Arkansas Tech Writing14th editionJuly 2016 / June 2019

ArkansasTechWritingEnglish 2053:Technical Writing

14th edition

edited by

Carl Brucker

Arkansas Tech University

July 2016 / June 2019

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About This Text

Thisisthefourteentheditionofatextthatwasfirstpublishedin1989asAssignments and Models for English 2053.Publishedin2016,thefourteentheditionupdatedtheresearchsectiontoincludechangestocitationrules,revisedthejobapplicationsection,andaddednewexamplesinseveralplaces.ForthisreprintingIhavecorrectedsomeerrorsandmademinorchangestowordinginsomeplaces.

AdigitalversionofthistextisavailablefromtheEnglishDepartment’sResourcespage:http://www.atu.edu/worldlanguages/resources.php

Carl BruckerisaProfessorofEnglishandHeadoftheEnglishDepartmentatArkansasTechUniversitywherehehastaughttechnicalwritingsince1984.

Thistextincludesassignments,examples,andimagessuppliedbyTechprofessorsandstaffmembers.

Stan LombardoisaProfessorofEnglish,DirectorofComposition,andSupervisorofEnglishGraduate Teaching Assistants at Arkansas Tech University, where he has taught technical writing and other courses since 1977.

Ernest Enchlemayer is an Associate Professor of English at Arkansas Tech University where he has taught technical writing and other courses since 2005.

Erin Clair is an Associate Professor of English at Arkansas Tech University where she has taught technical writing and other courses since 2006.

Emily Hoffman is an Associate Professor of English at Arkansas Tech University where she has taught technical writing and other courses since 2010.

Dave Buhajla is a technical writer and an adjunct instructor at Arkansas Tech University where he has taught technical writing and other courses since 2007.

Brent HoganistheCoordinatoroftheEnglishLanguageInstituteatArkansasTechUniversityandanInstructorofEnglish.Hehastaughttechnicalwritingandothercorusessince2003.

Brandon Wright,whoistheDirectorofCareerServicesatTech,helpedrevisethesectiononjobapplicationsandrésumésforthisedition.

Liz Chrisman,Tech’sphotographer,gavepermissiontouseherphotos,includingthoseonthecover.

IwanttothanktheEnglish2053studentswhosewritingandsuggestionshavecontributedtothisbook, Allison Bruckerforpermissiontousesomeofherdrawingsasillustrations,Kayla Chambliss and Daniel Hightower for their assistance with revising the research section, and Klay Rutherford, for proofreadingthisedition.

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Table of Contents

Assignments and Models ................................................................................................................................Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................1DescriptiveParagraph ......................................................................................................................................................3 Just a Shy Guy byTinaSharpMcCain ...................................................................................................................... 4 A Man of the Times byJamieBarker...................................................................................................................................4 The Upperclassman by Greg Grady .....................................................................................................................................5 The Man-Cave by Clayton Henry ................................................................................................................................5 A Low Dose of Rendering Plant Exhaust by Brent Hogan ...................................................................................................................................6 The Glare byRobertTran.....................................................................................................................................6 Stale Monotony byBrandonPeoples.............................................................................................................................7 Trapped by Katie Young ................................................................................................................................... 7 A Different Perspective bySarahHart.......................................................................................................................................8 His, Mine, and Ours byCaitlinSchneider ............................................................................................................................8ExtendedDefinition ....................................................................................................................................................... 9 Myocardial Infarction byMaryLynneHawkins ................................................................................................................. 10Comparison/Contrast .................................................................................................................................................. 11 The Lion and the Cheetah byDeannaGentry ........................................................................................................................... 12Classification .........................................................................................................................................................14 Classification of Caves by Source of Formation byRobertGunter ............................................................................................................................. 15 Classification of Whales by Feeding Pattern byKimberlyHorton ........................................................................................................................18 Classification of Dogs by Breed Size byChelseaMason .............................................................................................................................20

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ProposalLetter .........................................................................................................................................................24 Letter to Dr. Aubrey Holderness byJanCartmill ................................................................................................................................ 25 Letter to Dr. Carl Brucker byGhiasAkram................................................................................................................................ 26 Letter to Dr. Kevin Mason byChandaAdams ............................................................................................................................ 27Process Analysis .........................................................................................................................................................28 The Four Strokes of a Four-Cycle Engine byToddStrawn ............................................................................................................................... 29 The Metamorphosis of a Butterfly byChandaAdams ........................................................................................................................... 32 Human Digestion byJuliaPope .................................................................................................................................... 34InstructionSet .........................................................................................................................................................36 Instructions for Drawing Figure D by Anthony Beck ............................................................................................................................. 37 Instructions for Building Model Y byWendyMiller ................................................................................................................................39 Instructions for Constructing Figure 2 byMattBrucker ...............................................................................................................................41EvaluationMemorandum ............................................................................................................................................. 44 Evaluation of Instructions for Diagram C by Carl Hankins............................................................................................................................... 45 Evaluation of Instructions for Building Model AB by Juanita Fox ...................................................................................................................................46AnalyticReport .........................................................................................................................................................48 Survey Regarding ATU Library Hours by Karl Vesecky, Jr. ......................................................................................................................... 49 Public Opinion Toward Hunting and Related Issues byToddStrawn ................................................................................................................................ 52 Hearing Difficulties in Older Congregation byCharlotteHipp ............................................................................................................................. 55ObjectiveDescription .................................................................................................................................................. 57 Description of Tabla bySajeedPoudyal ............................................................................................................................58 Description of My Sony Playstation 3 Controller by Kendall Tubb .............................................................................................................................. 61 Description of My Slightly Rusted Cheese Grater

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byMichelleBoren ........................................................................................................................... 66 Description of a Medieval Knight’s Suit of Plate Armor by Taylor Garrett ..............................................................................................................................68DecimalOutline .........................................................................................................................................................71 Anatomy and Function of the Eyeball by John Eden ................................................................................................................................... 72 Decimal Outline of “Anatomy and Function of the Eyeball” byStaciYoung ................................................................................................................................ 74InformativeAbstract .................................................................................................................................................... 75 The Preservation of Historic Glazed Architectural Terra Cotta by de Teel Patterson Tiller ................................................................................................................ 76 Informative Abstract of “The Preservation of Historic Glazed Terra Cotta” bySuzanneLippard......................................................................................................................... 79JobApplication ........................................................................................................................................................80 ElectronicApplications ...................................................................................................................................81 Letter to James Purdy byJosephStudent ............................................................................................................................82 Letter to Jennifer Borden bySallyStudent ..............................................................................................................................84RecommendationMemorandum ..................................................................................................................................87 Recommendation to Hire Jim Brooks as Administrative Assistant byVickySmith,RexGarner,andMaryKeener .............................................................................88Presentation ..........................................................................................................................................................89 Leukemia byAshleyWilliams .......................................................................................................................... 90ResearchReport .........................................................................................................................................................95 How Do Insects Fly? by Greg Bobel ................................................................................................................................. 96 The Impact That Killed the Dinosaurs by Brent Hogan .............................................................................................................................. 113 A New Wolrd Power: The History of teh Atomic Bombing during World War II byMarkR.Holt ..............................................................................................................................124Analyzing and Testing Writing ReadabilityIndices ....................................................................................................................................... 139 Testing Writing ............................................................................................................................................. 142 BasicPowerpointCommunicationsRatingSheet ...................................................................................... 144Review of Basic Writing Skills SentenceErrors ............................................................................................................................................ 145 Commas .......................................................................................................................................................147

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Subject-VerbAgreement ............................................................................................................................... 147 PronounAgreementandReference .............................................................................................................148 UsingNumbers ............................................................................................................................................148 Hyphenation ................................................................................................................................................ 149 Capitalization ............................................................................................................................................... 150 Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................... 150 SomeCommonTechnicalAbbreviations ..................................................................................................... 151 Clarity ....................................................................................................................................................... 151 Diction .......................................................................................................................................................152 Tone ....................................................................................................................................................... 153 Voice ....................................................................................................................................................... 153 Usage of the Passive Voice by Kent Porter ................................................................................................................................ 154Rhetorical Strategies PartitionandClassification .......................................................................................................................... 156 TypesofProcessWriting .............................................................................................................................158 Writing Persuasive Application Letters by John Lannon ...............................................................................................................................159 What Employers Ask When Reading Application Letters by Paul Anderson ............................................................................................................................159 ID:InformationDesign bySaulCarliner..............................................................................................................................159Document Format GeneralGuidelinesforGoodDocumentDesign ...........................................................................................160 Headings ...................................................................................................................................................... 161 LetterFormat ............................................................................................................................................... 163 ModifiedBlockFormat .................................................................................................................. 166 BlockFormat ................................................................................................................................. 167 Simplified .......................................................................................................................................168 Email ........................................................................................................................................................ 169 MemorandumFormat .................................................................................................................................. 170 Lists in Technical Writing .............................................................................................................................172Graphics GraphicsinTechnicalWriting ..................................................................................................................... 174 Tables ....................................................................................................................................................... 175 Calculating Percentages ................................................................................................................. 177 Text Tables ....................................................................................................................................178 Figures ........................................................................................................................................................179 BarandColumGraphs .................................................................................................................. 179 LineGraphs ...................................................................................................................................183 AdjustingIncrements .....................................................................................................................187

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Charts ..............................................................................................................................................189 DiagramsandPhotographs ...........................................................................................................198Collaboration CollaborativeWritingandtheWorkplace .................................................................................................... 200 EffectiveFace-To-FaceCollaboration .......................................................................................................... 200 Electronic Collaboration Tools ..................................................................................................................... 201 TheImpactofGenderandCultureinCollaboration ................................................................................... 201Research Methods Plagiarism ......................................................................................................................................................202 Taking Notes ................................................................................................................................................ 204 DocumentingSources .................................................................................................................................. 205 DocumentationStyles .................................................................................................................................. 206 MLAAuthor-PageStyle .............................................................................................................................. 210 APAAuthor-DateStyle ................................................................................................................................ 214 CSECitation-SequenceNUmericalStyle ...................................................................................................218 CMSFootnote/EndnoteStyle ....................................................................................................................... 222About the Contributors .......................................................................................................................................... 226

Exercise Answers .......................................................................................................................................................228

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If you are taking this course online and run into technical difficulties, call Tech’s 24-hour help line at

(479) 968-0646.

