..

f?y0 Ph

~O

~ s

¡ 1

I f

1

I f ~

¡ I ¡ t ¡ 1 1 , ¡

¡

1 ! !

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 17

The reactivity of all three heterocyles is considerably reduced when electron-withdrawing groups are present on the ringo This is important in the synthesis of l'yrrole_~Ii.vatives a~Kad(Is~ ~l!emicaI stability to the ring; ~1:l~ir~~~I1"~t~~e~erformed inthepresence of Lewis~á.cias. .

---fJ-S COZMe

o

¿" O

CHzO

HCI

AcONOz ~

¿o H

1 ~ NOz °

2.4 Anion chemistry of pyrroles, thiophenes, and furans

Pyrrole has a weakly acidic hydrogen atom attached to the nitrogen (pKa= 17.5) and can be deprotonated by strong bases. The sodium and potassium salts are ionie in character and the naked anion tends to react on nitrogen as in the preparation of N-methyI pyrrole 2.34. The corresponding magnesium derivative 2.35 has more covalent character and tends to react more on carbon than nitrogen, as in the preparation of pyrrole aldel:\yde 2.36

o NaNH2 O MeI O po po 2.34 N N N H e Na$ Me

2.1

r:- J?~ O

O po O~ OEt

Do ~H~ Qyo N Cr: N H H MgBr H H 2.1 2.35 2.36

N-methyl pyrrole 2.34, thiophene, and furan can be metallated at the C2 position with alkyl lithium reagents. This position is more activated to deprotonation than the C3 position because of the electron-withdrawing inductive effect of the heteroatom. The nucleophilic 2-lithio species can then be reacted with various electrophiles, as in the preparation of 2.37, 2.38, . .

The regíochemístry of these reactíons ís easily explaíned by ratíoilalísatíons from classícal benzene chemístry, Le. electron­wíthdrawíng groups dírect meta.

:¡

J 18 Pyrroles, thiophenes, and furans .j

The precise nature of the carbon­lithium bond is beyond the scope of this book. Organolithium intermediates are here represented as carbanion and catlon to emphasise differences in properties and reactivities as compared with tull covalent bonds.

The alkyl group at the C2 position is not deprotonated in the second alkylation.

Note the use of -CN as a synthon tor -C02H.

and 2.39. Let us see how this methodology can be applied to the synthesis of J 2.42, a furan-containing mimic of a long-chain fatty acid. Deprotonation of i furan and alkylation produces 2.39. A second deprotonation.at the e5 J position and alkylation gives bromide 2.40. Displacement of -fue bromide t affords nitrile 2.41, and acidic hydrolysis yields the target furan 2.42.i

I I

o N Me

o S

2.2

2.3

n-BuLi ..

n-BuLi ..

2.42.

2.5 Problems

1.

Me Me 2.37

o e Li lB CIP(O)(O:t)2 ~ ,,0 S S ~""OEt

2.39

M~cOs ii H

2.43

OEt 2.38

2.40

2.41

Tricyclic pyrrole derivative 2.43 is a drug currently under development for the treatment of schizophrenia. It is prepared by a Knorr pyrrole synthesis. What are the structures of the two starting materials required, and that of the intermediate enamine?

2. Why is pyrrole aldehyde 2.44 less reactive to nucleophiles than, say, benzaldehyde? Why is pyrrole alcohol 2.45 readily polymerised on exposure to acid?

QyO H H 2.44

~OH N H

2.4S

I 1

.,

1

! I I

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 19

3. Nitration of furan with nitronium tetrafluoroborate produces nitrofuran 2.33 directly. Contrast this result to the two stage reaction necessary with acetyI nitrate, page 16. Explain these observations.

o O

![J-O N02

2.2 2.33

4. What is the mechanism of this reaction?

o S

PhCOCI Phyf)

2.2 O

2.6 References

Dean, F.M. (1982). Adv. heterocyclic chem., 30, 167; 31, 237 (furans).

Gronowitz, S. (ed.) (1985). In ThiOphene and its derivatives (The chemistry 01 heterocyclic compounds red. A,. Weissburger and E.e. Taylor], Vol. 44). Wiley Interscience, New York. Fumiss, B.S., Hannaford, A.J., Smith, P.W.G, and Tatchell, A.R. (1989).

Vogel's textbook 01 practical organic chemistry (5th edn), p.1148 (preparation ofpyrrole 2.16). Longman, Harlow. .

Jackson, A.H. (1979). In Heterocyclic chemistry (ed. P.G. Sammes) (Vol. 4 of Comprehensive organic chemistry, ed. D. Barton and W.D. Ollis) (pyrroles). Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Jones, R.A. (ed.) (1990). In Pyrroles (The chemistry 01 heterocyclic compounds red. A. Weissburger and E.C. Taylor], Vol 48, Part 1). Wiley Interscience, New Yorlc

Jones, R.A. and Bean, G.P. (1977). The chemistry 01 pyrroles. Academic Press, London.

Jones, E. and Moodie, I.M. (1970). Org. syn., 50, 104 (C2 metallation of thiophene).

Katritzky, A.R. and Rees, C.W. (ed.) (1984). Comprehensive heterocyclic chemistry, Vot 4, part 3 (five-membered rings with one heteroatom). Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Meth-Cohn, O. (1979). In Heterocyclic chemistry (ed. P.G. Sammes) (Vol. 4 of Comprehensive organic chemistry, ed. D. Barton and W.D. Ollis), p.737 (thiophenes). Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Sargent, M.V. (1979). In Heterocyclic chemistry (ed. P.G. Sammes) (Vol. 4 of Comprehensive organic chemistry, ed. D. Barton and W.D. Ollis), p.693 (furans). Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Silverstein, R.M., Ryskiewicz, E.E., and Willard, C. (1963). Organic syntheses, Coll. Vol. IV, 831 (Vilsmeier forrnylation of pyrrole):

The biosynthesis of histamine involves decarboxylation of the amino acid histidine.

3. Oxazoles, imidazoles, and

thiazoles

1

~

i 3.1 Introduction g;

Oxazole 3.1, imidazole 3.2, and thiazole 3.3 are the parent structures of a ·1:

related series of 1,3-azoles containing a nitrogen atom plus a second 1,'

heteraatom in a five-membered ringo 1

4J 43

43

'

'~f2 '1! 2 '~!2 1 They are isomeric with the 1,2-azoles isoxazole, pyrazole, and isothiazole l.,':,

(see Chapter 4). Their aromaticity derives from delocaliSation of a lone pair from the second heteroatom, 3.4a-e.

(v Ne e N e(~ C)e ....-... (~ ~ () ~ ~

XJ x x x ' X EIl EIl EB EB

3.4a 3.4b 3.4c 3.4d . 3.4e

X=O,NH,S

The imidazole ring occurs naturalIy in histamine 3.5, an important mediator of inflarnmation and gastric acid secretion. A quatemised thiazole ring is found in the essential vitamin thiamin 3.6. There are few naturalIY occurring oxazoles, apart fróm some secondary metabolites fram plant and fungal sources,

NH2

~1 N H

3.5 3.6 Oxazole, imidazole, and thiazole can be formal1y derived from furan,

pyrrole, and thiophene respectively by replacement of a CH graup by a nitro gen atom at the 3 position. The presence of this pyridine-like nitrogen deactivates the 1,3-azoles towards electrophilic attack and increases their susceptibility towards nucIeophilic attack (see later). These 1,3-azoles can be viewed as hybrids between furan, pyrrole, or thiophene, and pyridine.

I I i j ~

! 4;

! t 1

! '1

¡ 1 r t , I I j

I

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 21

Imidazole (pKa=7.0) is more basic than oxazole (pKa=O.8) or thiazole (pKa=2.5). This increased basicity arises from the greater electron-releasing capacity of two nitrogen atoms relative to a combination of nitrogen and a heteroatom of higher electronegativity. AIso note that a symmetrical resonance-stabilised cation 3.7a,b is formed.

r He

(~ -. N H

[ ] r

H

3.7a 3.Th

Furthermore, certain substituted imidazoles can exist in two tautomeric forms.

fr~ N H

3.8 3.9

For instance, the imidazole shown aboye exists as a rapidly equilibrating mixture of 4-methyI 3.8 and 5-methyI 3.9 tautomers, and is referred to as 4(5)-methylimidazole. It must again be stressed that tautomerisation and resonance are totally different. Mesomeric representations 3.7a,b are not interconverting Iike tautomers 3.8 and 3.9; this is simply a means to describe an intermediate hybrid structure.

3.2 Synthesis of oxazoles

R,etrosynthetic cleavage of the carbon-oxygen bond in generalised oxazole 3.10 produces iminoalcohol 3.11 (better represented in the arnide form

R2 .{-N R3

R2 H

}[N ::>- Rl /¡ ~ ~ Rl-<-N'¡(R3

Rl O"-R3 OH OH ~ OH O 3.12

3.10 3.11

R 1~ R2

XNHl O

R3Ax ~ 2Ji

R1-t .1r- R3 Rl O O O

3.15 3.14 3.13

3.12). Similar tautomerisation of the enol group gives an actual intermediate 3.13, and disconnection of the amide línkage reveals arninoketone 3.15 and an acylating species 3.14 such as an acid chloride. The

, forward process, cyclocondensation of arnides 3.13 to yield oxazoles 3.10, is known as the Robinson-Gabriel synthesis.

The statement lhat oxazole has a pKa of 0.8 means that the protonated form of oxazole is a very strong acid. Therefore oxazole (as the free base) is a very weak base indeed.

22 Oxazoles, imidazoles, and thiazoles

Ph

PhÁO

3.17

Base

3.13 3.10

In practice the dehydratloh can be achieved with a broad range of acids or acid anhydrides, such as phosphoric acid, phosphorus oxychloride, phosgene .J.~ (CQCI2), and thionyl chloride. An example of the mechanism is shown 1 below for thionyI chloride and involves activation of the amide to imidolyl i halide 3.16 then intramolecular attack by the enolic form of the ketone.

R~~R3 R N R3 ;I~ea yy ~ O (¿'S"O ~ )::.0 el ~

R¡ • 2 R¡ e0 3.16

TIte aminoketones themselves can be prepared by a number of methods. A , typical ro)Jte is illustrated by the synthesis of anti-inflamm~tory drug 3.23. 1,'

p~Br NaN3 Ph

XN3 p~NH2.Ha t

~.1' O -- -" ... O ~Pb lE:::~.) J el C02Et ~

Ph)[N . ~ ~ l.NaOH

Ph 0~C02; 2.Hel

Ph rN

Ph.J!....O~~Et

f 1 I 3.23

Drugs which reduce inflammation are often used to treat the symptoms of arthritis.

3.22 3.21

Btomination ofketone 3.17 gives 3.18 which can be conveited to azide 3.19. Hydrogenation of 3.19 in the presence of hydrochloric acid affords aminoketone hydrochloride salt 3.20. Such aminoketones are oiten isolated as the corresponding salts because. the free aminoketones are prone to dimerisation, having both nucleophilic and electrophilic centres. (For a common altemative preparation of aminoketones, s~e the Knorr pyrrole synthesis, Chapter 2.) Liberation of the free base of 3.20,in the presence of ttIe acid chloride affords amide 3.21 which is cyclised to oxazole 3.22. Ester . hydrolysis then affords the biologicalIy-active carboxylic acid 3.23.

3.3 Synthesis of imidazoles

Although there are several ways of preparing imidazoles, there is no one outstanding method. Qne useful synthesis is the condensation of lj. 1,~-

i. ¡ t f

I I f i

r Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 23

tl¡ dicarbo~yl c0r,np.ound with arnmonium acetate and an aldehyde, as in the .~ preparatlon of lml(lazole 3.25. ~~

'í ! "

° °

MeO

o

H~ I~

e e NH4 0Ac

MeO

F

MeO

A reasonable rationalisation is a cyc1ocondensation type of process to give 3.24.followed by 'irreversible tautomerisation to 3.25.

3.4 Synthesis of thiazoles

.' t' Retrosynthetic discoJlllection of the nitrogen-<:arbón bond in thiazole 3.26 ji ¡: leads fonnally to enol 3.27 which is equivalent to ketone 3.28. This can be ;1 1i derived from haloketone 3.29 and thioamide 3.30. y f,

, ,

~ R)(OH

R2XO

, )[~ ~ 1; ~ Rl S;RJ

::> ~

R¡ S R3 R¡ S RJ

3.26 3.27 3.28

The forward p'focess is the Hantzsch synthesis of thiazoles which, despite its antiquity (it is around 100 years old), is still very widely used.

(~ S

-HCl

Heat

3.31

The mechanism fOf the fonnation of thiazole 3.31 involves initia! nucleophilic attack by sulphur followed by a cyc1ocondensation.

RXO NH2

SAR3 Rl X

Ü9 3.30

X=CI,Br,I

Thiocarbonyl compounds are much more nucleophilic than ' carbonyl compounds,because of the lower electronegativity of sulphur as comparad to oxygen.

. .~.

240xazbles, imidazoles, and thiazoles

As with pyridine, not only does the electronegative nitrogen atom wlthdraw electro n density from the ring, but under the acidic conditions of many electrophilic reactions the azole nitrogen is protonated. The azolium callon is relatively inert tq further attack by a positively charged electrophile.

, HffJ"7:\ Q'

yO H H o~ N~H HO~N HO \;-N I ::)~,r ~ ~~ --- H~~~ ~_~ I fcr: S~ S H S S;I

3.31 J The thioamides themselves are convenientIy prepared from the corresponding '~ ainides by treatment with phosphorus (V) sulphide (see the Paal-Knort I synthesis of thiophenes, Chapter 2, for this type of conversion). A variationJ. of the Hantzsch reaction utilises thioureas, where R3 in 3.30 is a nitrogen t and not a carbon substituent. For instance, thiourea itself is used in the ,~ preparatión of 2-aminothiazoles such as 3.32.

:rO a Heat

3.32

!i

" J f

3.5 Electrophilic substitution reactions of oxazoles, 1: imidazoles, and thiazoles ~

The 1,3-azoles are not very reactive towards electrophilic attack due to the I í deactivating effect of the pyridine-like nitro gen. However, electron-donating i

groups can facilitate electrophilic attack, as in the preparation of oxazoles I 3.34 and 3.35. Dimethylamino oxazole 3.33 is essentially functioning like 'i an enamine in this reaction. 't ¡

ffJ N - H ~ )[ \\

NOz S /"'--.OMe

3.35

Imidazole can be nitrated under forcing conditions, nitration remarkably occurring on the imidazolium cation 3.7a,b, giving nitroimidazole 3.36 after loss of two protons.

Heat

1 ~ f ! 1 f ~ i

I , j i 1 \

I ¡ ~

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 25

3.6 Anion chemistry of oxazoles, imidazoles, and thiazoles

The C2 position of 1,3-azoles is particularly electron-deficient because of the e1ectron-withdrawing effect of the adja:cent heteroatorns. The acidity of the protons at this position is such that deprotonation can be achieved with strong bases to give nuc1eophilic carbanions 3.37 which can be quenched with electrophiles producing substituted 1,3-azoles 3.38.

(~ X

n-BuU l/N Ea l/N ~_;>8 LiEa ~ ¿_~ 3.38

X 3.37 X E

Sirnilarly, aIkyl groups at the C2 positions (but not the C4 or e5 positions) can be deprotonated giving carbanions 3.39a,b which can also be quenched with electrophiles to afford 1,3-azoles 3.40.

[N . [[N.Ea I/N8 . Ea] Ea [N ~ ~-BuLlp ~ ~Ll ~ ~_\..U ~ ~ ~E

X x 8 X~ X

X=O,NR,S 3.39a 3.39b 3.40

Sorne examples of both the aboye types of reactivity are given below

[~ 1. n-BuLi ~~O ~

N 2M"lNCHO CPh3

r.~ (~ 1. n-BuLi ~

S 2.CH3CHO

Ph 3.HO/H2O

Ph OH

;rN ;rN OH 1. n-BuU ~ ~Ph Ph O~ ~

2.P~CO Ph O Ph 3.HO/H2O

[~ 1. n-BuLi f.V 2.PhCHO ~ N . l:'f Ph Me 3.HO/H2O Me

(~ 1. n-BuLi 't.~ \lO S 2.MeI

There is a useful analogy between resonance-stabilised anion 3.39a,b and an ester enolate anion. Note that in both cases the negative charge can be delocalised onto a heteroatom.

O

RO~8 t 0 8

RO~

260xazoles, imidazoles, and thiazoles

Once again this reactivity parallels certain features of carbonyl chemistry. Compare the reaclion of aniline with chloroformates, below.

(o Ro~Q ¡ H2NPh

O

RO~NPh H

3.7 Nucleophilic aromatic substitution of oxazoles, imidazoles, and thiazoles I

We have previously discussed the redl,lced reactivity to electrophiles of :I~ oxazole, imidazole, and thiazole, as compared to furan, pyrrole, and .' thiophene, which results from the presence of the pyridine-like nitrogen j,'.,,".'

atom. This behaviour is paralleled by increased reactivity to nucleophiles. _ Nuc1eophilic attack on furan, pyrrole, and thiophene derivatives only occurs !j¡

when an additional activating group is present, as in the displacement f .reaction giving thiophene 3.41'i!

- HBr • 3.41

The nitro group plays a key role as an electron-acceptor in this reaction, which a1so illustrates the fact that imidazole is a good nucleophile. However, no activation is necessary with 2-halo-l,3-azoles, which can react with nucleophiles, as shown by the preparations of 3.42 and 3.43.

Ph Ph e) Ph

)[~ ~ )[)<~ =-L )[~ Ph o ~Cl Ph o NHPh Ph o NHPh 3.42

H2NPh

[~ ~ (~~ L s~Br S OMe

eOMe

3.8 Problems

1. Suggest a synthesis of oxazole 3.33.

3.33

2. A less general synthesis of oxazoles is the condensation of bromoketones with amides. What is the mechanism for the formation of oxazole 3.44? How does 3.44 relate to the oxazole which might be prepared from the same bromoketone by conversion to the corresponding aminoketone, N­formylation, and cyclocondensation?

o

Ph~ Br

3.44

Ph

1[, O Heat

t 1 -;¡¡

~ I t t r f

í I '1

~ f t

~ ¡ <

1 ~

1 í l 1 t

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 27

3. Carboxylic acid 3.46 has been extensively used in the preparation of semi-synthetic penicillins and cephalosporins. Devise a synthesis of 3.46 from es ter 3.45.

COzEt

MeO'N~O

3A5

3.9 References

Campbell, M.M. (1979). In Heterocyclic chemistry (ed. p.a. Sammes) (Vol. 4 of Comprehensive organic chemistry, ed. D. Barton and W.D. Ollis), p. 962 (oxazoles) and p. 967 (thiazoles). Pergamon Press, Oxford. Furniss, B.S., Hannaford, A.J., Smith, P.W.G., and Tatc~ell, A.R. (1989).

Vogel's textbook oi practical organic chemistry (5th edn), p.1153 (preparation of aminothiazole 3.32). Longman, Harlow.

Grirnmett, M.R. (1970). Adv. heterocyelic chem., 12, 103 (imidazoles). Grimmett, M.R. (1979). In Heterocyclic chemistry (ed. p.a. Sammes) (Vol. 4 of Comprehensive organic chemistry, ed. D.Barton and W.D. Ollis), p.357 (imidazoles). Pergamon Press, Oxford. Grirnmett, M.R. (1980). Adv. heterocyclic chem., 27, 241 (imidazoles). Lakhan, R. and Ternai, B. (1974). Adv. heterocyclic chem., 17, 99

(oxazoles). Metzger, J.V. (1979). In Thiazole and its derivatives (The chemistry oi

heterocyclic compounds red. A. Weissburger and E.C. Taylor], Vol. 34). Wiley Interscience, New York.

Turchi, !.J. (1986). In Oxazoles (The chemistry oi heterocyclic compounds red. A. Weissburger and E.C. Taylor], Vol. 45). Wiley Interscience, New York.

Turchi, I.J. and Dewar, M.J.S. (1975). Chem. rev. ,7S, 389 (oxazoles).

ffF. --!

'iffW w"'nm:wm-gm 775 G7

4. Isoxazoles, pyrazoles, and

isothiazoles

Isoxazole 4.1, pyrazole 4.2, and isothiazole 4.3 are the parent struetures of the 1,2-azole family of heterocycIes, having a nitrogen atom plus one other heteroatom in a 1,2-relationship in a five-membered ringo

4 3

5eN 2 o

I

4.1

4 3

5C:('l2 NI H

4.2 4.3

f¡ "' , J

1 The aromatie sextet is eompleted by deloealisation of the lone pair from the I seeond heteroatom, 4.4a-e. Consequently, as in pyridine, the nitrogen atoms', of the 1,2-azoles have a lone pair available for protonation. However the 1,2- I azoles are signifieantly less basic than the 1,3-azoles because of the electron- f withdrawing effeet of the adjaeent heteroatom. Isoxazole and isothiazole are. i essentially non-basie heteroeycles (pKas <O), and even pyrazole (pKa=2.5) is f

a much weaker base than the corresponding 1,3-azole imidazole (pKa=7).

e e eeN ICN ~ ICJ ~ eN ~ 4~Je ~ x~ x x x x~

ES ES ES ES

4.4a 4.4b 4.4c 4.4d 4.4e

X=O,NH,S

As with substituted imidazoles, substituted pyrazoles may exist as a mixture of tautomers. 5-Methyl pyrazole 4.5 and 3-methyI pyrazole 4.6 exist as a rapidly equilibrating mixture in soIution.

4 5

3~NHl ~'N) 2

4.6

Although there are a few examples of naturally-oceurring 1,2-azoles, many totally synthetie derivatives have found pharmaeeutieal application.

".

l I ¡ 1.

1 I 1

1 Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 29

.~I 4.1 Synthesis óf isoxazoles and pyrazoles

~ . Retrosynthetic disconnection of generalised 1,2-azole 4.7 gives initially 4.8 ;; which woúld exist as ketone 4.9. This in turn is clearly derived from 1,3-"fj

Rz R3

~

R 4.11 H2NOH

I d:tone

:~10. ~ :: R¡):;) ~ b R3 r;

l:!:N ~ Rl O N,XH 4.12 HzNNHz Rl OH k Rl O

4.13 HzNSH

4.7 4.8 4.9

X=O,NH,S

This ana1ysis suggests that condensation of 4.10 with hydroxylamine 4.11, hydrazine 4.12, or thiohydroxylamine 4.13 should give tbe corresponding 1,2-azole. This approaclÍ represents an important route to isoxazoles and pyrazoles, but thiohydroxylamine 4.13, although known, is far too unstable for synthetic purposes. The synthesis of isotbiazoles will be mentioned latero The mechanism of the forward process is illustrated by· the preparation of isoxazole 4.14 and is simply two consecutive condensations.

He O O) O GH

~--.~ HzN-OH H OH

~r-( ~~·r-.

O \ H

Note tbat ifhydroxylarnine or a substituted hydrazine is condensed with an unsymmetricaI diketone (4.10, where RI and R3 are different) tben a regioisomeric mixture of isoxazoles or. pyrazoles may result. However a single regioisomer may predominate where there is an inherent bias.

O O

Jl Jl HzNOH R¡ ~ 'R3 ~ +

Rz

+

For instance, the preparation of isoxazole 4.17 is virtualIy regiospecific because the reaction cornmences with tbe more nucIeophilic heteroatom (i.e. nitrogen) attacking tbe more electrophilic ketone (activated by tbe electron­witbdrawing inductive effect of the adjacent ester group). The reader is encouraged to consider tbe regiochemical bias in the preparation of isoxazole 4.15 and pyrazole 4.16.

4.10

In practice hydr'óxylamine and hydrazine are very reactive nucleophiles, far more so than might be expected from conslderation of simple physical parameters. The inceased nucleophilicity of a heteroalom when bonded to a second hereoatom is ~no"Vn as the a effect. For a theoretical rationalisálion of the a effeet in terms of frontier obitals see Fleming, 1976.

~ O

4.14

The general reactions of H2NOH and H2NNHR with unsymmetrical

diketones are shown here.

30 Isoxazoles, pyrazoles, and isothiazoles

MeO

o o

MeO 4.15

O o

~

HO, O N

~C02Et 4.17

The other important isoxazole synthesis involves the concerted [3+2] cycloaddition reaction of nitrile oxides 4.18 with either alkynes 4.19 or alkyne equivalents 4.20.

<"" Rz R3 R2 R3

4.19 \1\ ~W) -+ )J • I 4.18 Rl O

Rl'-- e O

X=OAc,NM~,N02

A wide range of nitrile oxides is known (R3 = H, aryl, alkyI, es ter, halide, etc). The method of choice for the preparation of simple nitrile oxides (R3 = alkyI, aryl) is oxidation of the corresponding oxime:

4.18 (-2H)

·~ ¡

i l

1

! ¡ 'J l

] .J

~

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 31

Several oxidising agents can be used (lead tetraacetate, N~ bromosuccinimide, chlorine, etc). A mechanism 'is illustrated 1:¡elow for alkaline sodium hypochlorite.

fa' t;t N~ 'H N~ reOH

Y..~--+ ~H ---... R, H Cl-OH R3 Cl

Ü 4.18

Let us now consider the synthesis of isoxazole 4.28, a drug for the treatment of bronchial asthma. The most direct preparation of isoxazolyl ketone 4.24 is the cycloaddition of unstable bromonitrile oxide 4.22 (prepared in situ by dehydrobromination of 4.21) with acetylenic ketone 4.23. Observe the regioselectivity of this reaction. Both electron~donating and electron~withdrawing groups on the acetylenic components in such cycloadditions tend to occur at the es position in the final isoxazole and not at C4. Bromination of ketone 4.24 affords bromoketone 4.25 which is

Br 4.23 o =--4.~ Br

,1, N$

I

---... Br~ NI \ , 'o ~n

"o?)rBr

4.21 °e 4.24 O 4.25 O

4.22 NaBH¡I

Br Br n . H2N-t-Bu n ~ "O~NH-t-Bu ~'o~

OH O

Brn N'O~Br,

OH 4.28 4.27 4.26

reduced with sodium borohydride to give bromohydrin 4.26. Treatment with a strong base produces epoxide 4.27 :via the intermediate alkoxide, and nucleophilic opening of this epoxide a,t the least sterically hindered position affords the target drug 4.28.

4.2 Synthesis 01 isothiazoles

Isothiazoles are usually prepared by routes involving formation of the nitrogen-sulphur bond in the cyclisation step. This is often set up by oxidation of the ,sulphur atom, as in the conversion of thioamide 4.29 to isothiazole 4.30. '

J-l 4.30 N:)\'NH2

~N'H n r -HCl N S ~

w" '-...A C;

f, r'}, 1'/ /'

/'

L

32 Isoxazoles, pyrazoles, and isothiazoles

N02

t~ N H

3.36

See the related preparation of nitroimidazole 3.36.

4.3 Electrophilic substitution of isoxazoles, pyrazoles, and isothiazoles '

The presence of a pyridine-like nitro gen in the 1,2-azoles makes fuem markedly less' reactive towards electrophilic substitution than foran, pyrrole, and thiophene. (The same effect was noted for the 1,3-azoles in Chapter 3.) Nevertheless, electrophilic substitution is known in 1,2-azoles, occurring principally at the C4 position. This selectivity is reminiscent of pyridine chemistry where the position meta to the electronegative nitrogen atom is the 'least deactivated' (see Chapter 5).

~ Br-Br

,~nN .tO) Br

H~ ~~N ~EB

Br

In (C;Ñ O

1

I ,~

I '$

I i t 1]

I ~Br Br Br il'

°Y;N N:~~" Hi¿ ;k -H" • ~No Nitration an: ,ulphonotion Of1,20.:': unde, vigorou, condi:ori, are I

also knoVin, as in the preparation of 4-nitro~~azole 4.31. j NO~' H~ ES _2HES Nh I n HN03 O, ES « __ ~N ---..... ... N'H

N N H H

-- ~~"-H -- I(~;N 4~1 1 As we have seen with other electron-deficient heterocycles, the ~

introduction of an electrón-donating group promotes electrophilic 'I"'~" substitution, as in the facile bromination of aminoisothiazole 4.32.

" ~ : Br-Br Ph Br Ph Br Ph 'j

~rl Br2 ",HJ-( _He "I¡(j NH~S;t.T -~ ....... H

2Ñf.:N ... NH;<S~'N 1

4.32

4.4 Anion chemistry of isoxazoles, pyrazoles, and isothiazoles '

Isothiazoles and nitrogen-blocked pyrazoies can be deprotonated at the e5 position with a1kyl lithium reagents, and the resultant carbanions quenched with a wide range of electrophiles, as in the preparation of 4.3~ and 4.34.,

I ~ ;!l

J ~ ., • "

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 33

0\ ... N

s

o <!.._ ... N N Ph

n-BuLi EB 0\ ---JI>~ Li e N

s'"

n-BuLi.. Li EB eeN

P~

MeI ..

~n EtO~S .... N 4.33

o

This useful methodology (complementary to the C4 ,selectivity of nonnal electrophilic substitution) is not applicable to isoxazole chemistry because the intennediate anions (such as 4.35) are rather unstable and decompose via oxygen-nitrogen c1eavage.

Ph Ph Ph Ph

0\ n-BuLi LiEB C"efi' N !lO (;N

o'" ~

4.35

lfowever, alkyl groups at the C5 position of isoxazoles can be deprotonated and reacted with electrophi1es.

r1 ~~;N O

n-BuLi!lO EB r1 Li e~_;N

·0

Dimethyl isoxazole 4.14 can be selectively deprotonated at the C5 methyl group, nearer the more electronegative oxygen atom. Although simple deprotonation cannot afford an entry into C4 substitution in this system, it is possible to generate a carbanion at the C4 position in a roundabout fashion. Bromination of 4.14 affords the C4-functionalised isoxazole 4.36. Metal­halo gen exchange With n-butyIlithium at low temperature (-78°C) generates carbanion 4.37 which can be quenched with electrophiles to give isoxazoles such as 4.38. .

n-Bu~~~r Li EB

Br2 c;.1j \ n-BuLi ~'I \ ~ ... N !lO IN

o o'" . 2.HCl

4.14 4.36 4.37

4.5 Problems

1. What is the mechanism for the fonnation of isothiazolone 4.39?

eEB N:::C-S K ..