1Introduction

Introduction

ENGL2053TechnicalWritingisapre-professionalcoursedesignedtohelpyouprepareforthewritingresponsibilitiesthatyouwillfaceaftergraduationbyintroducingyoutoavarietyofdocumenttypes,formats,andstylerequirementsthatarecommonintheworkplace.

Onewaytobeginbuildingyourskillsistoreviewthecharacteristicsoftechnicalandworkplacewritingthatdistinguishitfromtheacademicwritingthatyouareusedtodoinginschool.

Characteristics of Technical and Workplace Writing

Practical.Muchoftheacademicwritingthatyouhavedoneinschoolwasdesignedtohelpyoulearnortodemonstrateyourknowledge.Technicalandworkplacewriting,however,servespracticalpurposes.Thesedocumentsprovidecoworkersandcustomerswiththeinformationthattheyneedtomakedecisionsortotakeactions.

Other-Directed.Ifyouexpressyourselfbywritingasonglyricforyourband,penningalovingnotetoyoursignificantother,sendinganedgyemailtothelocalnewspapereditor,orupdatingyourpersonalblog,yourwritingisself-directed;youarewritinginresponsetoyourownneedordesiretoexpressyourself.Technicalwritingisalmostalwaysother-directed,writteninresponsetosomeoneelse'sneedforinformation.

Reader-Centered.Becausetechnicalwritingisother-directed,thereader'sneedsdeterminetheformandcontentofthecommunication.TechnicalWritersmustfullyunderstandtheneeds,knowledge,andinterestsoftheirreadersinordertoprepareasuccessfuldocumentthatgivesreaderstheinformationtheyneedinaformtheyunderstandwithoutburdeningthemwithunnecessarydata.Inaddition,technicalandworkplacedocumentsareoftendesignedtobereadbydiversereaders,andthewriterneedstoshapehisdocumentstofitanarrayofreaderneeds.

Constrained.Technicalwriterscreatespecializeddocumentsthatarenotcommoninacademicwriting--progressreports,proposals,memoranda,businessletters,instructions,specifications.Moreover,technicalwritersneedtofollowtheformatrequirementsoftheirparticularorganizationoraudience.Theyalsoneedtounderstandandadapttotheconventionsandcultureoftheorganizationofwhichtheyareapart.

Integrated. Muchacademicwritingfocusesexclusivelyontext,buttechnicalandworkplacedocumentsregularlyintegratetextwithgraphics.Atechnicalwriterneedstobeawareofthevisualdesignofdocumentsandbeabletoproducegraphicsandselectwhichgraphicisappropriatetoaspecificcommunicationsituation.

2 Introduction

Collaborative. Youmayhaveoccasionallyworkedoncollaborativeprojectsinschool,butthemajorityofsignificanttechnicalandworkplacewritingiscollaborative.Thismaymeanworkingdirectlywithcoworkers,eitherface-to-faceorelectronically,ondraftingandrevisingdocuments,oritmaymeanhavingyourworkreviewedandrevisedbysuperiorsoroutsideconsultants.

Contingent. Everytechnicalorworkplacewritingsituationhasasocialandpoliticaldimension.Unlikeacademicwriting,whichisgenerallyfromstudenttoteacher,technicalwritingmustbeadaptedintoneandstyletoawidervarietyofsocialandpoliticalrelationships--managertosubordinate,coworkertocoworker,workertovendor,managertoregulatoryagency.

Tested. Youmayhaveaskedyourroommatetolookoveranacademicpaperbeforehandingitin,butintheworkplace,documentsareoftenvigorouslytestedwithsamplereadersbeforetheyareused or distributed.

Ethical.Thecourtsviewmosttechnicalandworkplacedocumentswrittenbyemployeesasrepresentingthepositionoftheorganization,andthesedocumentscanbecomeevidenceincontractualorliabilitylawsuits.Evenwhentechnicalandworkplacedocumentsdonotconfrontlegal issues, they can have serious effects and technical writers need to be conscientious about presentinginformationasaccuratelyaspossible.

Three Characteristics of Effective Technical or Workplace Writing

Unitary.Ideallyatechnicaldocumentshouldprovideasingle,unambiguousversionoftheinformationtoallreaders.Forthisreasontechnicalwritersavoidirony,figurativelanguage,andhumor.

Usable.Ideallyatechnicaldocumentisreader-centeredandpresentedinamannerthatmakesiteasyforreaderstoacquiretheinformationtheyneed.

Efficient.Technicalwritersneedtobeawareofthevalueoftheirreaders'time.Readersshouldnotbesloweddownbyunfamiliaroroverlycomplicatedformatsandtheyshouldnothavetoreadthroughunneededinformationordiscussion.Technicalwritersshouldalwaysstrivetokeeptheratiobetweenthevaluableinformationtheycommunicateandthenumberofwordstheyusetodoitashighaspossible.

3Descriptive Paragraph

Describe

Writeadescriptiveparagraphofabout150wordsontheperson,placeorobject assigned by your instructor.

Concentrate on unity, coherence, and effective use of detail. Your paragraphshouldcommunicateacleardominant impression of your subject.

Yourinstructormayallowyoutouse"subjective"descriptionforthisassignment.Insuchacase,yourparagraphcouldbehumorous,ironic,orinsomeotherwayimprecise.Whatismostimportant,however,istoexhibitunity,coherence,andeffectivedetailinprosethatisfreeoferrors.

Format Requirement: Giveyourparagraphadescriptivetitle.

4 Descriptive Paragraph

Just a Shy Guy

ThePointerSistersreleasedasongafewyearsago,entitled"He'sSoShy."ThatsongcouldhavebeenwrittenforBrad.Bradisaclean-cutyoungmanwhoisabouttwentyyearsold.Hislightbrownhairisshort;hisblueeyesaresurroundedbylonglashes.HiswhiteGuessshirtistuckedintoapairofstone-washedLevi's501jeans.ApairofsnakeskincowboybootsaddsanimpressivefinishingtouchtoBrad'sneatappearance.Bradseemssomewhatboredwiththisassignmentanduncomfort-ableaboutstaringatastranger.Heglancesquicklyatthepersonheisdescribing,rollshispenacrosshislips,thenwriteshisthoughtsinsmall,printedwordsonhispaperbeforelookingupagain.Brad'sreluctancetoraisehisheadisthemostobviousindicationofhisshyness.However,hisquicksmileassuresmethatheisafun-lovingguy.MyimpressionofBradcanbesummedupbythislinefromthePointerSisters'song."He'ssoshy,sogood-lookin."

Tina Sharp McCain

Tina Sharp MCain unifies her descriptive para-graph by framing it with references to the Pointer Sis-ters' song and by sticking to a clear dominant impres-sion–Brad seems shy but attractive. Coherence is helped by the sequence of descriptive detail, in this case, top-to-bottom organiza-tion.

Suggestion: Lessen the choppiness of the prose by combining sentence ideas.

Both Jamie Bark-er and Greg Grady (next page) write witty descriptions that use closely observed details to communicate domi-nant impressions.

Jamie doesn't explicitly state her dominant impres-sion, but she uses the image of the "huge watch" and the references to time to give her paragraph a strong sense of purpose and unity.

A Man of the Times

Myattentionisdrawntoayoungmansittinginthefrontrowofourclassroom.Hesitsrelaxedwithhisglassesproppedontheendofhisnose,readingabook(nodoubtanotherassignment)topassthefewminutesremaininguntiltheclassstarts.Hisclothesareneat,clean,andsufficientlystylish,buttheoneaccessorythatstandsoutisahugewatch.Maybethatiswhyheisalwaysrightontimeforclass,oracoupleofminutesearly,butneverlate.Astheclassbegins,hefidgetswithhispen,waitingfortheotherstudentstofinishanassignmenthehasalreadycompleted.Takingnotes,hewritesintinyscriptasbig,scrawlingwritingwouldsurelywastevaluabletimeandspace.Whenitbecomesobviousthattheprofessorisnearingtheendofhislecture,theyoungmanbeginsanxiouslychewinghisgum,hisjawsinrapidmotion.Then,whenthewordsofdismissalarespoken,heisupandgone,offtohisnextappointeddesig-nation,butwewillseehimnextclass,rightontimeIamsure.

Jamie Barker

5Descriptive Paragraph

Greg is more explicit, noting his subject's "lack of concern for others' perceptions" and his loss of "fresh-man enthusiasm."

Suggestion: Eliminate the final sentence. The idea that the subject is not a freshman is clear without it.

Clayton Henry uses a framing reference to the "ugly carpet" to help unify his description, but its strongest feature is the specificity of the descriptive details. Instead of merely inventorying gener-ic items, Mr. Henry describes them with precision that helps his readers see this particular place.

The Upperclassman

ThefirsttimeIspottedBrady,Iknewhewasanupperclassman.Thereweremanyclues.Thefirsthadtobehisyellowboy-scoutshirtthatwastoosmallandpaper-thin.Hisshortswerewrinkledandalsoquitefaded.Then,ofcourse,therewasthetattered,formerlybluehatthatwasnearingthecolorwhite.Finally,Bradyworeapairofworn-outsandalstotopoffhislook.Allofthesecluespointedtohiscompletelackofcon-cernforothers'perceptionofhim.Hecarriednobooks,onlyagreennotebookcoveredindrawingsandablackrubberpenthathehasbeenchewingonunmercifully.Hehadcertainlyalreadylearnedfromhisyearsincollegethatonlyfreshmencarrytextbookstoclass.Hislookofabsoluteboredomandirritationwiththeassignmentsuggestedthathehadlongagolostthatfreshmanenthusiasmforthefirstweekofclasses.Inconclusion,allofthesecluessuggestthatheisindeednofreshman.