EtOH/H20

o

rfNH (S ... N 4.39

4.38

Note the anafogy to the anions derived from erotonate esters.

OR

J:S e o ... N efi t t

OR

J:)e o ~e

Interestingly, 1, 3, 5-trimethyl pyrazole is deprotonated on the N-methyl group, faeilitating reaetion with eleetrophiles at this position. .

~ N Me

n-BuLi '):)-78 oC ~ \N

N'" MeI/ I e

;1 CHi

~ N Et

34 Isoxazoles, pyrazoles, and isothiazoles

2. What general strategy might be employed to convert pyrazole to alcohol 4.40, a potent inhibitor of steroid biosynthesis.

steps HO n ------~ ~N ... N 4.40

Ar Ar:: Ar= Vel

3. What is the product resulting from oxidation of 4.41?

HO'N~of NaOCl .. ? / '" NaOH

4.41

4. A synthesis of 2-cyanocyc1ohexanone 4.45 from cyclohexanone is shown below. Fonnylation of cyclo/;Iexanone produces a mixture of keto/enol tautomers 4.42 and 4.43, the equilibrium lying to the side of the enoI 4.42. Treatment with hydroxylamine affords isoxazole 4.44, and base-inducéd fragmentation of the isoxazole rlng affords 4.45. Explain the regioselectivity of the isoxazole formation, and the mechanism of the fragmentation process.

o

ex> l.NaOMe lO CX~

4.45 4.43

NHZOH .. ~N 4.44 o

4.6 References

Campbell, M.M. (1979). In H~terocyclic chemistry (ed. P.G. Sarnmes) (Vol. 4 of Comprehensive organic chemistry. ed. D. Barton and W.D. OIlis), p.993 (isoxazoles) and p.lO09 (isothiazoles) .. Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Fleming, I. (1976). Frontier orbitals and organic chemical reactions, p.77. Wiley, Chichester.

Fumiss, B.S., Hannaford, A.J., Smith, P.W.G., and TatcheIl, A.R. (1989). In Vogel's textbook 01 practical organic chemistry (5th edn), p.1149 (preparation of 3,5-dimethylpyrazole). Longman, Harlow.

Grimmett, M.R. (1979). In Heterocyclic chemistry (ed. P.G. Sammes) (Vol. 4 of Comprehensive organic chemistry, ed. D. Barton and W.D. Ollis), p.357 (pyrazoles). Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Kochetkov, N.K. and Sokolov, S.D. (1963). Adv. heterocyclic chem., 2, 365 (isoxazoles).

Kost, A.N. and Grandberg, I.I. (1966). Adv. heterocyclic chem., 6, 347 (pyrazoles).

SIack, R. and Wooldrige, K.R.H. (1965). Adv. héterocyclic chem., 4, 107 tí

(isothiazoles). " Wakefield, B.J. and Wright, D.J. (1979). Adv. heterocyclic chem., 25, $,

147 (isoxazoles). I .~ ¡ 4

!:. f ¡

~¡ '1

;\

,1

,1

"

[ 1 ! .l '! I ¡

I ! .(

! ¡ ;1

1 ')

:1 ¡ I

,1

:! " ,

-

5. Pyridines

5.1 Introduction

pyridine 5.1 is a polar liquid (b.p. 115°C) which is miscible with both organic solvents and water. lt can formally be derived from benzene by replacement of a eH group by a nitrogen atom. Pyridine is a highly aromatic heterocyc1e, but the effect of the heteroatom makes its chemistry quite distinct from that of benzene. The aromatic sextet of six 1t electrons is complete without invoking participation of the lone pair on the nitro gen. This is in ~irect contrast with the situation in pyrrole (Chapter 2) where the aromatic sextet ineludes the lone pair on the nitrogen. Hence the lone pair of pyridine is available for bonding without disturbing the aromaticity of the ringo Pyridine is moderately basic (pKa=5.2) and can be quatemised with alkylating agents to form pyridinium salts 5.2. Pyridine also forms complexes with Lewis acids such as sulphur trioxide. This complex 5.3 is a mild source of sulphur trioxide for sulphonation reactions (see Chapter 2).

o HEa O R-X O x6 .. .. EaN N eN I

H ~ S03

I 5.2 R

O Ea, 5.3

so? The effect of the heteroatom is to make the pyridine ring very unreactive

to normal electrophilic aromatic substitution. Conversely, pyridines are susceptible to nuc1eophilic attack. These topics are discussed latero

5.2 Synthesis of pyridines

Our retrosynthetic analysis of generalised pyridine 5.4 cornmences with an adjustment of the oxidation level to produce dihydropyridine S.S. This molecule can now be disconnected very readily. Cleavage of the carbon­heteroatom bonds in the usual way leaves dienol 5.6 which ex~sts as diketone 5.7. The 1,5-dicarbonyl relationship can be derived from a Michael reaction of ketone 5.8 and enone 5.9, which in tum can arise from condensation of aldehyde 5.10 and ketone 5.11.

36 Pyridines

Note that in this example R2 and

R4 are ethyl esters, so the adjacent carbon is actually an active methylene group. The higher acidity and hence nucleophilicity of these centres facilitates the reaction sequence.

R3

J6:~ I /. :;> Rl N Rs

5.4

R3 R\ O~H'~O + ~

Rl O

5.11

R3 'DR. I I :;>

Rl N Rs -NH3 H

5.5

R3

"'{'~ [R4

Rl O O Rs

5.9 5.8

rr. Rl OH OH Rs

JI

TI Rl.O O R, 5.7

5.6

I I

These processes are facilitated when RZ and R4 are e1ectron-withdrawing J groups such as esters. Furthermore, when ketones 5.11 and 5.8 are the same, ]

d· th' ti we have the basis for the classical Hantzsch pyri me syn eSls'1 O O O O ~

O )el tr·~ ~ C02Et ~H: ~ EtO I I OEt HN03 ~ EtO I ~ OEt i t2 N (-2H) N 11 ~3 H I

5.12 5.13

For instance, condensation of ethyl acetoacetate, formaldehyde, and arnmonia gives dihydropyridine 5.12 which is readily oxidised with nitric acid to give pyridine 5.13. Although the precise details of this multicomponent condensation are not known, a reasonable pathway is shown below.

O

ffiO~O

O o

EtO~OEt ~MJl. N

H 5.12

~

I 1-I !~

'I! ;¡¡

I ~ ! I t .!i

I i I I!

i í i i'l

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 37

Sorne examples of dihydropyridines prepared in this way are shown below. (The student is encouraged to work out the aIdehydes used in each s::ase.)

o H Ph o

EtoVfoEt

AMJl

PrO

N _.' H

~ I N

OPr

N~N I

MeO OMe

O O

~ H

As well as being intennediates for the synthesis of pyridines, these . dihydropyridines are themselves an important cIass of heterocycles. For instance, dihydropyridine 5.14 is a drug for lowering blood pressure. In the synthesis of 5.14 note that~arrying out the Hantzsch synthesis stepwise allows for the preparation of anunsyinmetricaI dihydropyridine, having both a methYfai:i.d an ethyl estero -.

O

A consequence of the asymmetry of 5.14 is that C4 is a stereogenic centre. Hence the product is formed as a racemic mixture.

S? :?'°oo OMe

Heat

5.14

5.3 Electrophilic substitution of pyridines

Pyridine is virtualIy inert to aromatic electrophilic substitution. Consider nitration of pyridine by nitric acid. First, as pyridine is a moderate base, it will be almost completely protonated by the acid, making it much less susceptible to electrophilic attack. Second, addition of the electrophile to the small amount of unprotonated pyridine present in solution is not a facile process.

Attack of the electrophile at the C2 or C4 position results in an intennediate cation with partial positive charge on the electronegative nitrogen atom. This is cIearly not energeticaIly favourable when compared to C3 substitution, where no partíaI positive charge resides on nitrogen. In faet the produet of C3 substitution, nitropyridine 5.15, can be isolated from the

'el{.lülustiveni~tion ofpyridine, but onlyin poor yÍeld. i [

11

il ,

38 Pyridines

C-alkylation of a sterically­hindered phenolate anion.

QN02 eQ a ~ ~ N02 ~ N0

2 .

N H N H l.

=--N H C2-attack e e N02

~ ~ a~ =-- e

N

d~ ES /-

N

OH C3-attack N

H N02 H N02

mO~ lJ ~ O ~ C4-attack

N N N ES

Pyridine can be activated to electrophilic substitution by conversion to pyridine N -oxide 5.17. At ·frrst sight it is curious to consider oxidation (Le. electron loss) as a means of activating a system to electrophilic substitution, but 5.17 can act rather like a sterically-hindered phenolate anion towards electrophiles, producing intermediate 5.18 which then loses a proton to give substituted N-oxide 5.19. For this methodology to be useful it is of. course necessary to remove the activating oxygen atom. Tbis can be done with phosphorus trichloride, which becomes oxidised to phosphorus oxychloride.

o [O] O .. 5.17 N . Na;¡

e 'e o E

H E E ~

5.17 ~ C1 _He Ó lO lO 5.19

e¿~ ~ ~5.18 Na;¡ , G Oe

E E E

6~ 6 -P0Cl3 6 5.19 lO

N r.,Na;¡ ,et'"") 'fe N

oe O-PC13 PC13

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 39

For instance, 4-nitropyridine 5.20 can be prepared from pyridine in three steps by this methodology.

o H¡O¡ O lIN03 6 PCl3 ¿; Jo Jo ... AcOH H2S04 N N e N e N

I , $.17 oe oe 5.20 .

Pyridine N-oxides can also be converted into synthetically useful 2-chloropyridines 5.21 (see later).

R

0--N e 6e-, (;'

p/

Cl/ 1'\ el el ........",

Another approach to electrophilic substitution involves the chemistry of 2-pyridone 5.22 and 4-pyridone 5.23. These are the tautomeric forms of 2-and 4-hydroxypyridine respectively. They exist exc1usively in the pyridone

. fomi, the hydrogen atom being attached to the nitrogen atom, not the oxygen. Their electronic structures are not adequately described by a single valence representation, the lone pair from the nitrogen atom being delocalised to a considerable extent onto the oxygen atom, as in mesomeric representations 5.22a and 5.23a.

OH ° U el 6 Ó I ....: ~ ~

~ ~ N OH N ° N N H 5.22 H 5.23

° oe

[ Clo ~ uJ [9 ~ Ó] . N oe Ne H

,e , H 5.22a 5.23a H

Both pyridones can react with electrophiles at positions ortho and para to the activating oxygen atom. For instance, 4-pyridone reacts with electrophiles at the C3 position (the mechanism can be formulated from either mesomeric representation) to give intermediate 5.24. As with pyridine N-oxides, reaction with phosphorus oxychIoride gives useful chIoropyridines 5.25. We shall see the utJJity of 2- and 4-chIoropyridines in the next section.

40 Pyridines

The actual mechanism is rather complicated. Hydrogen gas is evolved, but in reality free sodium hydride is never generated. See McGiII and Rappa (1988).

Cl ED N

5.25

o ~JC!'

o ~1'Cl

ÚCl

E .~ I I N~

5.24 I e H \-Cl

O 11

e O-P, .... Cl

Cl~Cl E ~

I .;.o:

EaN~ I

H

5.4 Nucleophilic substitution of pyridines

Pyridine can be attacked by nucleophiles at the C2/C6 and C4 positions In a manner analogous to the addition of nucleophiles to a carbonyl g'roup in a 1,20r 1,4 fashion. Attackat the C3/C5 positions is not favoured because the negative charge on the intermediate cannot be delocalised onto the electronegative nitrogen atom.

Under conditions of high temperatures the intermediate anion can re­aromatise by 10ss of a hydride ion, even though it is a very poor leaving group. This is illustrated by the Chichibabin reaction of pyridine and sódamide to produce 2-aminopyridine 5.26. The immediate product of the reaction is 5.27, the sodium salt of 5.26, as the eliminated hydride ion is very basic. Protonation of this sodium salt during the aqueous workup then regenerates 5.26. A simplistic rationale is shown below.

- NaH N/. Aq. workup NH2

Qe Ea N NH Na

5.26 5.27

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 41

These nucleophilic substitution reactions are much more facile when better leaving groups (e.g. halide ions instead of hydride ions) are employed.

U -ele

~ ~J9 Do

N X

'd:}x x

(9 -ele 6 ... ~-' :rt

x = NucIeophile

Nilcleophilic substitutions are widely used in pyridine chemistry. Sorne examples are shown below.

el ~N~

~ NH3~~' 6 HN(CH2eHeHV2 Ó Do N el N NH2 N

N

el SEt

~H2NNH2 .. ~ 6 me 6 Na SEt .. N CI N N-NH2 N N H

el HNPh

U H2NMe .. ~ 6 H2NPh 6 ~

N el N NMe N N H

el HN~NH2 me 6 6 uNa 0M; ~ H2NNH2

Do

N el N~ OMe N N

FinaIIy, before leaving this section, we shaIl consider the synthesis of pyridotriazine 5.32, a potentiaI anti-fungaI drug. This synthesis ilIustrates features of both electrophilic and nucleophilic pyridine chemistry.

Nitration of 4-pyridone 5.23 gives 5.28, and reaction with phosphorus oxychloride affords chloropyridine 5.29. This pyridone-chloropyridine conversion activates the system to nucleophilic attack by hydrazine, affording 5.30. The nitro group also facilitates nucleophilic attack by delocalisation of negative charge in the intermediate.

I

¡:

ll'

.1

) ¡

1 '

42 Pyridines

o

6 N H

5.23

5.32

5.29

N-AcyIation, reduction of nitro toamino, and condensation produce dihydrotriazine 5.31. This system is readiIy dehydrogenated with manganese dioxide to afford the fully aromatic heterocycle 5.32. Note how re1ativeIy simple chemistry can be used to fonn a quite complex heterocycIe.

e (j'F H ~F o el HW NH2 ~ HN ... N~

~N02 o &~02 aN02 poel aN02

H2NNH2 I I 3 .. I __ .~ N N/. tJ ~ I

N /. H

5.28 5.29 5.30

Heat (-H20) ...

5.5 Anion chemistry of pyridines

N

H2!Pd/C H I . » F

HN ... N ,¿.

~~2 t.J

N

We earlier drew a parallel between nucleophilic attack on the C2/C6 and C4 positions of pyridine and 1,2 and 1,4 addition of nucleophiles to a carbonyI group. This analogy can be extended to deprotonation of aIkyl substituents at the C2/C6 and C4 positions.

Cl~ (:l O ~ O N e N N

e e

R R 5 ) o~ o~

~ ~

e e ° eO

Just as a carbonyl group stabilises an adjacent negative charge as an enoIate anion, so the anion derived from 2-methyl pyridine is stabilised by delocalisation of the negative charge onto the eIectronegative nitrogen atom.

.1 i

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 43

A similar argument holds for 4-methyl pyridine. These stabilised anions can then react with the usual range of e1ectrophiles.

Cl NaNH2 Cl Me! ~ .. lO

N N e N

Naffi

Cl PhLi Cl PhCH2Cl .. ~ lO I /. N N~ e N Ph

Liffi

Cl N

_PhL_i_.... Cl l.C02 Ov I ~ .. I ~ 'Coe

N e 2.HCl N'~ 2

Ll ffi I ffi o H

:f:l ~~ .. I l.H .. I OH N./. e ~ 2.HCl /. ~

Li N

M n-BuLi

Na~ffi e

I -';;::.' ./. -----, .. ~

N

Me!

5.33

DialkyI pyridine 5.33 is selectively deprotonated at the C4 alkyl group, illustrating the greater acidity of this position over the C3 position. With regard to ring deprotonation, however, there are relatively few examples knQwn for simple pyridines, in contrast to the extensive chernistry developed for the five-membered ring heterocycles. This is because the resultant organometallic species are good nucleophiles, and because pyridines are also moderate electrophiles, polymerisation problems are ofien encountered. More success has been achieved with substituted pyridines having an ortho activating substituent (e.g. -CONHR, -NHCOR, -OMe, -CH2NR2 etc). These substituents increase the rate of kinetic deprotonation and stabilise the intermediate organolithium species by coordination.

For instance, 4-aminopyridine 5.34 can be converted to amide 5.35 which, on treatment with two equivalents of butyI lithiurn, gives organornetallic species 5.36. Formylation of the more reactive anion (the carbanion) then re­protonation of the arnide anion gives 5.37. Acidic hydrolysis rernoves the activating group to release pyridine aldehyde 5.38.

The negative charge resulting from deprotonation of Ihe ethyl methylene group of 5.33 cannol be delocalised onto the nitrogen atom.

44 Pyridines

The metalation proceeds by initial deprotonation of the amide followed by ortho-directed deprotonation at Ihe C3 position lo produce the pseudo six­membered ring organolithium species 5.36.

Hint. Start by acetylatlng the pyridine lo give a qualernary cationic species. How can deprolonation aftord a nucleophilic enamine-like system?

Ó 5.34

t-BuCOCI !lo

NH2 O

C(H N

5.38

5.6 Problems

HNi: 6

N

j::~ n-BuLl 6e"'~ie ----:-..... I

( 2 equivalents ) /,

5.35 N 5.36

;;!:~l X HN O

.. HCI (conc.)

Heat &H N 5.37

l. What is the rnechanisrn of this reaction?

NaOEt/EtOH ~oo,m C02Et

Ea Ll

2. The condensation of active rnethyI groups with aldehydes can be catalysed with acetic anhydride as weIl as base. Suggest a possible rnechanism.

Ph

( O

N Ó .N

PhCHO

A~O/AcOH

3. Rationalise the formation of Iactone 5.40 from pyridyl amide 5.39.

OMe OMe

~M.. 1. 2 eq. n-BuLl

2. p-MeOC6H4CHO .. 5.39 O

O 5.40

4. Sorne pyridine N-oxides are not just synthetic intermediates, but are of interest in their own right. For instance, pyridine N-oxide 5.41 is a new drug

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 45 i1 I claimed to be useful for the treatment of senile dementia. What are the ~ ~ mechanisms of the pyridone-forming step and the final displacement? ~

o

~OE< C1

soa,. ~CN

H ..

5.7 References

Abramovitch, R.A. (1974). In Pyridine and its derivatives (The chemistry 01 heterocyclic compounds red. A. Weissburger and E.C. Taylor], Vol.

14, Supplement Parts 1 - 4). Wiley Interscience, New York. Eisner, V. and Kuthum, J. (1972). Chem. rev., 72, 1 (dihydropyridines). Fumiss, B.S., Hannaford, A.J., Smith, P.W.G., and Tatchell, A.R. (1989).

Vogel's textbook 01 practical organic chemistry (5th edn), p.1168 (preparation ofpyridine 5.13). Longman, Harlow.

K1insberg, E. (1974). In Pyridine and its derivatives (The chemistry 01 heterocyc/ic compounds red. A. Weissburger and E.C. Taylor], Vol. 14, Parts 1-4). Wiley Interscience, New York.

McGill, C.K. and Rappa, A. (1988). Adv. heterocyc/ic chem., 44, 3. Smith, D.M. (1979). In Heterocyclic chemistry (ed. P.G. Sammes) (Vol. 40f Comprehensive organic chemistry, ed. D. Barton and W.D. Ollis), p.3.

Pergamon Press, Oxford.

¡i

1.

1'

¡.

Quinoline and isoquinoline can also be viewed as being formally derived from naphthalene

Note the numbering system for isoquinoline

6. Quinolines and isoquinolines

6.1 Introduction

Quinoline 6.1 and isoquinoline 6.2 are two isomeric heterocycIic systems, which can be envisaged as being constructed from the fusion of a benzene ring at the C2/C3 aild C3/C4 positions of pyridine respectively. They are both ten 1t-electron aromatiq heterocycIes. Like pyridine, they are moderately basic (pKa quinoline = 4.9, pKa isoquinoline = 5.1). Indeed quinoline is sometimes used as a high boiling-point (237°C) basic solvent.

5 4 6~3

7VN~2 8 NI

6.1

As with pyridine, the nitro gen atoms of quinoline and isoquinoline each bear a lone pair of electrons not involved in aromatic bonding which can be protonated, aIkylated, or complexed to Lewis acids. This chapter should be read in conjunction with the chapter on pyridines as several points discussed at length there are also relevant to the chemistry of quinoline ahd isoquinoline.

6.2 Synthésis 01 quinolines and isoquinolines

The classical Skraup synthesis of quinolines is exemplified by the reaction of aniline 6.3 with gIycerol 6.4 under acidic/oxidative conditions to produce quinoline 6.1.

HO~OH

el OH 6.4 O) JI> :::::... I N/. :::::... NH2

PhN02

H;rS°4 6.3 Heat 6.1

At first sight this reaction appears to be another one of those ancient heterocyclic syntheses that owe more to alcherny than to logic, but in fact the processes involved are relatively straightforward.

Aromatíc heterocyclic chemístry 47

HO~OH OH

6.4

H

H H

HO~OH e I 6.5

-:820 H (lf ~ ~~~He

6.7 6.6

0N-Protonation of glycerol 6.4 catalyses dehydration vía secondary carbonium

ion 6.5 to give enol 6.6. Acid catalysed elimination of a second water molecule affords acrolein 6.7. Thus glycerol acts essentially as a protected fonu of acrolein, slowly releasing this unstable a,p-unsaturated aldehyde into the reaction medium. Better yields are realised with this approach than if acrolein itself is present from the start. The reaction proceeds with a Michael addition of aniline 6.3 to acrolein, producing saturated aldehyde 6.8 which cyclises vía an aromatic substitution reaction to alcohol 6.9. Acid-catalysed dehydration to 6.10 then oxidation yields quinoline 6.1. Nitrobenzene can be used as a mild oxidant, as can iodine and femc salts ..

OH

(O, -...::: ... -2H (()-...:::

~ ~ ~'. N N 6.10 H 6.1

~H_ UN)

6.9 H

Sorne examples of the Skraup synthesis are shown below.

aMe

HO~OH OH

~

HO~OH OH

~ 90,-",::: ~ ~ N

OMe

The key intermediates in the synthesis of isoquinolines are P­arylethylamines. Por instance, acylation of p-phenylethylamine 6.11 gives amides oi general structures 6.12 which can be cyclised with phosphorus oxychIoride to produce dihydroisoquinoline 6.13. Better yields are obtained

Acrolein is a highly reactive olefin Ihat is prone lo polymerlsation.

1:

48 Quinolines and isoquinolines

with e1ectron-donating groups on the aromatic ring facilitating this aromatic substitution cyclisation.

x

OlNH2

RCOQ

X

tu;NH O=< 6.12

Base

x = Electton-donating 8ubstituent

6.11 POQ3¡ R

This dehydrogenation is the reverse of a normal hydrogenation reaetion. The dehydrogenation cap be earried out under mUder eonditions when a hydrogen aeeeptor (sueh as eyelohexene) is present.

The Pietet-Spengler synthesis is usually used when the tetrahydroisoquinoline oxidation level is required.

(YIfI o~NH

6.17

I ~ XitQ ~ ..-:N -2H O?

6.14 R 6.13 R

As in the Skraup quinoline synthesis, 10ss of two hydrogen atoms is necessary to reach the fully aromatic system. However, this is usuaIly accomplished in a separate step, utilising palladium cata1ysis to give generalised isoquinoline 6.14. This is known as the Bisch1er-Napieralski synthesis. The mechanism probably involves conversion of amide 6.12 to protonated imidoyI chloride 6.15 followed by electrophilic aromatic substitution to give 6.13. (For a similar activation of an amide to an electrophilic species see the Vilsmeier reaction, Chapter 2.)

R 6.13

x = Electron-donarlng substituent

Closely related to the Bischler-NapieraIski synthesis is the Pictet­Spengler synthesis, which utilises aldehydes rather than acylating species. Condensation of J3-arylethylamines with aldehydes produces imines such as 6.16 which can be cyclised with acid to give tetrahydroisoquinoline 6.17. As with the Bischler-Napieralski synthesis, electron-donating groups (typicalIy methoxy groups) facilitate the cyclisation step. The Iower oxidation state of 6.17 as compared to 6.13 is a direct consequence of using a carbonylgroup at the aldehyde rather than carboxylic acid oxidation leve!. Four hydrogen atoms have to be removed from tetrahydroisoquinolines by oxidation to produce the fully aromatic isoquinoline.

HCl

0=0) < ~ I N O ?-

6.16

6.3 Electroph.ilic substitution of quinollne and isoquinoline

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 49

Quinoline and isoquinoline undergo electrophilic substitution reactions more easily than pyridine, though not surprisingly the incoming electrophile attacks the benzenoid ringo As with pyridine, the nitro gen atoms of quinoline and isoquinoline are protonated under the typically acidic conditions of nitration or sulphonation, making the heterocyclic ring resistant to attack. The CS and C8 positions are most susceptible to electrophilic attack.

(EED E H E H

oq .[\Sq-t;q] H 6.18a H 6.18b H

Attack of an electrophile at CS of protonated quinoline gives cation 6.18a,b which is stabilised by resonance as shown without disturbing the aromaticity of the adjacent pyridinium ringo However, attack of an electrophile at C6 produces cation 6.19 which does not possess the same resonance stabilisation of cation 6.18a,b. (The student should perform the same exercise for the C7 and C8 positions and confirm that the same arguments can be applied.)

oo~

I ~ .~ N

6.1

+ 6.20

Por instance, nitration of quinoline gives an equaI mixture of regioisomers 6.20 and 6.21. However, nitration of isoquinoline is reasonably selective (10:1) for the C5 position over the C8, affording mainly 6.22.

C() 6.2

6.4 Nucleophilic substitution of quinoline and isoquinoline

Quinoline and isoquinoline undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions, like pyridine.

'. 50 Quinolines and isoquinolines

CO ~ ..-: N

O) ~ ..-:N

l.~/Heat ~ ~ NaOEt~ ~ ~

2. Aq. Workup ~ N"-: NH2 ~ N"-:: el ~ N"-: DEt

6.23 6.25

1. KNH2 / Heat NaOEt ~ ~

2. Aq. Workup 07 ~ ..-:N ~ I ..-:N 09 ~ I ..-::N 09 6.24 NH2 C1 6.26 DEt

For instance, both quinoline and isoquinoline ~ndergo the Chichibabin reaction (with fonnal hydride elimination, see Chapter 5) to gtve 2-aminoquinoline 6.23 and l-aminoisoquinoline 6.24 respectively. Halogen substituents ortho to the nitrogen atoms are easily displaced, as in the preparations of 6.25 and 6.26.

~-x~C1 x = NucleophiIe (eX

~C1--. ~~

Note that nucleophilic displacement in isoquinolines occurs more easily at the CI position than at the C3 ppsition (even though they are both ortho to nitrogen) because displacement at C3 involves temporary disruption of the benzenoid ringo

6.5 Anion chemistry of quinoline and isoquinoline

Alkyl groups at the C2 and C4 positions of quinoline can be deprotonated by strong bases. This is because (as witb pyridine) the negative charge on the resultant carbanions can be delocalised onto the electronegative nitrogen atom, as in carbanion 6.27a,b.

~ ...... I----1~~ ~N'~ N e

6.27a 6.27b e Such carbanions can be alkylated, acylated, or condensed with aldehydes:

~ l.KNHz

~ ...

~ /. 2.EtBr ~ ....::

N N

(IQ LKNHz ~ 11= I . ~ ..-::

2.PhCDzEt ~ N/. Ph N

f ~,

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 51

AI

7 e (JC) "'. p-MoOC",,-

This type of chemistry is also observed with 1-methyI isoquinoline 6.28. However 3-methyI isoquinoline is much Iess activated because delocalisation of charge in 6.29a,b involves disruption of aromaticity of the benzenoid ringo This phenomenon is closely related to the reluctance of 3-halo isoquinolines to undergo nucleophilic substitution.

e ex;: 1 ~ "'-':: ~ ~

~ ........ ,'" "- Ne

6.29a 6.29b 9,71 "'-'::

::::,.,. ~N

6.28

[ As with pyridine, activated aIkyl groups can be condensed with aldehydes

under acidic as weIl as basic conditions, as in the preparation of 6.30 and (i.31.

PhCHO

ZnCl2/Heat

Ph

PhCHO

Ae¡O/Heat

6.6 Problems

1. The synthesis of the important quinolone antibiotic 6.33 is shown. The key stages are the Gould-Jacobson quinolone synthesis to give 6.32, and the displacement reaction to afford 6.33. What are the mechanisms of these reactions?

O O

The reader is reterred to the previous chapter (Problem 2) tor a mechanlstic explanation ot such condensations.

EtOJVl.OEt O O

F:(l. lL __ F;o:)'C0

2Et

FroC02Et = I OEt Do ~ I I 1. NaH .. r' I I Cl NH2 Heat C::::,.,. N 2. EtI Cl. ::::,.,. N

6.32 H Et

1. NaOH! 2. HCl

O FWC02H

I I Cl::::"" N

o r NH F~C02Hl.HN~ M,)J 2.HCl rN N ~~r-----

HClRN ~ 6.33 Et Et

52 Quinolines and isoquinolines

o

2. A synthesis of the naturaIly-occurring isoquinoline alkaloid 6.34 is shown below. What reagents might be used to accomplish each transformation?