Greg Grady

The Man-Cave

As I sit in my high-backed leather desk chair, I move my feet back and forth through the carpet. The bronze flooring is an old and dirty remnant of the 1970’s that perfectly complements the walnut colored wood paneling lining the walls. Upon the walls hang various trophy items I have collected over the years. Items that, if let up to my wife, would have been tossed in the trash long ago. My three guitars hang on the furthest wall behind me, a purple and black acoustic, a pure white electric, and a sunburst fret-less bass. The drums set up in the corner closest to the guitars provide the last ingredi-ent needed for a jam session. On the opposite wall, there are two framed Lord of the Rings puzzles with a replica of “Sting”, the sword used by the Hobbits in the books, mounted between them. On the next wall to the right, a 49ers pennant hangs over a signed picture of their old tight-end, Ted Kwalick, illuminated by the green glass of a metal banker’s desk lamp. My large cherry wood corner desk bridges these two walls. I built the desk myself so it is particularly monstrous. Each side is three feet wide and nine feet long with an inset cut out in the corner where the two sides meet. This al-lows my desk chair to be comfortably positioned for maximum use of desktop space. On either side of the chair, eight-inch cabinet speakers are mounted for supreme sound immersion. To the side of the right speaker, my custom gaming computer sits with blue LED lit fans glowing. The output from the computer is displayed on a corner mounted forty-seven inch LCD TV and a swivel mounted twenty-four inch LCD monitor. To sum it up, I have everything a man needs to relax and enjoy life. Who cares about ugly carpet?

Clayton Henry

6 Descriptive Paragraph

A Low Dose of Rendering Plant Exhaust

Theroom,inwhichmycomputerislocated,iscrampedwithfivedesks,asink,andarefrigerator.Whenapersonenterstheroom,threeofthedesksarevisibledirectlyacrosstheroomwithwindowsabovethem.Anotherdeskisontheleftandanotheristotherightbehindthesink.Fourofthedeskshavedesktopcomputers,andallareclutteredwithloosepapersandthicknetworkmanuals.Thedesktotheleft,thatdoesnothaveacomputeronit,hasalaserjetprinterandtwolunchboxes.Therefrigeratorissqueezedin-betweenthisdeskandthewall.Theflooriscoveredwithgreencarpetthatwasfashionableinofficesduringthe1960’s,andthewallsarebareofanydecora-tions. The three windows that are above the desks have blinds that are always closed. Theroomsmellslikealowdoseofrenderingplantexhaust,anditisalwayscold.

Brent Hogan

The Glare

AsIlookatthecomputerscreen,Icanseeaglare.TheglareissobrightthatIamun-abletoconcentrate.Ileanbackintherollingchairandtiltmyheadbacktorelax.AsIstareatthedustyceilingfan,thoughtsofmyroomcometomind.Ithinkofthelightshadeofyellowwallwithgreencolorcarpetthatsurroundsme.Intherightcorneroftheroomisasinglebedwithaforestgreenanddarkblueplaidcomforterontopofit.Theframeholdingthebedismadeofsolidoak.Abovethebedisapictureofadragonthatwascreatedbyoystershells.IfIlookcloselyenough,Icanseethefinehand-de-tailedcarving,createdbythetalentedartist.Theframesurroundingthedragonismadeoffourteen-karatgold.Fillinguptheoppositecorneroftheroomisanendtable.Icanseethehand-carveddesignofafloweratthetopoftheleg.Thestemsconnectingtheflowerextendtothebottomoftheleg.Ontopofthetableisashrubthathasvinesdan-glingovertheedge.Thiscausesthetabletolooktoosmalltoholdupthelargebushyobject.TotheleftofthetableismyblackToshibacomputer.Thedeskwherethecomputersitsiscomposedofsolidoakwhichtakesupaboutonefourthoftheroom.Mythoughtsareinterruptedbyabrightglareoflightthathitsmyretina,causingmetocomeoutofmydaze.Iimmediatelyrollmychairtotherightandclosetheblindsonthe window.

Robert Tran

Brent Hogan's description of his work area uses increasingly unap-pealing descriptive details, conclud-ing with the grim "rendering plant" sentence.

Robert Tran uses a narrative frame to unite his paragraph with the actual de-scription of the room existing as a sort of daydream between the intrusions of the glaring light.

Suggestion: The de-scription itself is of-ten wordy. In several places ideas could have been combined to form more ef-ficient sentences.

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Stale Monotony

ThecomputerIamusingsitsonthefirstflooroftheRossPendergraftLibraryatArkansasTechUniversity.Everyaspectoftheroompointstowarditspurpose:tokeepitsinhabitants’mindsonthetaskinfrontofthem.Uponenteringtheroom,Iseethebeigecirculationdesk.Atthedesk,aladygloomilytypesonacomputer.Inthefrontoftheroom,justtotheright,therearetwopairsofdull,graycubiclescontainingblackcomputers.Furthertotherightstandfoursimilarly-coloredbookshelvescontainingscientificjournals.Inthecenteroftheroomtherearetwodozenofthesamedrably-coloredcubiclescontainingcomputers.Infrontofme,tomyleftsitsaladyfocusedonthescreeninfrontofher.Middle-aged,hairgraying,andwrinkle-faced,theladypeersthroughherpurpleglassesatherscreen.Inthemiddleoftheroom,totherighttherearesixwoodenbookshelves,eachofthemholdingoldreferencebooks.Cheaplymadebutelegantallthesame,theirrichbeigeandbrowntonesproverefreshingafterstaringatthesharpcomputerscreen.Thispartoftheroombearsthearomaofrottingpaper,atestamenttotheprestigiousoldencyclopedias.Thewholeroomisdesignedtobeasinoffensiveaspossible.Thewideaislesbetweenthecubicles,thenot-too-brightlightswhichhangfromtheceiling,eventheframedlandscapesthathangontherightwallweredesignedtonotdistract.Thedull,sand-coloredcomputerdesks,matchedwithcombininggrays,blues,andwhitesallcreateastalemonotonyonlyachievableatalibrary.Surroundedbythisvisualboredom,myeyestendtofocusmoreonmyscreen.

Brandon PeoplesTrapped

Mycomputersitsinasmallcompartmenttuckedawayfromtherestoftheroom.Itisdimlylitbytheoverheadlight.Thepaleyellowofthepaintonthewallsonlyintensi-fiestheyellowglowcastbythebulbabove.Theonlyotherlightthatmanagestocreepinisthatofthewindowinfrontofme.AsIsitatthecomputerinthistinyspaceIlookoutthewindowandseeafencethatconnectstoevenmorefences.Ilookaroundonthefloorandseenothingbutclutterthatkeepsmyfeetfromleavingthedesk.EvenasIlookoutoftheopendoorintothehallwayIseenothingbutshadows,anditlookslikethereisnoescapeinthatdirectioneither.Asitgrowsdarkeroutside,theroombe-comeslitprimarilybytheglowofthecomputerscreen.ItisherethatIremain,trappeduntilmyhomeworkiscomplete.

Katie Young

Descriptive Paragraph

Brandon People's description explicitly states its dominant impression in its title and in its penul-timate sentence.

Brandon concen-trates on color to communicate his central idea.

He maintains the reader's spatial orientation with tan-sitional phrases such as "in front of me, to my left side."

In the sentence that starts "The wide aisles ...," Brandon uses parallelism to create an efficient multiple subject for the sentence.

Every sentence in Katie's paragraph helps to communi-cate the dominant impression of being "trapped."

8

A Different PerspectiveAstheneongreennumbersofthedigitalclockrearrangetoformthetime,I

realizethatseveno’clockisfinallyhere.Theraysofsunlightthatoncebeamedoffthebare,brightwhitewallsarenowslowlybeginningtofade.Suddenly,thedoor’shinges creak as if they had arthritis. Behind the door, a sweaty girl trudges to the centerofthebackoftheroom.Uponreachingherunmadebed,shecollapsesontopofthefloweredbedsheets.Lookingbacktotheleftofthedoor,sheseesthereflectionofheruntidy,emptyroomthroughtheslidingmirrordoorswhichconcealacloset.Hergazeshiftstotheleftwall,pastawhitelaundrybasketfilledwithgreenandgoldbasketballclothes,anduptothedigitalclockperchedonatall,greydresser.Onlyafewprecioushoursremaintodohomework.Reluctantly,sherollsoftherightsideofthebedandimmediatelyplopsdownonachairinfrontofthedeskthatismyhome.Iamfilledwithexcitementasheroutstretchedhandslowlyapproachesme.Then,tomydisappointment,herhandpassesmebyandreachesforalampontheleftsideofthedesk.Afterafewseconds,abrightlightflickers,andthenfinallyilluminatestheentiredesktop.Ontherightsideofthedeskbelowtheprinter,severalbooksarehousedindeep,wideshelves.Atthistime,sheusuallyspendstherestofthenightimmersedinonebookaftertheother.Tonightisdifferent.Tonight,herattentionisfocusedonmeasherfingersgracefullystrokemyblackkeys.Iamhercomputer,andlikeeverythingelseintheroom,Iviefortheattentionofthisstudentathlete.