R0:(f'H RO~~ N02 ROúJ I ~ I ---.~ I RO:::-" Step 1 RO :::-.. Step 2 RO ~ NH2

.R0:Qj ____ I Step3 RO ~ o~NH

HO Step 6

HO

OH

6.7 References

Step 5 ..

OMe

Step 4 I '?' I + ~ OMe

OMe

Adams, R. and Sloan, A.W. (1941). Organic syntheses, Coll. Vol. 1,478 (a real blood-and-thunder preparation of quinoline).

CIaret, P.A. (1979). In Heterocyclic chemistry (ed. P.G. Sammes) (Vol. 4 of Comprehensive organic chemistry, ed. D. Barton and W.D. Ollis) , p.155 (quinolines) and p.205 (isoquinolines). Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Furniss, B.S., Hannaford, A.J., Smith, P.W.G., and Tatchell, A.R. (1989). Vogel 's textbook oi practical organic chemistry (5th edn), p.1l85 (a

rather more safety-conscious preparation of quinoline). Longman, Harlow. Grethe, G. (ed.) (1981). In lsoquinolines (The chemistry oi heterocyclic

compounds red. A. Weissburger and E.C. Taylor], Vol. 3, Part 1). Wiley Interscience, New York. .

Jones, G. (1977, 1990). In Quinolines (The chemistry oi heterocyclic compounds red. A. Weissburger and E.C. Taylor], Vol. 32, Parts 1, 2, and 3). Wiley Interscience, New..York.

Kathawala, G.F., Coppola, G.M., and Schuster, H.F. (ed.) (1989). In Isoquinolines (The chemistry oi heterocyclic compounds red. A. Weissburger and E.C. Taylor], Vol. 3, Part 2). Wiley Interscience, New York.

Manske, R.H.F. anrl Kalka, M. (1953). Organic reactions, 7, 59 (Skraup synthesis). .

WQa1ey, W.M. and Govindachari, T.R. (1951). Organic reactions, 6, p.151 <:Pictet-Spengler synthesis).

:1 ."!':.'

'7. Indoles

7.1 Introduction

Fusion oÍ' a ben;zene ring onto the C2/C3 positions of pyrrole formally produces the correspondíng benzopyrrole 7.1 known as índole. An analogous theoretical transformation can be envisaged to form benzofuran 7.2 and benzothiophene 7.3. This chapter will concentrate exclusively on índole, by far the most important member of this series.

4

5001 13

6~ 2 N

7 H 1

7.1

, ,

~ ~o)J

~ ~s)J

7.2 7.3

Indole is a ten-1t electron aromatic system. As with pyrrole, delocalisation of the lone pair of electrons from the nitro gen atom is necessary for aromaticity. The single overall 'electronic structure of indole is not completely described by structure 7.1, because this implies localisation of the lone pair on the nítrogen atom. Mesomeric representation 7.1a makes a contribution to the electronic structure of índole, as to a les ser extent do mesomeric representations where the negative charge occurs on the benzenoid ringo

[ (Q 7.1

I H

7.1a

A consequence of this delocalisation is that the lone pair is not available for protonation under moderately acidic conditions so, like pyrrole, índole is another weakly basic heterocycIe. Another similarity to pyrrole is that being an 'electron-rich' heterocycle indole easily undergoes aromatic electrophilic substitution, and is also rather unstable to oxidative (electron-Ioss) conditions. However, an important difference emerges here, in that whereas pyrrole preferentially reacts with electrophiles at the C2/C5 positions, indole substitutes selectively at the C3 position. The reasons for this will be discussed latero

, 54 Indoles

Neurotransmitters are naturally­oeeurring substanees whieh eHeet ehemieal eommunieation between nerve cells by binding at specifie sites on the cell surtace called receptors.

iíC! _ e, - _ i?

HistoricaIly, interest in indo les arose with the isolation and characterisation of members of the enonnous family of índole alkaloids, such as lysergic acid 7.4. Many índole alkaloids possess ínteresting and sometimes usefuI biological activities. Although natural product chemistry is still an active area of primarily academic research, considerably more effort is expended nowadays ín the preparation of índole derivatives as potential drug candidates. Following on from the observations that certain indole aIkaloids or their semi-synthetic derivatives (e.g. lysergic acid diethylamide, LSD 7.5) have potent central nervous system activity, it was established that the simple indole S-hydroxytryptamine 7.6 ís a major neurotransmitter. Many índole derivatives which mimic or block the binding of tbis neurotransmitter to íts 'receptors have been synthesised and are beginning to find use in the treatment of various psychological disorders.

7.4 X=OH 7.5 X=NEtz

o

7.2 Synthesis of indofes

HO~. NHz

I I ~ N

H

7.6

As might be expected for a large branch of heterocyclic chemistry, many syntheses of índoles have been developed. We shall restríct our di,scussion to two, commencing wíth the widely-used Fischer synthesis.

The Fischer synthesis is the condensation of an aryl h)'drazine with a ketone followed by cyclisation of the resultant hydrazone under acidic conditions to give the correspondíng indole, as illustrated by the prepatation of2-phenyl indole 7.9.

Ph -N-NH2 H

7.7

o

Ph~ Ph-N-N=< AcOH or~ ~

H Ph ZnQ2 ~N)l.,Ph 7.8 7.9 H

The actual cyclisation stage is not as imponderable as it appears. The first step is the acid~catalysed equilibration between hydrazone 7.8 and ene hydrazine 7.10. The next step, which is irreversible, is a concerted electrocyclic reaction, forrning a strong carbon-<:arbon bond, and breaking a weak nitrogen-nitrogen bond. The resulting imine 7.11 immediately re­aromatises by tautomerisation to aniline 7.12. Finally, acid-catalysed elimination of arnmonia fonns indole 7.9, reminiscent of the last step of the Knorr pyrrole synthesis (Ch~pter 2).

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 55

H ,,(l..H

Ph-N-N~ 'H H EIlI Ph

H

7.10

~ ~N.J.l..ph ~.NH2 ~N)(Ph

H

.. 7.9 H

The electrocyclic reaction is very similar to the Claisen rearrangement of phenyI allyI ether 7.12 to give phenoI 7.13.

H

~j-CQ -- ~ ~'OH 7.12 7.13

Sorne examples of the Fischer indole synthesis are shown below.

Ph -N-NH2 + H

Ph -N-NH2 + H

Ph -N-NH2 + H

r l + Meo'Q

::::". N-NH2 H

F p* r l + . ::::".

F ft-NH2

F

OMe

O

OMe

oD

O~SPh

7.14

OMe

OMe

CV) H

~SPh

VN~ 7.15

H

Me0V::=CrNM~ ---+~ I I

::::". N oaNM~

H F

oD

_-.~ F~ F~~.JV

F H

An interesting regioselectivity question arises with the use of unsymmetrical ketone 7.14 to prepare indole 7.15. Two ene hydrazines 7.16

Cope rearrangement

Claisen rearrangement

Aza-Cope rearrangement

J')y--+ Q R

Diaza-Cope rearrangement

56 Indo/es

[

and 7.17 can fonn, which would give rise to indoles 7.15 and 7.18 respectively.

Ph -N-NH2 H 7.7

SPh

Q):-~I

H 7.16 (major )

Q YSPh

I NH -----~ N"

H 7.17 (minor )

?' I I (c(SPh

~ N H 7.15

~ SPh' ~N~ H

7.18

In such cases the most thennodynamically stable ene hydrazine, Le. the one with the more highly substituted double bond, fonns preferentially. In this particular example there is also extra stabilisation derived from conjugation of the lone pairs of electrons on the sulphur atom with the double bond. This regioselectivity in ene hydrazine fonnation is then reflected in the regioselectivity of indole fonnation.

The more recent Leimgruber synthesis is illustrated by the aminomethylenation of nitrotoluene 7.19 to give 7.20, followed by hydrogenation to produce índole 7.1.

lO W 7.19 7.20 7.1 H

The combination of fonnyl pyrrolidine acetal 7.21 and nitrotoluene 7.19 produces electrophilic cation 7.22 and nuc1eophilic carbanion 7.23a,b which react together affording enamine 7.20.

~ ~OMe H: 'eOMe~ X

cr: --HeNO 7.19 ?' I H

" N~ ! \ ey('9Me H H ~

~ ~~ AEDo .. ~I /(JED ~N~oe ~N02 H -eN -e--I ..... UMn '-:-

1'" -OMe N02 -H 7.233 o 7.23~ 7.22 e

7.21

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 57

Hydrogenation of enamine 7.20 reduces the nitro group giving aniline 7.24, then elimination of pyrrolidine produces indole 7.1. Note the similarity of this ring closure step to the last step of the Fischer synthesis. In both cases the ev.entual C2 carbon atom is forrnaIIy at the carbonyl oxidation level, even though it occurs as either an imine (Fischer synthesis) or an enamine (Leimgruber synthesis). Elimination of arnrnonia or pyrrolidine respectively is analogous to a condensation process involving elimination of water (as in the Knorr pyrrole synthesis).

. O ~

~ H I z ~ NOz Pd/C

Jo

7.20

~o ~MU Jo

7.24 NHz

Sorne examples of the Leimgruber synthesis are shown below.

?' I ----.. Meo'(( ~ N0

2'

0=0: < I ----.. ° ~ N02

Me0'(tJ ~ I I

N H

7.3 Electrophilic substitution of indoles

As an electron-rich heterocycle, indole easily undergoes electrophilic substitution. However whereas pyrrole reacts preferentialIy at the C2/C5 positions (see Chapter 2), ~dole reacts preferentially at the C3 position.

E(f)

W)--J>-Jo ~J

E

~H ~MJ (f)N

I H

O:~H iJ:'( E

7.25 H

W I

H

E

~ ~N~E I

H

One explanation. is that attack at C2 results in disruption of the aromaticity of the benzenoid ring, as in intermediate 7.25. This is therefore a high-energy intermediate, and this reaction pathway is slower because the rust step is rate­deterrnining. AIso the C3 selectivity is in accord with the electrophile attacking the site of highest electron density on the ringo In essence,indole tends to react like an enamine towards electrophiles, with substitution

Pjrp ~N)J

7.1 H

COzEt

OJ H

58 Indo/es

This is the reactive electrophilic species of the Mannich reaction.

e CH2 = NMez

This is the reactive electrophilic specles of the Vilsmeier reaction.

H e )=NMez

CI

occurring at the C3 position, iuthough substitutfon occurs at the e2 position when the C3 position is blocked. '

Indole itseIf is unstable to the mineral acid conditions for nitration. The nitration of substituted indoles is quite complex and the outcome is dependent on the precise reaction conditions.

Like pyrrole, indole readily undergoes the Mannich reaction affording' the aminomethyl derivative 7.26. A variety of nuc1eophiles can displace 'the amine vía an elimination foIlowed by a 1,4-addition reaction, as in the preparation of acetate 7.27.

Pjr--p ~N).I

H

7.1

HNMez AcOH

~NMez ~N;J

H

7.26

~OAC ~N;J

H 7.27

The Vilsmeier reaction proceeds extremely weIl with indoles giving aldehydes such as 7.28.

00 H '

7.1

1. POCl3 I HCONMez

o

~H UNj/· H

7.28

Aldehyde 7.28 is another useful synthetic intermediate, readily undergoing condensation reactions with active methylene compounds such as malonic acid and nitromethane to produce 7.29 and 7.J0.

o

~H' UN~ ~

N02

~ I I :::-.. .. .N Pyridine

H 7.30' 7.28 H

Acylation of the C3 p9sition can also be iJccomplished w~th acid ch1orides, as illustrated in the synthesis of indole 7'.34, a drug for the treatment of deptession. Reaction of indole 7.31 with oxalyl chloride affords C3-substitutyd product 7.32 even though the benzene ring is very electron-rich. Conversíon to amide 7.33 is foIlowed by reduction with lithium aluminium hydride which remove's both carbonyl groups, affording the target indole 7.34.

j

O

Cl~C1 O

o

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 59

MeO~C1 ----~~ ~ I I

MeO N O 7.32

Meo~ 7 I I

MeO ~ N H

7.31

7.34

7.4 Anion chemistry 01 indole

lB C~) Ph

O rNPh

MC0:úJCrN~ : I I

MeO N O H

7.33

Treatment of indole (pKa = 17) with strong bases such as butyI lithium, Grignard reagents, or metal hydrides produces the corresponding indolyI anion, which reacts with electrophiles either on nitrogen or at the C3 position. With lithium, sodium, or potassium as counterion the indolyl anion tends to react on nitrogen, as in the preparation of 7.35. However, with magnesium as the counterion the intermediate has an essentially covalent rather than ionic structure, and reaction tends to occur at the C3 position, as in°the preparation of7.36.

~. NaH .. ~N)l

7.1 H

EtMgBr!

~~ O:J) :r ,J -MgBr2

MgBr

MeI W .. 7.35 Me

~ ~N)J 7.36 H

When the nitrogen is blocked, deprotonation can occur at the C2 position, adjacent to the electronegative heteroatom. This offers a means of introducing electrophiles at this position, complementing the C3 selectivity shown by classical electrophilic substitution. For instance, alcohol 7.37 can be prepared in this way using ethylene oxide as the electrophile.

~ ~N)J OJe n -BuLi ~

Me Me 7.35

o Ea 1. ~

Li .. r0P

2.HC1/H20 ~N~OH Me

7.37

60 Indo/es

RO ~NM~ ~N)J

7.39 H

7.5 Problems

1. Devise a synthesis of the antidepressant drug 7.38.

7.38 ~ ~N~ ~NMez

2. The synthesis of amino ester 7.41 is shown below. What is the mechanism of the conversion of 7.39 to 7.40.

COzEt

(RO~C02Et RO C~Et N02 ~ ?" I I Raney nickel ~ ~ Heat ::-.. N N02 Hz ~N)J MIz

H 7.40 H 7.41

R == PhCH2

3. It was íntended to prepare imine 7.43 from índole 7.42. by deprotonation at the C2positíon then quenching with benzonítrile followed by an aqueous workup. However, the isolated products were ketone 7.44 and sulphonamide 7.45. Account for this observatíon.

7.42 ~ l.n-BuLi )(:-

~N)J 2. Ph-C::N I 3. HCl¡ H20

0=5=0 I Ph

7'''~Ph H O

7.6 References

~Ph 7.43

I NH 0=5=0

I Ph

NH2 , 0=5::0 7.45

I

Ph

Brown, R.T. and Joule, J.A. (1979). In Heterocyclic' chemistry (ed. P.O. Sammes) (Vol. 4 of Comprehensive organic chemistry, ed. D. Barton and W.D. Ollis), p.411 (indoles and related systems). Pergamon Press, Oxford. .

Furniss, B.S., Hannaford, A.J., Smith, P.W.O., and Tatchell, A.R. (1989). Vogel's textbook 01 practical organic chemistry (5th edn), p.1161 (preparatíon of índole 7.9). Longman, Harlow.

Houlihan, W.J. (ed.) (1972). Indo/es (The chemistry 01 heterocyclic compounds red. A. Weíssburger and E.C.Taylor], Vol. 25, Parts 1 - 3). Wiley Interscience, New York.

Leimgruber, W. (1985). Organic syntheses, 63, 214 (índole synthesís). Robinson, B. (1969). Chem. rev., 69, 227 (Fischer indole synthesís). Saxton, J.E. (ed.) (1979). Indo/es (The chemistry 01 heterocyclic compounds

red. A. Weíssburger and E.C. Taylor], Vol. 25, Part 4). Wiley Interscíence, New York.

Sundberg, R.J. (1970). The chemistry 01 indo/es. Academic Press, New York.

8. Five-membered ring

heterocycles with three or tour

heteroatoms

8.1 Introduction

The broad category of five-membered ring heterocycles containing three or four heteroatoms encompasses many heterocyclic systems. Obviously there is considerable variation in the physical and chemical properties of such a large group of heterocycles. For instance, with regard to aromaticity, oxadiazole 8.3 is considered to be less aromatic than triazole 8.8 or tetrazole 8.9.

N-N

Note the parallel with furan belng less aromatic than pyrrole, Chapter 2 ..

4(N 3

~" ~ \\ f( ') .oxadiazoles 4N

3 5 "N 2 ... N 4 N 3 0 1 O O

5 !C,,'N 2 1.(" 8.1 8.2 8.3

4 N 3 NI

N-N

~~ H ![ \\ f( ~ thiadiazoles 8.7

5 s,.N 2 S S" I

8.4 8.5 8.6

4 N-N 3 N-N N-N

5 1.( ,.'N 2 t¿ \\ . t¿ 'N "N .

N I tetrazole O oxatnazole S" thiatriazole H

8.9 8.10 8.11

Nevertheless, this collection of heterocycles does share certain characteristics. The trend we have seen of decreasing tendency towards electrophilic substitution on going from furan, pyrrole, and thiophene to the azoles is continued into these series. The presence of additional'pyridine-like' nitrogen atoms renders these systems particularly 'electron-deficient', and electrophilic substitution is of little importance.

Conversely, nucleophilic substitution (which we have se en in earlier chapters on 1,3-azoles and pyridines) does occur in these systems, especially when the carbon atom concemed is between two heteroatoms, as in the displacement reactions of oxadiazole 8.12 and tetrazole 8.13.

5 I N 2 N"¡ H

triazoles 8.8

62 Five-membered rings with three or tour heteroatoms

Once again note the analogy with standard carbonyl chemistry.

o) ~R

HO ¡ -ele

° HOAR

2-( NaOH ~~-( _ele N-{ ~ ,N ~ AN

a )0" HO ° HO o' e 8.tl

HO

(N-N NaOPh ~~-N _ae N-N

)IZ'N ~ )Z " .. A" el N'

,N PhO N,N

PhOe)H 8.13 PhO N

H H

Another similarity with azoles is that there are examples of deprotonation of alkyi substituents between two heteroatoms followed by quenching the resultant carbanions with electrophiles, as in the preparation of oxadiazole 8.14.

Ph Ph

~ i _N_aO_Et--..... ~-( ~o' ES e~O'

Na

Ph O N-(

EtO __ A ~ N lf ~ -O'

° 8.14

Ring deprotonation is also known with certain members of these series. Carbanion 8.15 is stable at low temperature (-70°C) and can be trapped with electrophiles, but on wanning to room·temperature it decomposes with rlng fragmentation and extrusion of nitrogen. This fragmentation process is reminiscent of the base-catalysed cleavage of isoxazoles (Chapter 4).

N-N N-N Br2

N-N

~'N n-BuU I!.. " J!.. " ...

UES e "N ~ Br N,N H N" N Ph Ph Ph

8.15

ES ("'N-~ e I!.. " -N2 Li e N PhNe:N

N" ~

Ph~ UES

8.15

For simplicity we shall now consider the synthesis of just three I1lembers of these series, 1,2,4-oxadiazole 8.3, 1 ,2,3-triazole 8.7, and tetrazole 8.9.

8.2 Synthesis of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles

Disconnection of the C5-oxygen bond in 8.1'6 leads to iminoalcohol 8.17 which occurs as amide 8.18. Cleavage of the amide linkage leads to an activated carboxylic acid 8.20 plus the heteroatom-containing amidoxime 8.19.

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 63

R2 R2 R2

l~ ;:> N-{ ~ HN-{ ;:> R¡,J{ N'OH

~ R¡~ N'OH R¡ O· OH O

8.16 8.17 8.18

Amidoximes can be prepared by acid-cataIysed additon ofhydroxylamine to nitriles.

() R2- C:N-H

~(9 H2N-OH

An example of this approach to oxadiazoles is shown by the conversion of ester 8.21 to oxadiazole 8.22, prepared as a potentiaI candidate for the treatment of senile dementia. Simple esters are metabolically unstable in man because of the high activity of esterases. These enzymes catalyse the

. hydrolysis of esters to carbaxy~ic acids. A cornmon tactic in drug research when confronted with ~e problem of metabolic instability of a biologically active ester is to replace the ester group with a small heterocycle (often oxadiazole), to try to produce a biologically-active molecule with improved metabolic stability. This concept oí replacing fragments of a molecule by groups with broadly similar physicochemical parameters in a systematic manner is known as bioisosteric replacement. In this instance oxadiazole 8.22 can mimic both the physical and biological properties of 8.21, but it is obviously not a substrate for esterases.

O

rSf'OMe N

8.21

EtOH, heat

8.3 Synthesis of 1,2,3-triazoles

60> N

8.22

These are best prepared by a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of an azide and an acetylene.

H-C:C-H .![~ 8.8 N' H

For instance, triazole 8.8 itself has been prepared by cycloaddition of hydrazoic acid to acetylene.

R2 O H2N-{ +

R(.Jl.X N .... OH

8.19 8.20

. X = Leaving group

: !)~

64 Five-membered rings with three or Jour heteroatoms

Tetrazale jtseft explades an heating with 1055 aftwa malecules

af N2'

H 10e e N

111 ;NfB

?"--r N"'J H ~

8.8

H

A1though a simple mechanisrn can bedrawn for this transfonnation, it is only useful as a 'book-keeping exercise' to ensure that the correct structure is drawn for the producto In reality the reaction is a concerted process and the usual considerations of nucleophilic and electrophilic attack do not apply.

Excellent yields are achieved in these cycloadditions when electron­withdrawing groups are present on the acetylene, as in the preparation oí triázole 8.23.

Et02C-C= C-C02Et .. Heat

8.4 Synthesis of tetrazoles

8.23

Tetraioles of general structure 8.24 can be prepared in a very simifar manner to triazoles, except that ni triles are used rather than acetylenes. Once again the reaction with azides is a concerted cycloaddition process.

o N eN

111 ~$ C'- "'J 1 '-Vf Rl R2

N-N Heat .,Jf.. \ \ ----1..... N

Rl N' 8.24' .

~

Let us now consider the synthesis of tetrazole 8.27, an inhibitor of the enzyrne ornithine decarboxylase, which catalyses the conversion of ornithine 8.25 to diamine 8.26.

8.27

The tetrazole moiety is an exceIlent bioisosteric replacement for a carboxylic acid, being a small, polar, acidic heterócycIe.

N-N 1/ \\ ~ ,N

N H

° )loH

N-N /!-.'N N'

e

° )loe

$

+ H pKa = 5.63

$ + H pKa = 4.76

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 65

Tetrazole 8.27 is sufficiently similar to ornithine 8.25 in its physical properties to bind to the active site of the enzyme. However, as it obviously cannot undergo the decarboxylation process, it acts as an inhibitor of the enzyme.

The sy'nthesis commences. with alkylation of t}1e stabilised carbanion derived from cyanoester 8.29 with iodide 8.28 to give adduct 8.30

H CN -¡<-C02Et

O HN O

o< 8.29/

~ I N~I ----~'" ......... NaH

O 8.28

N-N

~\\ N conc. HCl

H2N N' ...... 1-----

. H NH2 .2HO

8.27

Cycloaddition with sodium azide followed by acidification during aqueous workup affords tetrazole 8.31.

R-C::N HCl N-N

// N R~N'

H 8.31

Note that the first-formed product from the cycloaddition is actually the sodium tetrazolate salt 8.32. Protonation affords the neutral tetrazole 8.31. Prolonged acidic hydrolysis accomplishes several transformations: hydrolytic removal of both the phthalimide and acetyl nitro gen protecting groups, and hydrolysis/decarboxylation of the ester. The net result is to produce the target tetrazole 8.27 as its dihydrochloride salt. This tetrazole-assisted decarboxylation is mechanistical1y very similar to the decarboxylation of malonyl half-esters 8.33.

G H,?)

RIO~O 8.33

o

RIO~

66 Five-membered rings with three or four heteroatoms

8.5 Problems

1. Tri¡lzoIes and tetrazoles can be alkylated on nitrogen under basic conditions, as in the s~thesis of the clinically-used antifungaI drug 8.35 in which ~,2,4-triazole is alkylated by a chloromethyI ketone and an epoxide, both go.bd alkylating agents. What is the mechanism of formation of epoxide 8.34? Of compounds 8.34 and 8.35, which is achiraI and which is racemic?

0Y'el ~ ~? ~N'N~ F '(!l. I el bo F::;-- Cl H.. F::;-- '=N

Y Alel3 ~ I Et3N ~ I F

fN'N~OH N,N~ Nd F '=N

7

~I

8.35 F . .'

F

(CH3h::O 191F NaH

:¿;o N,N~ '=N F 7

~I

F 8.34

2. What is the mechanism of formation of oxadiazole 8.22?

o

rSf'OMe

N

8.21

8.6 References

EtOH .heat

~-( l~) O~

N

8.22

Butler, R.N. (1977). Adv. heterocyclic chem.,21, 323 (tetrazoles). Clapp, L.B. (1976). Adv. heterocyclic chem, 20, 65, (1,2,4-oxadiazoles) . Gilchrist, T.L. (1985). Heterocyclic chemistry, p.8t (l,3-dipolar

cycloadditions in heterocyclic synthesis). Longman, Harlow. Gilchrist, T.L. and Gymer, G.E. (1974). Adv. heterocyclic chem., 16, 33

(1 ,2,3-triazoles). . Grimmett, M.R. (1979). In Heterocyclic chemistry (ed. P.G. Sammes)

(Vol. 4 of Comprehensive organic chemistry, ed. D. Barton and yv.D. OIlis), p.357 (triazoles and tetrazoles). Pergamon Press, Oxford.

9. Six-membered ring

heterocycles containing one

oxygen atom

9.1 Introduction

The pyrilium cation 9.1, 2-pyrone 9.2, 4-pyrone 9.3, and their benzo-fused analogues the benzopyrilium cation 9.4, coumarin 9.5, chromone 9.6, are the parent structures of a series of six-membered ring heterocycles containing one oxygen atom. The impetus for research in tbis area comes from the enormous number of plant-derived natural products based on the benzopyrilium, coumarin, and .chromone structures.

4 O

4

(] 50 3

U 6 ~ I 2 10 9.1 0

1 O 9.2 10 9.3 El:)

5 4 5 4 O ro 60)3 ClCt : I I 7::::"" 0'-' 2 ::::.... O O 8 El:) 1 8 1 8 0 1

9.4 9.5 9.6

The red,violet, and blue pigments of flower petals are called anthocyanins, and are glycosides of various benzopyrilium cations. Delphinidin chloride 9.7, for example, is a blue pigment. KheIlin 9.8 is a natural product which has found clinical application in the treatment of bronchial asthma and has been the starting point for the design of many totalIy synthetic chromones with improved biological properties.

OH OMe O

HO ~ "o-VO~

OMe

OH 9.8

Coumarln 9.5 is itself a natural product which occurs in lavender oil and has been found in over sixty species of plants.

In natural product chemístry, the acetal formed between an aliphatic or aromatic alcohol and a sugar is termed a glycoside.

68 Six-membered ring heterocycles containing one oxygen atom

The carbonyl groups of 4-pyrone and 4-pyridone absorb at

approximately 1650 cm-1 and

1550 cm-1 respectively. The lower energy of the pyridone absorption reflects greater single bond character, and hende greater delocalisation.

The pyrylium cation 9.1 is the oxygen analogue of pyridiúe and is a sbr 1t-electron aromatic system. Nevertheless, being a cation it is reactive towards nuc1eophiles and is readily hydrolysed to give dialdehyde 9.9. These reactions are reversible, a fact which has been used in a synthesis of 9.1 from 9.9. At low pH (high acidity) the equilibrium lies to the si~e oí the pyrylium species 9.1 but if the medium is basified then hydrolysis of 9.1 occurs to give 9.9. This is because one mole ofhydroxide is consumed on going from pyrylium cation 9.1 to neutral aldehyde 9.9. Increasing the hydroxide concentration therefore forces the equilibrium from left to right.

~O OH H

9.1 9.9 \

In contrast, 2- and 4-pyrones are considered to have relatively Httle aromatic character. Whereas in an analogous nitrogen series 4-pyridone 5.23 has significant aromatic character (mesomeric representation 5.23a making a considerable contribution to the overall electronic distribution), aromatic mesomeric representation 9.3a makes less of a contribution to the overalI electronic structure of 4-pyrone. As with furan, the higher electronegativity of oxygen leads to heterocyc1es of líttle aromaticity in cases where

. delocalisation of electron density from the heteroatom is a prerequisite for that aromaticity.

O

[ (] O

9.3 9.3a

[ O

(] N H

5.23 5.23a

Let us now consider the synthesis of a pyrylium salt, a coumarin, and a chromone.

9.2 Synthesis 01 a pyrylium salt

A typical pyrilium salt synthesis is illustrated by the preparation of salt 9.12. The precursor to 9.12 is pyran 9.11, available by dehydration of 1,5-diketone 9.10. Note the si:milarity of this sequence to the Hantzch pyridine synthesis, Chapter 5. Also, the dehydrative cyclisation of a diketone to. oxygen heterocycle 9.11 is reminiscent of furan syntbesis, Chapter 2.

O 9.13

ti Ph~Ph

BF3 Do I I po

-Hp Ph O Ph HCl04 PhVPh n Ph :-'0EB Ph

9.10 9.11 9.12 ClO~

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 69

One hydrogen atom has to be removed from the C4 posltion ofpyran 9.11 to produce the pyrylium cation, but it is important to reallse that the hydrogen atom is lost not as a proton but as a negatively-charged hydride ion. The process is therefore ap oxidation of pyran 9.11.

H

EIl

[ e, 1 o J. OH H" OH O

Ph~P~ Ph~Ph~Ph~Ph --"Ph~Ph 9.13 9.14a 9.14b 9.15

A suitable oxidant is cation 9.14a,b, derived from a,~-unsaturated ketone 9.13 by protonation under strongly acidic conditions in the ab¡¡ence of water. Quenching of this cation with a hydride ion (from the C4 position of 9.11) produces thesaturated ketone 9.15. The balanced equation is shown below.