Sarah Hart

His, Mine, and Ours

Thecramped,darkroominwhichIsitisamismatched,hodge-podgeoftwolivesbroughttogether.Itishalfmaleandhalffemale.It’sevenmarriedandsingleatthesametime.It’syoung,buttryingtogrowup.Thereisadark,maturearmoirefilledwithbaublesandjewelsoddlyplacedundercabinetsofshotglassesandtravelsigns.Thereisalargebluejarofpenniesbeingsavedupforarainydayjuxtaposedwithaclosetfullofclothesandcountlessshoesthatequalsthousandsofwastedpennies.Thisdark,tinyroomwasmyhusband’sbeforeitwasmine,butitoverflowswithbothofouroddsandends.Hisolddeskissquishedupagainstthewhitedoorandmycat-scratchedpinefurnitureisjammedinclosefortheimaginedguestthatwewillsoonhave.Ican’tevenconsistentlycalltheroombythesamename.Halfthetimeit’souroffice,theotherhalfit’sourguestroom.However,theroomstillhasasenseofcomfortwithinthechaosofdisorderwithitsclosedblindsanddimlight.Maybethat’sbecauseeventhoughthedark,smallroomisamessyblendofournewlifetogetherashusbandandwife,it’stheblendthattrulymakestheroomrepresentus.

Caitlin Schneider

Descriptive Paragraph

Sarah Hart increas-es the interest of her dorm-room descrip-tion by using "A Different Perspec-tive," describing the room and herself from the viewpoint of her computer, and by writing her description as a narrative.

Caitlin Schnieder's use of parallelism underscores her theme of opposites coming together.

9

Define

Writeanextendeddefinitionofatleast250words,basedonthefollowingmodel,"MyocardialInfarction."

Selectaspecificconcreteobject(e.g.,aflashdrive)orarelativelysimpleprocess(e.g.,cloning);avoidabstractionslike"love"or"beauty."

Your essay should begin with a basic definitionthatfollowstheclassicpattern:[Termtobedefined]is[majorclasstowhichitbelongs][distinguishingcharacteristicsorintendeduse].

Examples:

• [Aclawhammer]is[ahandtool][usedtodriveorremovenails].

• [Anansweringmachine]is[anelectronicdevice][thatreceivesandrecordstelephonecalls].

• [Acompoundbow]is[amuscle-poweredmissileweapon][characterizedbyasystemofeccentricpulleyswhichimprovesthemechanicaladvantageofaconventionallongbow].

Inordertoextendyourbasicdefinition,expanduponeachofitselements,beginningwithbackgroundonthemajorclassandprovidingsignificantdetailsabouteachofthedistinguishingcharacteristics.Insomecases,abriefexplanationofthedevice'susemaybehelpful.

Extended Definition

10 Extended Definition

Myocardial Infarction

Myocardialinfarction(MI)isthedeathofcardiactissueduetorelativeorabsolutelackofbloodsupplytothecardiacmuscle.AnMIismorecommonlyknowntothelaypersonasa"heartattack."AnMIiscausedbyatheriosclerosisandcoronaryarteryembolism.

Clinicalsymptomsexperiencedbythepatientmayinclude,butarenotrestrictedto,chestpain,sweating,nausea,vomiting,shortnessofbreath,cyanosis(bluishtingedskin),weakness,andarm,jaworshoulderpain.Physiciansmakeadiagnosisbyobtainingahealthhistory,electrocardiogram(EKG),bloodtests,andbyauscultating(listeningto)heartsounds.Theocclusionmayoccurinanyofthefourcoronaryarteries:theleftmain,theleftanteriordescending,theleftcircumflex,ortherightcoronary.Acombinationofartriesmaybeoccluded,andavaryingdegreeofblockage(partialorcomplete)mayexist.

Thetypeofthemyocardiuminfarctionisrelativetothelocationoftheocclusion.Examplesoftypesareanterior,lateral,inferior,posterior,subendocardial,oracombination.Complicationsarecloselyrelatedtothetypeofmyocardialinfarctionanddegreeofblockageofthearteries.Anteriormyocardialinfarctionsprimarilywillhaveheart-rhythmabnormalities(irregularand/ortoofast),andbuildupoffluidinthelungs,resultinginbreathingproblems.Inferiormyocardialinfarctionswillalsohaverhythmdisturbances,buttheabnormalitiesareirregularand/ortooslow.Thesetwotypesarethemostcommoninoccurrence.

Patientsmayexperienceoneoftwocourses:complicatedoruncomplicated.ComplicatedMIsmayincludelife-threateningheart-rhytmabnormalities,unstablevitalsigns(bloodpressure,pulse,respiration),severechestpainunrelievedwithmedication,anextendedhospitalstay,ordeath.UncomplicatedMIsmayincludestableheartrhythm,stablevitalsigns,chestpainrelievedwithmedications,minimalhostpitalstay,andaprognosisforsurvival.

Theimmediatetreatmentofthemyocardialinfarctionwilllargelydependonthetype.Basiccarewillpredominantlyincludeoxygentherapy,bedrest,painrelief,EKGmonitoring,anticoagulationtherapy,andacardiac-rehabilitationprogram.Anticoagulationtherapyisthethinningofbloodtoalloweasierflowinthearteriesandveins,ususallyobtainedbyintravenousororalmedicines.Cardiacrehabilitationincludeseducationonthedisease,medications,diet,exercise,andfuturediagnosticstudiesasindicated.

Mary Lynne Hawkins

Mary Lynne introduces the common abbreviation for this term, after using the full form.

Wherever necessary she glosses secondary terms, providing her readers with brief parenthetical definitions of technical terms.

Having defined a medical condition, Mary Lynne concludes by explaining treatment strategies.

11Comparison/Contrast

Compare

Writeareportof500-1000wordsinwhichyouformallycompareandcontrasttwosimilarquantities.Thesemaybetwoproductsofanykind,two cities where you have lived, two colleges you have attended, two speciesofanimals,twostrategiesforestablishingabusiness–twoofanything.Inchoosingyourquantities,besurethattheyaresimilar enough toallowameaningfulcomparison,butdifferentenoughtoprovideasignificantcontrast.

Theoutlinebelowdemonstratesthestructureofacomparison/contrastreport.Notethattherearetwopossiblearrangementsforthematerialinthebody–i.e.,thepoint-by-point and the block.

I. Introduction A. StatementofPurpose B.QuantitiesforComparison/Contrast 1. AmericanChameleon(Anole) 2. Iguana C. SpecificPointsofComparison/Contrast 1. Physical Characteristics 2. Eating Habits 3. Habitat

II. Body(Point-by-Point) II. Body(Block) A. Physical Characteristics A. Anole 1. Anole 1. Physical Characteristics 2. Iguana 2. EatingHabits B. Eating Habits 3. Habitat 1. Anole B. Iguana 2. Iguana 1. PhysicalCharacteristics C. Habitat 2. Eating Habits 1. Anole 3. Habitat 2. Iguana

III.Conclusion–Derivesfromthepurposeofthereportandmayoffera recommendationofsomekind.

12 Comparison/Contrast

The Lion and the Cheetah

Fornaturelovers,thebigcatsoftheAfricansavannaholdspecialappeal.Thesecarnivoresepitomizerawpowerandbeautyastheymaintainthedelicatebalanceofpreyversuspredator.Thelionandthecheetaharetwosuchcreatureswhich,althoughalikeinsomeaspects,alsodifferinphysicalprowess,huntingstyle,andsocialbehavior.

Thelion,whichpeoplelovinglycall"kingoftheBeasts,"isapowerfulanimalweighingupto530pounds(male);thefemaleweighsupto300pounds.Malelionsgrowtobe6to8feetlongandstandabout3feettallattheshoulder.Theyhavemassive,muscularlegswithlargefeetandheavy,sharpclaws.Theirmuscularlegsallowthemtoclearupto35feetinasinglejump.Thisability,ofcourse,isawonderfuladvantageinhuntingtheirprey,whichconsistsoflargemammalslikezebras,rodents,hares,and birds. Lions are also not above eating carrion or stealing what other animalshavecaught.Thoughthemaleissomuchlargerthanthefemale,itisthelionessthatdoesmostofthehunting.Agroupoflionessesusuallyhuntstogether,withpartofthegroupchasingthepreyanddirectingittotherestofthegroup,whichislyinginambushinthetallgrass.Thelionesseskilltheirpreybybitingthevictim'sneckorthroatandstranglingit.Theircooperationinhuntingisjustoneaspectoftheirsociallives.Lions live in large gatherings known as prides,whichcontainasmanyas35lionessesandcubs,and2or3adultmales.Inadditiontohuntingtogether, they also guard their territory and raise their young together. Lionessesoften"baby-sit"thecubsoftheirsistersorcousinswhilethey are away hunting. The social behavior is characteristic of lions and separatesthemfromotherbigcatslikethecheetah.

Thecheetahisquiteabitsmallerthanthelion,weighingonly100to130pounds,measuring4feetinlength,andstanding39inchesattheshoulder.However,whathelacksinphysicalpower,hemorethanmakesupforinspeed.Thecheetahisthefastestlandanimal.Hecantravelupto65milesperhourandcanacceleratetofullspeedinjustafewseconds.Thecheetah'slong,slenderlegsandsupplespineallowforthisawesomecapability.Hisheavy,2.5-foottailhelpshimbalancewhenexecutingsharpturns.However,thecheetah'slungsandheartcannotprovidehimwithenoughoxygenforsustainedrunning,sohemusthuntinshortspurts.Thecheetah'sdietincludessmallerantelopes,hares,warthogs,andbirds.Whilehunting,hewaitsuntilheiswithin100yards,thenracesafterhisprey.Thisstrategyisdifferentfromthetacticsofothercats,likethelion,which

Deanna presents the quantities for comparison/contrast and expresses her (three) specific points.

Note that Deanna has chosen to use the block method; hence, all of the material on the lion appears in one section.

The next section is devoted to the cheetah.

13

usuallypouncesonitsvictims.Ifthecheetahcannotcatchhispreywithinabout450yards,hegivesupandreststocatchhisbreath.Cheetahsleadsomewhatsolitarylives,meetingothercheetahsonlytomate.Thoughtheysometimesorganizetohunttogether,thiscooperationisnotusuallythecase.

Thelionandthecheetaharebothbeautifulcatswithuniquecharacteristics.Themalelionisthemoremajestic,withhisflowingkinglymaneandloud,bellowingroar;whereas,thecheetahisthemoregraceful,withhislong,slenderlegsandswift,captivatingsprint.TheyarebothawesomecatstobeholdinactionastheystakeouttheirclaimsinthewildplainsoftheAfricansavanna.

Deanna Gentry

Comparison/Contrast

Deanna's conclusion does not imply a superiority of one creature over the other; instead, it emphasizes the uniqueness of each. However, a critical comparison of two products might conclude with a recommendation of one over the other for a specific application.

2

14 Classification

Classify

Writeaninformalclassificationreportofabout400-600wordsonatopicofyourchoice.

Rememberinselectingyourtopicthataclassificationstartswithadefinablesetofitems.Itthenusesoneconsistentbasisofclassificationtoseparatethoseitemsintocategories.Thus,thiswritingassignmentisalsoatestoflogicalthinking,andyou should try to adhere to the rules regarding completeness, exclusivity, and appropriatenessthatareexplainedonpages156.

Thebestwaytoavoidlogicalproblemsistobesurethatyouuseone consistent basis of classification.Youmay,ofcourse,choosetocreateatwo-levelclassificationinwhichyoufirstseparateyouritemsononebasisandthenseparateeach of the resulting categories on a second basis.

Inadditiontomeetingthelogicalrequirementsofcompleteness, exclusivity, and appropriateness,trytodefineasetofitemsandabasisofclassificationthat

willresultinamanageablenumberofcategories.Forexample,attemptingtoclassifyallpersonalcomputersbymanufacturerwouldresultinanimpossiblylargenumberofcategories;however,limitingtheclassificationtothefivebest-sellingpersonalcomputersintheUnitedStateswouldbemanageable.

Format Requirement:

Labelthesectionsofyourreportwithappropriate,informativeheadings.Ifyouaregoingtousetwoormorelevelsofheadings,asintheexampleswhichfollow,makesurethatyourheadingsvisuallycommunicatetheir

hierarchicalrelationship.Yourreadershouldbeabletodeterminewhichheadingissubordinatebyitsappearance.Donot,however,relyonyourheadingstoidentifythesubjectmatter.Nametheobjectsyouaredescribinginthetext.ReadHeadingsonpages161-162,reviewtheGeneralGuidelinesforGoodDocumentDesignonpage160,andreadID:InformationDesignonpage159.ThisreportmaybesubmittedtoTurnitin.com,soreadPlagiarismonpages202-203.

15Classification

Classification of Cavesby Source of Formation

Cavesplayanimportantroleinman’spresent-dayenvironmentbutinwaysotherthantheprovidingofshelter.Theymustbedealtwithwhendrillingforoilwells;theycanbeasourceofwaterfordryregions;andtheymaycauseproblemswhenbuildingstructuresthatmaycollapseifacaveexistsunderthem.

Cavesoriginateinavarietyofways,dependingontheirrelationshipwiththehostrock.Thetwomajorgroupsofcavesareprimarycavesandsecondary caves.

PRIMARY CAVES

Primarycavesformduringthetimewhenthehostrockisbeinglaiddownforsolidifying.Thecavitiesinlavathatresultfromthecoolingofmagmaaroundpocketsofgasesareanexample

Lava Caves

Severalkindsofcavesareknowntoformduringthecoolingoflavadischargedfromvolcanicvents.Mostspectaculararelavatubes.Lavatubesaretheresultofcoolingandsolidificationofthesurfaceofalavaflowaccompaniedbythedrainingofthestill-molteninteriortoleavethecharacteristiccylindricalvoid.Thesolidifiedlavastreamsformthefloorsasthemagmacools.Lavatubesareembellishedbyavarietyofdrippingandflowinglavastructures,notablystalactite-likelavapendantsresultingfromdrippageofthecoolingceilingorremeltingbyhotgases.LavatubesystemsoccurthroughoutthelavafieldsofthenorthwesternUnitedStatesandinalmostalllavaflowsaroundtheworldthathavenotsufferedexcessiveerosion.

Coral Caves

Withtheprogressiveexpandingandunitingofcoloniesofcoralinshallow,warmwaters,submarinevoidsremainbetweenthelacywallsoftheliving reef. Where shorelines have risen or sea level fallen, these coral caves havebeenexposedtowaveactionandsurfaceweathering,bothofwhichtend to enlarge or obliterate the voids and their features. Where reefs have beendeeplyburiedbylatersediments,thecavernousreefrockhasformedreservoirsofground-waterandpetroleum.

Robert Gunter's title is typical of such reports: identification of the item set to be classified followed by the basis for classification.

Introductory prose may or may not be labeled, but consistency is important. Note that neither the introduction nor the conclusion is labeled.

This report uses a two-level system of headings to increase accessibil-ity. The primary level is all capitals; the secondary level uses capitals only at the start of important words.

Categories should be described in a parallel man-ner. Parallelism, mentioning similar information in a similar order, helps the reader compare categories.

16 Classification

Tufa Caves

Wheresurfacestreamsheavilychargedwithcalciumbicarbonateareexposedtoawarm,arid,ortropicalenvironment,calciumcarbonatecanbedepositedrapidly,alongwithsuspendedmatter,inaformcalledtufa.Theprocessisaidedbyaerationinspray,facilitatingevaporationandthereleaseofcarbondioxide.Plantlife,especiallymosses,aidevaporationandsupplyareadymatrixfordeposition.Astufa-ladenstreamsplungeovercliffsandcanyonwalls,umbrella-likecanopiesbuildoutwardfromthespray.Theseenclosesmallcavesinterracesofalcoves.

SECONDARY CAVES

Secondarycavesdevelopafterconsolidationofthehostrock,insomecasesafterthepassageofseveralgeologicperiods.Limestonesolutioncavesandsandstonerocksheltersarethemostcommonexamples.

Shoreline and Water Worn Caves

Theactionofwateralongtheshoresofstreams,lakes,andoceansplaysamajorroleinthegenerationofcaves.Seacavesformwhereaseacliff,eithercontainingincompetentrockattidelevelorweakenedbyfracturing,isexposedtowaveaction.Quarryingtakesplacethroughgrindingbycontainedparticlesthatrangefromsandtobouldersandbyhydrodynamicpressurechangeswithinthewaveswhichprycliffblocksloose.Chemicalprocessesandtheboringoforganismsalsoaidintheexcavationofseacaves.Streamsandriversalsoareeffectiveinquarryingcavesinthebanks,usingastoolsthecontainedsilt,sand,andgravel,particularlyduringfloodstages.

Weathering Caves

Innumerablehoneycomb-likecavities,smallcaves,androck-sheltersresultfromexposureofrockfacestotheelements.Weakzonesintherockareattackedandexcavatedbyrain,wind-drivensand,andalternatingfreezingandthawing,hydrationanddrying.Springsappingbywaterseepingthroughcracksaidsinthequarryingprocess,asdoplantsgrowingfromtherockortreerootswedgingapartitsblocks.

Descriptive phrases such as “umbrella-like canopies” and “translucent blue-tinted tunnels” are not used for decoration. They help the reader see the subject more accurately.

As a general rule of style, primary headings should be followed by some prose that introduces the entire category's characteristics and components.

Compounding subjects, verbs, and objects makes this prose efficient, increasing the ratio between the amount of information and the number of words.

2

17Classification

Ice Caves

Althoughiceisconsideredasarockbygeologists,cavesformedthereinresultmorefrommeltingthanfromamechanicalprocess.Meltwaterflowingbeneathglacierssculptsintricatelabyrinthswithinandalongthebaseoftheice.Similarly,insnowfields,streamsandwindcurrentscreatetranslucentblue-tintedtunnelswhosescallopedsemicircularwallsbecomeglazedwithice.

Caveshaveplayedaninfluentialroleinman’slifethroughouthistory.Mostoftheworld’ssurfaceisunderlainbycavesandsolutionconduits.Aknowledgeofthesecavesandtheirusescanassistmaninthefuture.

Robert Gunter

This report's brief conclusion does not attempt to summarize, but it does provide a clear sense of closure.

Suggestion: Try to repair the awkwardness of the opening paragraph by making the first sentence more direct and making the clauses that compose the second sentence parallel.

3

18

Classification of Whales by Feeding Pattern

Whalesareagroupofexclusivelyaquaticmammalsfoundinalloceansandcontiguousseas.Thesemassivecreaturesaretypicallycharacterizedbytorpedo-shapedbodieswithforelimbsshapedasflippersandnoexternalhindlimbs.Mostwhaleshaveadorsalfinandaflukeortailthatishorizontal,notverticallikethatofmostfish.WhalesbelongtotheorderCetacea,whichzoologistsdivideintotwosuborders:Mysticeti(baleen)andOdontoceti(toothed).

MYSTICETI

Baleenwhalesarefilterfeeders.Thesewhalesfeedmainlybystrainingkrillandothercrustaceansfromthewaterasthemassivecreaturesswimalongthesurfacewiththeirmouthsopen.MembersoftheMysticetisuborderdivideintothreelivingfamilies:Balaenopteridaeincludestherorquals(baleenwhaleshavinglongitudinalgroovesonthethroatandasmallpointeddorsalfin);Balaenidae,therightwhalefamily;andEschrichtidae,thegraywhales.

Balaenopteridae

TheBalaenopteridaefamilyincludestherorquals—bluewhales,finwhales,seiwhales,Bryde’swhales,minkewhales,andhumpbackwhales.Therorqualsallhavesimilarbodyshapesanddiffermainlyinsize.Theyrangeinlengthfrom30to100feet,dependingonthespeciesandsexoftheanimal.Themainfoodsourceofthisfamilyisvariousspeciesofkrill.Animalssuchassmallsquidandfishareoccasionallytakenbyrorquals.

Balaenidae

TheBalaenidaefamilyincludestherightwhales,theGreenlandorbowheadwhale,andthepygmyrightwhale.Historically,thesewhalesoccurmainlyincoldandwarm-temperatecoastalwatersaroundtheworld.Rightwhalesfeedalmostexclusivelyoncopepods(crustaceans)andkrill.