H H

Ph Ph

n n Ph Ph

I I HCl04 r I O Do:-... + ~ Mos! pyrylium sal!s have electron-

Ph O Ph Ph 0Ell Ph Ph Ph donating aromatic substiluents al

9.13 9.11 ClO e the C2, C4, or ca positions which

9.12 4 9.15 serve to stabílise the positive charge

9.3 Synthesis of coumarins

Let us consider the synthesis of bromocoumarin 9.16, a compound which exhibits biolo"gical activity against parasitic trematodes that cause schistosomiasis, a very cOmn:1on disease in the tropics. Retrosynthetic c1eavage oflactone 9.16 gives diester 9.17, which in principIe can be derived from condensation of ortho-hydroxybenzaldehyde 9.18 and diethyl malonate.

9.16 9.17 9.18

In practise a Knoevenagel condensation i"eaction yields coumarin 9.16 directly, without isolation of diester 9.17. The mechanism is shown below .

-EtOH

by resonance.

70 Six-membered ring heterocycles containing one oxygen atom

o

~3> UO.Jl. Ph

9.19

o O

PhÁCl oc ~ OH Pyridine

9.22

9.4 Synthesis of chromones

Let us consider the synthesis of flavone 9.19, which is the parent of a large series of natural products. Disconnection of the carbon-oxygen bond in the usual way results in enol 9.20 which exists as 1,3-diketone 9.21. This 1,3-dicarbonyl relationship can be exploited in the classical rnanner yielding ortho-hydroxyacetophenone 9.22. The synthetic problem centres on rnethodology for the C-~enzoylation of the enolate derived frorn9.22 with sorne activated benzoic acid derivative 9.23. O O o

~ ~~ 3> VOHO~Ph ~ VOHo~Ph ~ U OH +

..

9.20

9.23

9.21 9.22 x = Leaving group

In practice, the Konstanecki-Robinson synthesis of chrornones commences with O-benzoylation not C-benzoylation, to afford ester 9.24. Base-catalysed rearrangernent produces the required 1,3-diketone 9.21, via intramolecular benzoylation of the intermediate enolate. Acid-catalysed dehydration then affords flavone 9.19.

O O O

oC l.KOH ~ACOH/H2S04 I .. I ...

~ 0-1<.,0 2. AcOH ~ OHO

Ph ~ UO.Jl. Ph

9.24 Ph 9.21 9.19

9.5 Reactions with nucleophiles

Although sorne examples of eIectrophilic substitution are known, the chemistry of these series is dominated by nucleophilic ring-opening reactions, sornetimes followed by ring-closure to give new heterocycles. Por instance, arninolysis of 9.1,9.2, and 9.3 leads to pyridine 5.1 and pyridones 5.22 and 5.23.

o 0$

o N

9.1 5.1

(\0 Cl N O 9.2 H 5.22

O

Ó O

O

6 N

9,3 H 5.23

Aromatic heterocyclic chemístry 71

The mechanism of the conversion of 4-pyrone to 4-pyridone involves an initial Michael reaction followed by ring-opening. Tautomerisation of enol 9.25 to aldehyde 9.26, followed by cyclisation, affords 4-pyridone 5.23.

(o H~~ o 0.) .. ~H ~ Q ~

o ~NH3 ~ NH2 NH2 9.3

9.25

JI O O O

6 -H2O H01) ~ fo'~ 4 ~ 5.23

N H NH2 H H

9.26

The reaction of pyrilium salts with nucleophiles may involve electrocyclic ring-opening of the intermediate dienes, as in the formation of ketone 9.27.

~ PhLi.. C' 0') e~ectrocy~lic.. .J¡ )L~keph Ao.R nngopenmg ~())l

0e ~ Ph O Ph

C104e 9.27

A similar susceptibility to nucleophilic attack is observed in the benzo­fused series. Coumarin 9.5 is hydrolysed by hydroxide. to carboxylate salt 9.28. This process is reversible, and acidification regenerates the lactone.

~ . ~oAo

9.5

Hel

. ~ v--. O Ao O

H e ES 9.28 Na

NaOH ..

An important difference between the monocyclic and benzo-fused series is that reactions with amines do not lead to the corresponding heterocycles in the benzo-fused series. For instance, aminolysis of chromone 9.29 affords phenol 9.30. Benzopyridone 9.32 is not produced. The facile tautomerisation Phenols do no! exis! or reac! in between 9.25 and 9.26 would analogously give ketone 9.31 in this series. their tau!omeric keto forms.

This high-energy intermediate is not aromatic, and the reaction stops at phenoI9.30. .

O

m y.~~/

9.29

O m yoANH2

O

9.30

O

99" ~ N

H

7f

WHO

,

~ O 9.31 H2N

9.32

72 Six-membered ring heterocycles containing one o:x:ygen atom

9.6 Problems

1. What is the mechanism of the conversion of pyrone 9.2 to pyridone 5.22 by aminolysis?

u o o 9.2

2. Explain the formation of pyrazole 9.33.

o

OÓ 9.6

o llN'-;~O H 5.22

~. ¡JC) I ~;N ~O}

9.33

3. Howcan chromone 9.34 be converted to 9.35? o o

~ yo} ? ~NM~ yo} OMe 9.34 OMe 9.35

4. What is the mechanism of this cyclisation?

o o

~ AcOH

VOHO~Ph -H-2-S0-4~" ~ UO~Ph 9.21 9.19

9.7 References

Horing, E.C. et al. (19,55). Organic synthesis, Coll. Vol. IIr, 165 (experimental details of a Knoevenagel condensation to give a coumarin ester).

Livingstone, R. (1977). In Rodd's Chemistry of carbon compounds, Vol. IV, p.2 (pyrilium salts; 2- and 4-pyrones); p.69 (benzopyrilium salts); p.96

(coumarins); p.138 (chromones). EIsevier, Amsterdam. Staunton, J. (1979). In Heterocyclic chemistry (ed. P.O. Sammes) (Vol. 4 of Comprehensive organic chemistry, ed. D. Barton and W.D. Ollis), p.607

(pyrilium sa1ts); p~629 (2-pyrones and coumarins); p.659 (4-pyrones and chromones). Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Wheeler, T.S. (1963). Organic synthesis, CoIl. Vol. IV, 479 (experimental details for the preparation of flavone).

10. Pyrimidines

10.1 Introduction

Fonnal replacement of a eH unit in pyridine 5.1 by a nitrogen atom leads to the series of three possible diazines, pyridazine 10.1, pyrimidine 10.2, and pyrazine 10.3. Like pyridine they are fully aromatic heterocyc1es. The effect of an additional nitro gen atom as compared to pyridine accentuates the essential features of pyridine chemistry. Electrophilic substitution is difficult in simple unactivated diazines because of both extensive protonation under strongly acidic conditions and the inherent lack of reactivity of the free base. Nuc1eophilic displacements are comparatively easier.

4 4 N4

5 O, 3 5 ~N 3 5 r:- p 3

6 ~ ~N 2 6 ~JI 2 6~)l 2 N 1 N 1 1

4

5~3 6 ~ __ jJ 2

NI

10.1 10.2 10.3 5.1 Interestingly, the second electronegative heteroatom reduces the capacity of

the diazines to tolerate the positive charge resulting from protonation. Pyridazine 10.1 (pKa== 2.24), pyrimidine 10.2 (pKa == 1.23), and pyrazine 10.3 (pKa == 0.51) are al! far less basic than pyridine (pKa == 5.23).

The most important of the diazines is pyrimidine 10.2. Pyrimidine derivatives uracil10.4, thymidine 10.5, and cytosine 10.6 are the monocyc1ic 'bases' of nuc1eic acids. The bicyclic bases are the purines adenine 10.7 and guanine 10.8. The purine ring is essentially a fusion of the pyrimidine and imidazole rings.

H H 10.5 10.4 10,6

NH2

f:e:J N N H

10.7

The actual biosynthesis of purines (illustrated below in abbreviated form for the nucIeotide adenosine monophosphate AMP 10.9) involves construction of a pyrimidine ring onto a pre-fonned imidazole.

10.8

Nucleotides are the monomeric building blocks 01· deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in which is stored the genetic inlormation of the cell.

74 Pyrimidines

R3

NH2

f:CJ N N I

R 10.9

NH2 I

steps R

.. o

N~N ~ Jl .. J1 N N R H

o

~N-rNH2 NJl_.~O I N, R H H

The enzymes that manipulate nucleotides, nucleic acids, etc. are the points of therapeutic intervention for a number of diseases involving celI replication disorders such as cancers and viral infections. For instance, AZT 10.10, an inhibitor of the enzyme reverse transcriptase, is an anti-viral drug currently used in the treatment of AIDS.'

We shaIl now go on to consider the synthesis and chemistry of the pyrimidine ring system.

10.2 Synthesis of pyrimidines

Disconnection of the N1-C6 bond in generalised pyrimidine 10.11 in the usual way produces enol 10.12, which exists as ketone 10.13. Similarly, disconnection of the carbon-nitrogen double bond in 10.13 yields a dicarbonyI compound 10.14 and an amidine 10.15. This retrosynthetic analysis, suggesting the combination of bis-electrophilic and bis-nucleophilic components, is the basis of a very general pyrimidine synthesis.

R,JCl ;> R¡ N R4

10.11

10.16

10.15

Where R4 is a hydrogen or carbon atom, 10.15 is simply an amidine. However, urea 10.16, thiourea 10.17, or guanidine 10.18 and their derivatives may be used. These nucleophiles may be condensed with ester and nitrile functionalities as weIl as with aldehydes and ketones. Such condensations to afford pyridimidine derivatives are usually faciIitated by acid or base cata1ysis, although certain combinations of reactive electrophilic and nucleophilic cornpounds require no cataIyst at al!. Sorne examples are shown beIow.

Ph

~o Ha ~ EIOH Heat

o

.)lOEt

EtO.,l.O +

Ha ..

NaOEt ~

EtOH

NaOEt ~

EtOH

Ha ~ EtOH

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 75

H OEt

* Prepared by in situ hydrolysis of rk OEt

H~OEt OEt r N

llNAs H

O

~tr

Me 10.19

NaOH ".tN

--... .JtNÁPh

Note that several of these examples produce pyrimidones, analogous to the pyridones previously encountered in Chapter 5. A representative mechanism is shown for the preparation of 2-pyrimidone 10.19, and is simply two consecutive condensations.

oi(~ fo~e ~H -H,O fN ..

O yO ~ rO HN~O NHMe o NHMe

Hel Me

~ ~N -H2O H ·"N ~N 'NAo

41 '" ..-- H~~ ~ro H~ N~O EIl NHMe

Me HEIl Me

10.19

.,

¡ I

,J

76 Pyrimidines

eN IN~O H

10.20

FIN03

Heat

10.3 Electrophilic substitution of pyrimidones

As mentioned earlier, electrophilic substitution on unactivated pyrimidihes is of Httle importance, But, as with pyridine, the pyrimidine nucIeus can be activated towards electrophilic attack by employing N-oxides or pyrimidones, for the same reasons as were discussed in Chapter 5.

For instance, nitration of 2-pyrimidone 10.20 affords nitropyrimidone 10.21. With doubly-actiyated systems such as 10.22, nitration to give 10.23 can occur without heating.

o O

N02'L eNE FIN03

N02'(NH ~ I N .. I ~ N~O NAo N o

H H H

10.21 10.22 10.23

10.4 Nucleophilic substitution of pyrimidines

Leaving groups at the C2, C4, and C6 positions of pyrimidines can be. displaced by nucleophiles, with the negatiye charge of the intermediate delocalised oyer both nitro gen atoms.

~Ne ~N,",] _ye ~N ~--kY ~ ~--KY- ~ ~ __ Jl.

N X N)X N X e x = NucIeophile

~N ~Jl.CI

ee Na OMe

~

..

~N Y = Leaving group

~NJl.NPh H

~N ~NJl.OMe

Chlorinated pyrimidines themselves are often accessible from the corresponding pyrimidones by reaction witb phosphorus oxychloride. (Again, see Chapter 5 for an explanation of this sort of reaction.) For instance, aminopyrlmidine 10.24 can be synthesised by the cIassicaI sequence depicted below ..

o O Cl NH2

/OEt . )(NH POCl3 ~N NH3 ~N ~n NH

2 ---+-~M~ ----.. ~~T~ ---+-~M~ OHN~ N N N

10.24

\ l'

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 77

10.5 Problems

1. Write a mechanism for this nitration, but starting from an' alternative mesomeric representation of 10.20 that helps to explain the increased susceptibility of such pyrimidones to electrophilic attack.

Heat

2. Barbiturates (pyrimidine triones such as 10.25) used to be widely used as sedatives, but have now largely been superseded by drugs with fewer side­effects. Suggest a synthesis of 10.25.

° ~Ph0

~~N¡O H

10.25

3. There are severa! preparations of cytosine 10.6 available, one of which is the condensation of nitrile 10.26 with urea 10.16. Propose a mechanism for this reaction.

NH2 CN

H+OEt NH2 HCl eN

H2NÁ o Jo

I NAo OEt

H20 I EtOH

H

10.26 10.16 10.6

10.6 References

Brown, D.l. (1962). In The pyrimidines (The chemistry 01 heterocyclic compounds [ed. A. Weissburger and E.C. Taylor], Vol. 16). Wiley Interscienée, New York.

Brown, D.J. (1970). In The pyrimidines (The chemistry 01 heterocyclic compounds (ed. A. Weissburger and E.e. Taylor], Vol. 16, Supplements 1 and 2). Wiley Interscience. New York.

Fumiss, B.S., Hannaford, A.J., Smith, P.W.G., and Tatchell, A.R. (1989). Vogel's textbook 01 practical organic chemistry (5th edn), p.l177 (preparation of barbiturate 10.25). Longman, Harlow. ,

Hurst, D.T. (1980). An introduction to the t;:heÍnistry and biochemistry 01 pyrimidines, purines, and pteridines. Wiley, New York.

Note that the reaction proceeds with attack of the ami no group on the least hindered ketone.

MoN~ + ~o

H

2.46

11 . Answers to problems

11.1 Answers to problems in Chapter 2

1. Reaction of diketone 2.46 with aminoketone 2.47 produces enamine 2.48 which is not isoIated, but cyclises directly to give pyrrole 2.43.

2.47 2.48 2.43

2. The Ione pair of eIectrons of 2.44 is delocalised on to the carbonyl group as shown, increasing the eIectron density at the aldehydic carbon atom. This renders it les s reactive to nucleophilic attack.

[ Qyo H H

2.44

Under acidic conditions alcohol 2.45 readily gives cation 2.49a,b which is stabilised by a similar delocalisation of the nitrogen Ione pairo

~l 2.45 2.49a 2.49b

This highly electrophilic species then reacts with alcohol 2.45 to give dimer 2.50. Repetition of this process Ieads to polymeric material.