Eschrochtidae

TheEschrichtidaefamilyincludesonlygraywhales.Graywhalesareofmediumsize,ranginginlengthfrom38to49feet,butmayattainlengthsofupto50feet.ThisspeciesislocatedinthenorthAtlanticandwesternPacificOceans,buthasbeenhuntedtonearextinction.Theseanimalsare

Classification

Kim's good, clear, specific examples–i.e., the names of the whales in this subclass–pre-pare the reader for the more detailed discussion of these whale families be-low.

Using common names as well as the scientific terminol-ogy helps the reader identify the whales more readily.

All subpara-graphs provide dis-tinguishing charac-teristics of members of each family.

19

bottomfeeders.Graywhalesfeedmainlybysuckingupminuteshrimplikecrustaceans.

ODONTOCETI

Thetoothedwhalesareknown,bynaturelovers,fortheircomplexecholocationsignalsanddistinguishedbythepresenceofteeth,whichtheyusetocaptureandtearprey.Thetoothedwhalesfeedmainlyonfish,squid,andshrimp.ThethreelivingfamiliesofOdontocetiarePlatanistoidea,includingallriverdolphins;theDelphinoideafamily,themarinedolphinfamily;andPhyseterroidea,whichincludesspermandbeakedwhales.

Platanistoidea

ThePlatanistoideafamilyincludesonlyriverdolphins.Ahealthyadultspecimenrangesinsizefrom4to10feet,dependingonthespeciesoftheanimal.Thesegracefulcreaturesfeedmainlyonfishandarelocatedinwarm-temperatewaters.

Delphinoidea

TheDelphinoideafamilyincludesmarinedolphins,porpoises,narwhals,beluga,pilot,andkillerwhales.Thesemammalsrangeinsizefrom6to20feetinhealthyadults,dependingonthespeciesandsexoftheanimal.Thisfamily’shabitatrangesfromcoldtowarm-temperatewaters.Marinedolphins,porpoises,narwhals,beluga,pilot,andkillerwhalesfeedonsmallfish,squid,andoccasionally,onothersmallmammalsandbirds.

Physeterroidea

ThePhyseterroideafamilyincludesonlythespermandbeakedwhales.Thesecreaturesrangeinsizefrom20to40feet,dependingonthespecies,withthemaleslightlylargerthanthefemale.Thesewhalesrangefromcoldtowarm-temperatewaters.Thespermandbeakedwhalesfeedonfishandlargedeep-watersquid.

Whalesofalltypesandsizesinhabiteveryoceanandadjoiningseaintheworld.Theyplayanimportantroleinmaintainingthedelicateequilibriumoftheirhabitats.Anextensiveknowledgeofthesecreaturescanhelpmantokeepthisfragilebalanceaswellandnotpushthesegracefulcreaturestowardtheedge of extinction.

Kimberly Horton

Classification

2

The name of each type is repeated in the textual descrip-tion, so Kimberly's reader does not have to rely on the headings.

In general, Kim describes the same characteristics in the same order for each subset. This sort of rhetorical parallelism helps her reader make comparisons.

20

Classification of Dogs by Breed Size

Dogsweredomesticatedfromthegraywolfover15,000yearsagoandareknowntobethefirsttypeofanimaldomesticated.Peoplehavethemforpetsallovertheworld.Adog’sbehaviorisbasedonwhattheyhavebeenbredortrainedtodo.Selectbreedsareusedforcertainjobssuchashunting,protection,working,companionship,andmanyotherthings.Peoplechoosethebreedoftheirdogbasedontheirpurposeforbuyingit.Breedsofdogshavedifferentsizesincluding:giant,large,medium,andsmall.

GIANT

Dogsthatarethoughttobea“giantbreed”arecategorizedaccordingtocertainaspectsoftheirphysicalappearance.Mostgiantdogsweigh100poundsormoreandarefivefeetortallerwhenstandingontheirhindlegs.Threeexamplesofgiantbreedsofdogsare:themastiff,theGreatPyrenees,andtheSaintBernard.

Mastiff

Mastiffsweighfrom100to150pounds.Thebasicmastiffistanincolorwithsomeblackonitsfaceandfeet.Mastiffdogsarebredandtrainedmainlyasguarddogsforprotectionoftheownerorprotectionofvaluables.Mastiffbreedshavedifferentspecificationsbasedonwheretheyarefrom.Forexample,AlpinemastiffsoriginatedinSwitzerlandandtheCubanmastifforiginated in Cuba.

Great Pyrenees

TheGreatPyreneescangrowfrom80to120pounds.Theircoatsarewhite and have very thick and long hair. The great Pyrenees are very gentle andaffectionate.Theycanbepetsbutmostlyarebredandtrainedtobelivestockherders.Manygoatfarmerskeepthisbreedofdoginthepenwiththeirgoatstokeepthemundercontrolandtakecareofanypredatorsthatcomearound.

Saint Bernard

SaintBernardsarebetween140to260pounds.Theycanbesmoothhairedorroughhairedandaremostlyredandwhitewithsomebrindlemixedin.SaintBernardshavebeenbredmostlyasworkingdogs.Theyare

Classification

Chelsea Mason's report covers a large set of items, all dogs. Selecting a large set of items often makes it difficult to be comnplete and exclusive, but becasue Ms. Mason uses a single, clear basis for classification (size) and notes that she is only describing examples of each category, her classification is logical.

In each description, Ms. Mason mentions weight, appearance, and the primary activity of each breed in the same order. In the description of the mastiff, she also mentions where the breed originated, but she does not mention the place of origin of other breeds.

21

usedwidelyintheSwissAlpsasrescuedogsforlostmountainclimbersandworkers.

LARGE

Thelargebreedofdogstendtobeslightlysmallerthangiantbreeds.Onaverage,largedogstendtomeasure25inchestotheirshoulderandweighfrom40-110pounds.Threegoodexamplesoflargedogbreedsare:Dalmatian,Collie,andRottweiler.

Dalmatian

TheaverageDalmatianweighs37-71poundsandis21-26inchestotheshoulder.ADalmatian’scoatiscompletelywhitewithblackandbrownspotsalloverit.Thefurisusuallyshort,dense,andfinebutoccasionallyonewillhavelongerhair.Dalmatianshavebeentrainedatseveraldifferentjobsincluding:guard,rescue,athleticpartner,andfamilypets.

Collie

Colliesarelightlybuiltweighingfrom25-55poundsandarestocky.Theirfurcanbelong,short,orflatandtheirtailsarebushy,smooth,orfeathered.ACollie’sfurcancomeinavariationofcolorsincludingblack,red,blackandtan,redandtan,andsometimeswhite.Colliesaretrainedasworkingdogsbecausethey’reveryenergetic.Theyherdsheep,cattle,andotherlivestock.

Rottweiler

Rottweilersweigh88-110poundsandare24-27inchestotheirshoulders. They have an outer coat and an undercoat. The other coat has amediumlengthandisverydense.Theundercoatisshortandsoft.ARottweilerismostlyblackwithclearlydefinedtanplacesonthefaceandhead.Rottweilersaremostlyworkingdogsusedaslivestockherders,guidedogs,andpolicedogs.

MEDIUM

Mediumbreedsofdogareveryenergeticandneedlotsofroomtoplay.Theyareusually10-17inchestotheshoulderandweigh20-40pounds.Threeexamplesofmediumbreedsofdogsare:BassetHounds,Bulldogs,andChowChows.

Classification

Ms. Mason uses a two-level system of headings-- boldfaced and underlined all caps for the primary level, boldfaced and underlined title caps for the secondary level.

Because Ms. Mason's report includes weights in each description, she consistently uses numerals throughout to make comparison easier.

22

Basset Hound

BassetHoundsarelongdogsweighing35-50poundsandare12-15inchestotheshoulder.Theircoatsareverysmoothandshort.BassetHoundshavemanydifferentcolorsincluding:tri-color,honeyandwhite,redandwhite,blue and gray, and black and tan. Basset Hounds were bread to be scent dogs. Theyhuntsmallmammalssuchasrabbitsbygettingtheirscentandlookingforthem.

Bulldog

TheBulldogisaverywideandstockybuiltdog.Theyweigh55-60poundsandareabout14-16inchestotheshoulder.ABulldog’scoatisshort,sleek,andflat.Theyusuallyhaveacoatcolorofred,white,fawn,orbrindle.Bulldogsaremainlybredandraisedtobefamilypets.Theyareverygoodwithchildrenandhaveapatientnature.

Chow Chow

ChowChowsweigh55-70poundsandmeasure19-22inchestotheshoulder.TheChowChow’scoatisverythickandfluffy.Theycanbefoundinred,blue,black,cinnamon,orcreamcolors.ChowChowsaremostcommonlymadeouttobefamilypets.Theyareveryprotectiveoftheirownersandproperty.

SMALL

Smalldogsareconsideredtobedogsthatweighlessthan22poundsandareshorterthan16inches.Somearelighterandalotshorterwhileothersareheavierandquiteabittaller.Threeexamplesofsmalldogsare:Chihuahua,YorkshireTerrier,andDachshund.

Chihuahua

MostChihuahuasweighlessthan6poundsandmeasure6-10inchestotheshoulder.Chihuahuascanhavesmoothhairorlonghair.Theircoatcolorscanseveralcolorsincludingblack,tan,white,ormanyothers.TheChihuahuaiskeptmainlyhasapet,howeverisnotanidealpetforyoungchildren.Theyareveryaggressiveandprotectiveoftheirowners.

Classification

Ms. Mason's report is not complete. It does not include all breeds of dogs, but uses examples. She adds a sense of parallelsim to the report by including three examples for each size type.

23

Yorkshire Terrier

TheYorkshireTerrieror“Yorkie”weighs3-7poundsandis6-12inchestotheshoulder.Theircoatsareveryglossyandsilkyandfoundinmostlybluewithtanontheface,legs,andchest.Yorkiesarekeptasfamilypetsandverypopularlyusedasshowdogs.Theyareknownfortheirclassandbeautifulfur.

Dachshund

Dachshundsareshort-leggedandlong-bodied.Theyweigh15-20poundsandare6-11inchesinheight.ADachshund’scoatcanbeshort,long,or wire haired. They can be single colored such as red or brown, or they can be twocoloredsuchasblackandtanorwildboar.Theterm“Dachshund”means“badgerdog.”TheywerebredinGermanytohuntbadgersforsportbutarekeptmostlyaspetsintheUnitedStates.

Dogsareverypopularamongushumans.Theyhaveseveraldifferentusessuchasworkingdogs,huntingdogs,rescuedogs,and(probablymostpopular)companionshipdogs.Havingknowledgeofthedifferentsizes,breeds,andjobstheseanimalsdowillhelpapersonchoosewhichdogbestsuitswhatthey are wanting the dog for.

Chelsea Mason

Classification

Ms. Mason does not use a separate heading for her introductory paragraph nor her concluding paragraph. They are not necessary, but it would have been inconsistent if she had used just one or the other.

24 Proposal Letter

Propose

WritealettertoaTechadministrator,theheadofyourmajordepartment,or to the instructor of this course, as assigned by your instructor. Your letter shouldnotbemorethanonepagelong.

Inyourletteryoushouldproposesomechange,enhancementoralterationthatwould,inyouropinion,improveTech,yourmajorprogram,orthiscourse. You do not need to suggest anything earthshaking, and your letter neednotbebasedonsomegreatdissatisfactionwiththepresentsituation.Nevertheless,anyinstitution,program,orcoursecanbeimproved,andeducatorswelcomeconstructivesuggestions.

Youmaywanttouseafour-paragraphstructureasoutlinedbelow:

1. Identifyyourselfandyourgeneralreasonforwriting.2. Presenttheprobleminaconvincingmanner,butavoidname-calling,

blame-placing,anddigressivecomplaining.Youmaywanttobuffer your"complaint"bynotingsomethingpositiveabouttheprogram.

3. Presentthesolutioninaconcise,butdetailedmanner,tryingtokeepinmindandrespondtotheprobablereasonsforthisproposedactionnothaving been initiated before.

4. Concludeandoffertodiscussyourproposalortolendyourassistanceinitsimplementation.

A courteous toneisimportant.Youareunlikelytoconvincesomeonetoundertakeyourproposalbyimplyingthatheorsheisstupidorincompetent.Includingsomepraiseforthepositiveaspectsoftheprogrammayputyourreaderinamorereceptivemood.

Format Requirements:

Followtheguidelinesforwritingaletterasdescribedonpages163-168.Rememberthatthislettermaybesenttotheaddressee,anditwillrepresentyoutothatperson;therefore,yourlettershouldlook good, and it should be perfectly correct.Don'truintheimpressionyoumakewithcarelesserrrors. Asmuchworkplacecommunicationiselectronic,reviewEmailonpage169.

25Proposal Letter

1402S.Hartford,Apt.B-1 Russellville,AR72801 February25,1986

Dr.AubreyE.Holderness,HeadBusinessAdministrationArkansas Tech UniversityRussellville,AR72801

Dr.Holderness:

Iamgraduatingwithabachelor'sdegreeinEnglish,inMay1986.However,Iamgettingmyminorinbusinessadministrationwiththemanagementoption.IhavebeenworkingatWal-Martforthepasttwoyears,andIplantocontinuemycareerwithWal-Mart.

ApproximatelyamonthagoIbeganmanagementtrainingwiththecompany.Myknowledgeofretailmanagementisgrowingeachday.Priortomanagementtraining,ItookPrinciplesofManagementandPrinciplesofMarketingatArkansasTech.Inbothcourses,wespentashorttimeoncasestudies;however,thecoursesweremainlytermsandbookwork.Throughthecasesdiscussedintheclass,IbeganintegratingthetermsandideasIhadlearnedinthebookandlectures.Likewise,theon-the-jobtrainingwithWal-Marthasenhancedbybook knowledge.

IthinkthatacoursecontainingonlycasestudiesinmanagementandmarketingwouldbeadefiniteassettothecurriculumoftheSchoolofBusinessAdministration.Themanagementandmarketingmajorswouldhaveanopportunitytogetbeyondthetermsandlearntheconceptsthatareincorporatedingoodmarketingandmanagement.BothDr.RoberdsandDr.Longarequalifiedtoteachthiscourseeffectively,andthenewSchoolofBusinessbuildingnowbeingconstructedwouldprovidetheclassroomspacenecessaryforit.

PleaseconsiderthisideaforimprovementwhenlookingatchangesintheSchoolofBusiness’curriculum.Thankyouforyourattentiontomysuggestion.

Sincerelyyours,

JanL.Cartmill

Jan Cartmill's letter uses a variation of the modified block format (p. 166) in which the first lines of body paragraphs are indented.

The first paragraph identifies the writer and provides necessary background. It could explain the reason for writing.

The second paragraph suggests the problem, insufficient use of case studies in business courses.

The third paragraph presents a solution, the resulting benefits, and a response to concerns about staffing.

The conclusion sets an appropriate tone, extremely important in sales or request letters.

Suggestion: Try to present the problem more convincingly; offer to discuss this matter in the conclusion; and include a phone number.

Jan L. Cartmill

26

POBox6328Russellville,AR72801March16,1999

Dr.CarlBrucker,DepartmentHeadEnglishDepartmentArkansas Tech UniversityRussellville,AR72801

Dr.Brucker:

Iamacomputersciencemajortakingyourtechnicalwritingcourseviatheinternet.Havingtheoptionoftakingthecoursethiswayisconvenientforme,becausemyscheduleisfullasaseniortakingupperlevelcoursesandworkingonspecialprojectsinmyfield.Sofirstofall,IwouldliketostatemyappreciationtoyouandtheotherprofessorsatTechwhoareopeningthedoortothisnewavenueoflearningatouruniversity.

Apartfromhavingtohavetheself-disciplinetostayontaskinthiscourse(whichisnotsomethingthatcanbeprovidedtostudents,thoughwewishitcould),theonlyimprovementIcouldimaginewouldbetohavethetextincludedonlineaswell.Iamalocalstudentanditreallywasnotthatdifficulttogoovertothebookstoreandgetthetextbook.However,itmightbemoreconvenientforthestudentswhoarefartherawaytobeabletoaccessallthenecessaryinformationonlineratherthancomingtoRussellvilleorhavingtomailorderthebook.Afterall,theideaofhavingcoursesonlineisprimarilyforconvenience.

Irealizethattherewouldbequiteabitofworkinvolvedinputtingthistextonline,especiallywiththegraphicsinvolved.Thiswouldonlybeaone-timeproblem,though,asitwouldalreadybethereforfuturecoursesandcouldbeupdatedfairlyeasilyonceinplace.An-otherproblemmightbethatstudentsenrolledintheclassroomversionofthecoursewouldopttodownloadthetextratherthantopurchaseitinthebookstore.Thisproblemcouldpotentiallybesolvedbyemailingtheenrolledstudentsapasswordusedtoaccessthetextbooksite.Stu-dents could be charged an additional fee for this access.

Ihopethatyouwillconsidermakingthischangetothecourseforthebenefitoffuturestudentsthatwillenroll.Thankyouforyourattentioninthismatter.

Sincerely,

M.GhiasAkram

Enclosure:

Proposal Letter

Ghias Akram uses the block format (page 167).

In his second paragraph Ghias describes the "problem" he wishes to address.

As part of his proposed solution in the third paragraph, Ghias attempts to respond to possible objections to his suggestion.

M. Ghias Akram

27

2810WestEStreetRussellville,AR72801February 2, 2004

Dr.KevinMason,DepartmentHeadBusiness&EconomicsDepartmentArkansas Tech UniversityRussellville,AR72801

Dr.Mason:

IwillbegraduatingthisMaywithadegreeinmanagement/marketing.Frompastexperience,Ihavefoundthatthebusinessprogramrequiresextensiveuseofthecomputerfacilitiesoncam-pus.IhavealwaysappreciatedhavingtheopencomputerlabinCorley,andIknowthatthislabwashighlyutilizedbythecomputersciencemajorsaswell.

Unfortunately,atthebeginningofthe2003-2004schoolyearIfoundthatthelabhadbeenchangedintoaclassroom.Thedoorsstaylockedmostofthedayexceptforthetimesitisbeingusedforclasses.Obviously,thestudentsfromCorleymaystillusethelibrary;yet,itisoftendifficulttofindavailablecomputersandquietworkconditionsthere.Furthermore,thebusinessprogramrequiresagreatdealofgroupworkthatwasonceeasilyaccommodatedbythe larger workstations located in Corley.

Irealizethatenrollmentcontinuestoincreaseandthattheextraclassroomspaceisdesperatelyneeded.However,Ithinkthatthereisasolutionthatmaysatisfybothdemands.Theclass-roomcouldbemadeavailableasaworklabforstudentstouseduringnon-classroomhoursaswell.Theopenlabhourscouldbepostedoutsidethedoorsothatstudentswouldnotinterferewiththeincomingclasses.ThiswouldbemuchmoreconvenientfortheCorleystudentswhowereusedtohavingthecomputerlablocatedwithinthebuilding,andyetitwouldn’ttakeawayfromtheneededclassroomspace.

Ihopethatyouwillconsiderthissuggestionforthenextschoolyear.Ifeelthatitwillgreatlybenefitthefuturebusinessandcomputersciencestudentsintheirundergraduatecareers.Thankyouforyourattentioninthismatter.

Sincerely,

ChandaAdams

Proposal Letter

Chanda Adams uses the block format (page 167).

Chanda effectively discusses the "problem" she seeks to address, noting access and appropriate work conditions.