~r~OH-+ ~OH-+ polymcr N E9 N N N . H H H H·

2.45 2.50

3. As discussed in Chapter 2, interception of cation 2.31 with a nuc1eophilic counterion such as acetate produces the 2,5-addition product 2.32. Tetrafluoroborate is a non-nucleophilic counterion and hence the only pathway availabIe to 2.31 is los s of a pro ton to give nitrofuran 2.33 directly.

f

r'

I

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 79

--.~ ~ ON02

lO HfiN02 Pyridine.. (J-Ac08 (.:OE!) H AcO""",, ° H - AcOH ° N02

l_' _2 ...... 31-:--:--...::..:.;...:.:.:....:.:..::.-.::.:!--=.:=----_2_.3_2 ________ .-.Jt 2.33 , Direct los8 01 HE!) _

4. The mechanism is a straightforward Friedel-Crafts acylation.

11.2 Answers to problems in Chapter 3

1. Application of our generalised oxazole retrosynthesis Ieads to a simple glycine derivative. .

3.33

The forward synthesis is shown below:

H

~ r NHz NaOH ~ r \_ l.S0C12 H~ lO H~ I/- Ph lO ° PhCOCl ° ° 2.MezNH

2. The mechanism of this oxazole formation is identical to that of the Hantzch thiazole synthesis. However, because of the reduced nucleophilicity of a carbonyl group as compared to a thiocarbonyI (due to the higher electronegativity of oxygen), this synthesis only proceeds under vigorous conditions (high temperatures, arnide component as solvent, etc).

H~N,H

p)1.. ~H. Hm~PhN'H ~+N -"'0 P\-N -( ;-¡Br .. l.."""-)l --+- H ~_ ')..... ... ~ _ ')

° H H ° H ° 3.44

The alternative sequencewould give a positional isomer of oxazole 3.44.

° Ph~ --jIoo

Br

° Ph~ --jIoo

NHz

80 Answers to problems

3. Bromination of 3.45 gives a bromoketone which is condensed with thiourea to give aminothiazole ester 3.47. This is then hydrolysed to acid 3.46.

Ketone 3.45 itse1f is readily prepared by nitrosation of ethyl acetoacetate followed by O-methylation.

MeI C02Et

MeO'N~O 3.45

11.3 Answers to problems in Chapter 4

1. The reaction is a Michael addition followed by elimination of cyanide ion.

[ ES

H e H """ o~l >=C=<.~

s NH2

I CN 4.39

1 ~ -CN

o

rtNH «S"N

o

rfNH «s N 2

('br 't.J 2. The overall strategy is to protect the nitrogen of pyrazole (as an acetal), deprotonate, introduce the side chain as an electrophile, then deprotect.

n N HC(OMe)3 n N n-BuLi Ll'ES e n N «N) ~ «N) .. «N) H I I

H,C,-OMe H·C,-OMe OMe / OMe

OH n 4.40 ~N,..N

Ar Ar H

HCl/HP I 0WU \ /'1.Ar2CO

• N"N 2.NH4Cl / HzO

ArAr I

H,C,-OMe OMe

3. Oxidation of oxime 4.41 produces nitrile oxide 4.46 which cyclises to isoxazole 4.47.

HO'N~O/ NaOCl ~ / '" NaOH

4.41

¡'ES [31 ~O~ [3+2] ..

4.46 4.47

4. Reaction with hydroxylamine occurs on the aldehyde group of the more reactive minor tautomer 4.43 affording isoxazole 4.44. Methoxide-induced fragmentation as shown gives enolate 4.48 which is quenched by a proton in the workup to afford 2-cyanocyc1ohexanone 4.45.

4.43

4.45

H

~N U O ClH

11.4 Answers to problems in Chapter 5

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry. 81

1. The process is essentially artalogous to a Michael reaction.

2. A reasonable mechanism is:-

Ph

6 N

O~C02Et COzEt

3. Pyridyl amide 5.39 is easliy metallated at the C3 position. Quenching with the aldehyde, and cyclisation of the resulting alcohol 5.42 onfo the

amide group, produces lactone 5.40.

-- ----------,;;;;;---'----------

82 Answers to problems

OMe

Ólrr-~ n-BuLi Do

(2eq. )

5.39 O

OMe

~H Ar

I O ~

N O

5.40

4. The reaction probably proceeds via enaminoester formation then cyclisation.

o (O ~OEt CN f}fC0

2Et

CN H o ~ ro~~{ ~ HuH) N{ - 2 ~ )l~CN

2 ~ H H~\

O O /.EtOH

JXCN. JXCN H

In fact nucleophilic substitution of pyridine N-oxides occurs more easiIy than on simple pyridines, as the nitrogen atom is positively charged.

11.5 Answers to problems in Chapter 6

1. The quinolone synthesis involves an addition-elimination reaction folIowed by an intramolecular aromatic acylation.

O ~-:J \'f~·'''· EtO~OEt E~~O) O roO COzEt roO COzEt

F~ r~iEt -EtOH~F~:..J I OEt -.:. ~ ~ I ---.:. ~ I I Cl~NHz"""" Heat Cl~N Cl ~ N Cl ~ N '

H H 6.32

"*1" 'e'·~1

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 83

The displacement reaction occurs by initial nuc1eophilic attack on the benzenoid ring (with the negative charge being delocalised onto the oxygen atom as shown) then elimination of chIoride ion. The presence of the fluorlne substituent is essential for this displacement, activating the ring towards nuc1eophi1ic attack by its electron-withdrawing inductive effect.

~) e o, e o F~CO_Z __ .. ~ ~~CO~C1/H20~ F~~H C~NjJ r~jJ rN~NjJ r NH Et HN~ Et HC!. HN~ Et

HN~ 2: Step 1. Condensation of the aldehyde with nitro methane under basic conditions produces the cx,~-unsaturated nitro compound.

o OH (OH e ArtH - Ar~NOZ----Ar~NOZ -OH~~NOz ~ H H H '-l..:HzNOz ~eOH

Step 2. Lithium aluminium hydride was used, although hydrogenation can also effect this type of reduction.

~N02 Ar

LiA1H4 ____ ........ ~NHz

or Hz/P~ Ar

Step 3. Acylation of the amine with an acid chloride in the presence of an appropriate base gave the amide. .

RCHzCOCI H ~ Ar~N~R

NEt3 11 O

Step 4. This isoquinoline fonnation is of course an example of the Bischler­Napieralski synthesis, although phosphorus trichIoride was actually used in this example, not phosphorus oxychloride.

Step 5. Sodium borohydride was used to reduce the imine to the amine.

H RIXNR3 ..

Step 6. The catecholic and phenolic ethers were removed by treatment with hydrobromic acid. Benzyl ethers are frequently removed by reduction (e.g. hydrogenation) but reduction, of course, would not remove the methyl ether. The mechanism of the deprotection is shown below.

R~ HEB ~ R~ fl -CH3Br,.. R~

~0_CH3 ~0_CH3 ~ EB, é OH

H ~r

84 Answers fo problems

7.47

11.6 Answers to problems in Chapter 7

1. Indole 7.38 was prepared by a Fischer índole synthesis followed by N­a1kylation as shown.

Ph-N-NH, oD. ~ NdJ. ~ H ~N~ ~N~

H Cl~NM~ ~ NM~

7.38

2. The nitroacetate (pKa = 6.79) protonates the tertiary amine funétionality of indole 7.39, facilitating the elimination of methylamine to give cation 7.46. Conjugate addition ofthe nitroacetate anion then produces 7.40.

,...... 0 C02Et

Ro~r.Ea RO~ e( RO~C02Et I I J fMez - HNMez 7 I "..; N02 7 I I

:::-- N. ~ H Do ~ N~ '1 Do:::-- N N02 IV Eal~ H

H H 7.46 7.40 R = PhCH2

O:JI I Ph :::-- e~1

N C I (111

0=5=0 N I Ph

3. As intended, C2 carbanion 7.47 attacked the nitrile giving 7.48, which unexpectedly attacked the adjacent sulphonyl group giving índolyl anion 7.49. During the acidic aqueous workup this anion is quenched and the reactive N-sulphonyI imine functionality is readily hydrolysed affording ketone 7.44 and sulphonamide 7.45.

OpyPh --(1 N Ea

("n-I1 Ph Gn Ph ~~~ Ha., ~~~ L. Ea N H20 7.44 o o=s=o e Li

U~h~ 1 I

o=s=o I

7.48 7.49 Ph I •

7.45 Ph

11.7 Answers to problems in Chapter 8

1. Sulphur ylid 8.36 ís the key intermediate in the formatíon of epoxide 8.34. Epoxide 8.34 ís racemic but alcohol 8.35 is achiral.

O O 11 NaH 11

18 CH3-S(CH3h Do- eCH2-S(CH3) 2 Corey'sylíd Ea (-H2) Ea

8.36

1 :) :{

,1 ,',

Aromatic heterocyclic chemistry 85

2. This oxadiazole formation involves O-acylation of the amidoxime followed by a condensation.

Co -- ~

OC' ... EtO-H ~ R NH2

8.21 l OMe -NH-2--'~ O~....J;r--e O-N

N O, .0-.... N

11.8 Answers to Problems in Chapter 9

1. The mechanism is similar to the 4-pyrone example.

tLcl~--. 0 ~ 'a' 0 o 4 -o ~OH~O 4'~~0 ~n ~ HO N O

'--. NH2 H 2 9.2 NH3

2. The first stage is the same as the preparation of 9.30, then cyclisation affords the pyrazole.

oc9''\N , ?' N

9.33 ::::... I H OH

3. This is a Mannich reaction (see Chapter 2) and is an unusual example of an electrophilic substitution on a chromone.

a

w~ aMe 9.35

4. The reaction is a straightforward acid-catalysed condensation, passing through carbonium ion 9.36a,b.

a a

oa'""tH • ruQHe aHph a a Ph

E9

~H ¡-Hza

o d.fH ro d [ 1 ~ a Ph ::::... a E9 Ph""---' ~ a/. Ph

9.19 9.36a 9.36b E9

H

~-( l~ O~

N 8.22

eL' N o H

5.22

86 Answers to problems

CN

H+OEt

OEt

10.26

11.9 Answers to problems in Chapter 10

1. The overall electronic distribution of 2-pyrimidone has a considerable contribution from mesomer 10.20a.

[ (CJ2 (N J

... .. ~Jl.oe 'G~ ~ I

H H

10.20 10.20a

The mechanism of nitration is shown below.

2. Disconnection of barbiturate 10.25 produces bis-electrophile 10.27 and urea. In practice malonate ester 10.28 (X = OEt) is used.

, Ph0NH ]>' Ph0x NH

~ÁN~O ~Áx + ~2 H H2N O

10.25 10.27 10~16

O ,Ph0 . ~Á~~OEt O OEt

10.28

3. Hydrolysis of acetal10.26 Ieads to reactive aldehyde 10.29 in situ.

eN CN

~ ........... HfD -EtOH J: -+ H~ r OEt- ....

'o H O H

10.29

Condensation of aldehyde 10.29 with urea followed by cyclisation onto the nitrile produces cytosine 10.6. Observe how cyclisation onto a nitrile affords the amino functionality directly, as compared with the three step sequence used in the synthesis of 10.24 where an ester is used in the cyclisation step.

CN ~N ~N

HJ:O

NHz e" e" -H20 ~ NHz ~ .i NH

2

H2N~O .. ,.4. H =--N o ~ H N~O

10.29

H'"r NHz NH

~/H ~NEB

C-lo· e'" eNE ... )[~2 N~O H N O

H H H

10.6

lo;

"

Index

a.-effect 29 acetyl nitrate 15 acid chlorides 6 a.-aminoketone 13 arnmonia 5 AMP, biosynthesisof 74 anion chemistry of

furan 17 imidazole 25 indole 59 isoquinoline 50 isothiazole 32 isoxazole 32 pyrazole 32 pyridine 42 pyrrole 17 quinoline 50 tbiazole 25

anthocyanins 67 aryl hydrazines 54 .i,2 azoles 28 1,3 azoles 20 AZT 74

barbiturates 77 benzene 2 benzopyrilium cation 67 bioisosteric replacement 63 Bischler-Napieralski synthesis

(isoquioline) 48

Chichibabin reaction 40 chIorophyll 11 chromone 67 Claison rearrangement 55 condensation 3 Cope rearrangement 55 coumarin 67 cytosme 73

delocalisation 3 delphinidin chloriqe 67 dihydropyridines 37 disconnection 4 DNA 73 drugs for the treatment of

AIDS 74 asthma 31 bacterial infection 27 depression 60 fungal infection 41, 66 infiammation 22 schizophrenia 18 senile dementia 45,63 sleep disorders 77 trematode infection 69 ulcers 1,11

electrophilic substitution of furan 14 imidazole 24 mdole 57 isoquinoline 49 isotbiazole 32 isoxazole 32 oxazole 24 pyrazole 32 pyridine 37 pyridine N-oxide 38 pyridones 39 pyrimidones 76 pyrrole 14 quinoline 49 tbiazole 24 thiophene 14

Fischer synthesis (mdole) 54 fiayone 70 furan 10

Gould-Jacobson synthesis (quinolone) 51

Hantzsch pyridine synthesis 36 Hantzsch thiazole synthesis 23 heteroaromaticity 1 histamine 20 hydrazine 29 hydrogen suIphide 12 hydroxyIamine 29 5-hydroxytryptamine 54

imidaiole 20 imidoyl halide 22 indole 53 isoquinoline 46 isotbiazole 28 isoxazole 28

Khellin 67 Knorr synthesis (pyrrole) 14 Konstanecki-Robinson synthesis

(chromone) 70

Leimgruber synthesis (indole) 56 lysergic acid 54

Mannich reaction 16, 58

neurotransmitters 54 nitriIe oxides 30 nucleic acids 73 nucleophilic substitution of

imidazoIes 26 isoquinolines 49

oxazóles 26 pyrldines 40 pyrimidines 76 quinolines 49 thiazoles 26

ornithine 64 ortho-activating substituents 43 oxadiazoIes 61 oxazoles 20 oxazolidmones 8

Paal-Knorr synthesis (pyrroIe, tbiophene, furan) 12

phosphorus oxychloride 15,47 phosphorus sulphide 12 Pictet-Spengler synthesis

(isoqumoline) 48 pyrazole 28 purlne 73 pyridine 35 pyridme N-oxide 38 pyridine sulphur trioxide complex 15,

35 pyridones 39 pyridontriazine 41 pyrylium c.ation 67 pyrimidines 73 pyrones 67 pyrroIe 10

Quinoline 46

resonance 2 retrosyn thesis 4 Robinson-GabrieI synthesis

(oxaZole) 21

Skraup synthesis (quinoline) 46 synthesis of

chromones 70 coumarins 69 furans 11 heterocycles, principies of 3-8 -imidazoIes 22 -indoles 54 isoquinolines 46 isothiazoles 29 oxadiazoles 62 oxazoles 21 pyrazoles 29 pyridines 35 pyrylium salt 68 pyrimidines 74 pyrroles 11 qumolines 46 tetrazoles 64

88 Index

thiazoles 23 thiophenes 11 triazoles 63

tetrazoles 61 thiamin 20

thiazoles 20 thiopherie 10 thymidine 73

. triazole 61

uracil 73

Vilsmeierformylation 15,58

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