Chanda shows that she understands the rationale for closing the labs–the need for extra classroom space– and tries to present a reasonable solution.

Chanda Adams

28 Process Analysis

Explain

Writeaninformalreportofabout500-1000wordsinwhichyoudescribeaprocessthatyouunderstandwell.Rememberthatthepurposeofaprocessanalysisistoallowyourreadertounderstand;youarenotwritinginstructionsthatwouldallowyourreadertoperformtheprocess.Therefore,youshouldwriteinthethird person, indicative mood, and present tense. Seethediscussionofprocesswritingonpage158.

Yourchoiceoftopicisopen,butyoushouldavoidprocessesthataretoocomplextoexplainadequatelyintheassignedlength.Thisisnotaresearchassignment,butifyoufindithelpfultoconsultsomeresources,youmay.Donot,however,reproducesomeoneelse’swork.

UsetheIntroduction-Body-Conclusionformattoorganizeyourreport.Theintroductorysectionshouldprovideyourreaderwiththenecessarybackgroundanddefinitions.Thebodyofyourreportshouldbedividedintothemajorstepsoftheprocess.Thesemajorstepsmayinturnbesubdividedifthatseemsappropriate.Manyprocessescan be divided into preparation, execution, and completion. Be sure that you use strict chronological sequencewithnoflashbacks.Yourconclusionshouldsummarizetheinformationinyouranalysisinaconciseandreadilyunderstoodmanner.

FORMAT REQUIREMENT:

Yourreportmustincludeatleastonediagram.Besurethatyourdiagramisaccuratelylabeledandtitled.Thesectionofgraphicsintechnicaldocumentsbeginsonpage174.Examplesofdiagramsareonpage198.

ThisreportmaybesubmittedtoTurnitin.com,soreadPlagiarismonpages202-203.

29Process Analysis

The Four Strokes of a Four-Cycle Engine

Peopleusefour-cycleenginestopowernearlyallmotorvehiclesrun-ningongasoline,aswellasmanytypesofwatercraft,aircraft,andstationarymechanisms.Four-cycleenginesproducepowerthroughfourfundamentalstrokesofapistonwithinacylinderofanengine.Astrokeistheactionofthepistonmovingfromoneextremepositioninthecylinder,eithertoporbottom,totheoppositeextremeposition.Werefertothefourstrokesastheintakestroke,compressionstroke,powerstroke,andexhauststroke.Thesefourstrokes,displayedgraphicallyinFigure1,continuallyoccurinthisordertoproducepower.

Figure 1: Events of a Four-Cycle EngineSource: 1992EasternGasCompressionRoundtable. West Virginia Univer-sity,1992,p.127.

Intake Stroke

Thefirststrokeoftheprocessistheintakestroke.Theintakestroketakesplacefromthetopofthecylinderwhenthecrankshaftisattopdeadcentertothebottomofthecylinderwhenthecrankshaftisatbottomdeadcenter,duringwhichtimethecrankshaftrotates180degrees.Thepistonmovesdownduringthisstrokeandtheintakevalveopenswhileamixtureoffuelandairflowsintothecylinder.Thoughthepistonmovingdownwardin

Todd Strawn's in-troduction effectively identifies the subject of the report, defines critical terminology ("stroke"), and pre-views the structure of the process.

Todd helps to inte-grate his graphic by referring to it in his text.

Figure 1 is placed after the opening paragraph in which it has been referenced. It is a good example of the importance of graphics in docu-ments of this sort.

Both diagrams in this report are ef-fectively labeled and each has a descriptive title and a complete source note.

30 Process Analysis

thecylindercreatesavacuumthatpullsthefuelandairmixtureintothecylin-der,thepressureequalizesbythetimethepistonreachesthebottomsuchthatatthispointthepressureinsidethecylinderisataboutatmosphericpressure.Whenthecrankshaftisatbottomdeadcenter,theintakevalvecloses.Thisformsasealedcontainerwithinthecylindersincebothvalvesarenowclosed,including the exhaust valve which closes before the intake stroke. Figure 1 illustratesthisstrokeintheimagelabeled"INTAKE."

Compression Stroke

Thesecondstrokeisthecompressionstroke,whichtakesplacefromthebottomofthecylinderwiththecrankshaftatbottomdeadcentertothetopofthecylinderwiththecrankshaftattopdeadcenter.Duringthistime,thecrankshaftrotatesasecond180degreessuchthatithasrotatedonefullrevo-lutionsincebeginningtheprocess.Asthecylindermovesuptothetopofthecylinderduringthisstroke,thecylindervolumereducesandinturnincreasesthepressureinthecylinderofthetrappedgasescomprisingthefuelandairmixturefromtheintakestroke.Figure2illustratesthisincreaseinpressureduringthecompressionstrokefrombottomdeadcenter(BDC)totopdeadcenter(TDC).

Power Stroke

Thethirdstrokeisthepowerstroke.Atthispointanelectricaldis-chargethroughthesparkplugignitesthecompressedmixtureoffuelandair,residinginthecylinder,causingarapidincreaseinpressureinthecylinderwhenthecrankshafthasrotatedapproximatelytwelvetofifteendegreesfromtopdeadcenter.Figure2denotesthepointofgreatestpressureinsidethecylinderbyAP.Thepistonisforceddowninthecylinderbythepressureincreasebeingexertedonthetopofthepistonbythecompressedgasses,whichresultsinapowerstroke.Liketheintakestroke,thisstrokeinvolvesthepistonmovingfromthetopofthecylinderwiththecrankshaftattopdeadcentertothebottomofthecylinderwiththecrankshaftatbottomdeadcenter,resultinginthecrankshaftrotatinganother180degrees.

When Todd references Figure 1 on the previous page, he directs the reader to a particu-lar, labeled part of that illustration.

Todd correctly introduces two acronyms by first writing out the complete phrase and following it with the acronym in parentheses; however, since the acronyms are not used elsewhere in the report, this may not have been necessary.

Suggestion: In this paragraph Todd should be sure that his reader under-stands the acronym AP (atmospheric pressure).

2

31Process Analysis

Figure 2: Events — Pressure over TimeSource: 1992EasternGasCompressionRoundtable. West Virginia University, 1992,p.130.

Exhaust Stroke

Theexhauststroke,whichisthefourthandfinalstepofthecycle,comesaboutwhenthepistonreachesthebottomofthecylinderandthecrank-shaftisatbottomdeadcenter.Whenthisoccurs,theexhaustvalvethenopens.Thepressureinthecylinderisaboveatmosphericpressurewhentheexhaustvalveopens,somuchoftheburntandremainingunburntgasessimplyflowoutofthecylinderpasttheexhaustvalvethroughtheexhaustport.Asthepistonmovestowardthetopofthecylinder,thepistonpushestheremaininggasesoutofthecylinderthroughtheexhaustport.Likeotherstrokes,thecrankshaftrotates180degreesduringtheexhauststrokewhilethepistonmovesfromthebottomofthecylindertothetopofthecylinder.Whenthepistonreachesthetopofthecylinderandthecrankshaftisattopdeadcenter,theexhaustvalvecloses.

Narrative

Theentireprocessofthesefourstrokestakestwocompleterevolutionsofthecrankshaft(720degrees).Thoughtheprocessrequiresfourstrokes,onlythepowerstrokeproducesusefulwork.Momentumformedduringthepowerstroke,whichincreasesthespeedofrotationofthecrankshaft,allowsthecrankshaft in the engine to rotate throughout the other three strokes. Though thereareothernecessaryprocessesinvolvedwithothersundrycomponentsofafour-cycleengine,thesefourstrokescomprisethemostfundamentalaspectofhowafour-cycleengineproducespower.

Todd Strawn

3

Figure 2 is a tech-nical illustration that is not fully explained in the text.

Suggestion: It might have been better to omit Figure 2 in this sort of general description of the process. If included, it needs to be more fully explained.

The system of head-ings is simple and consistent, empha-sizing the steps of the process, but the topics discussed are renamed in the text so the reader does not need to rely on the headings to understand the discussion.

32

The Metamorphosis of a Butterfly

Metamorphosisisoftendefinedas“achangeinform”.Mostinsectsgothroughtheprocessofmetamorphosisastheychangefromaneggtoanadult.Butterfliesgothroughoneofthemostcomplextypesofdevelopmentknownascompletemetamorphosis.Itinvolvesfourdistinctstages:egg,larva,pupa,andadult.Completemetamorphosisisuniqueinthatthelarvaearedifferentinformfromtheadult.Figure1belowdisplaysagraphicalpresentationofthebutterfly’smetamorphicprocess.

Figure 1: Stages of MetamorphosisSource: P.Powell,Insectmetamorphosis(1995).West Virginia Extension Service.RetrievedFebraury20,2004,fromhttp://www.caf.wvu.edu/~forage/4002.htmEgg Stage Allbutterfliesstartouttheirlivesastinyeggsthatareusuallylaidontheundersideofplantleaves.Someotherlocationsincludeflowerheadsandcrevices in trees. Either way, the location is usually the future food source for thehatchedlarva.Theeggisfixatedontheplantwithaglue-likechemicalproducedbythemotherbutterfly.Theeggscomeinallshapesandsizesandcanbelaidindividuallyoringroups.Theeggusuallymaturesinaboutthreedays;andinthemeantime,thelarvaisnourishedbytheyolkinsidetheegg.Thedevelopinglarvareceivesairandwaterthroughanentranceontheeggcalledthemicropyle.Whentheeggisreadytohatch,thelarvachewsthroughtheeggshellandthenconsumestheentireeggasitsfirstmeal.

Process Analysis

Metamorphosis in butterflies is an example of a natural process that makes a good topic for this process analysis assignment.

Chanda introduces her graphic in her body text and places it before her expla-nation, providing her readers with a visual overview and allowing them to easily refer back to it as they read the descriptions of the steps.

Chanda uses APA style for her source note. In MLA style her source note would have been: PaulPowell,"InsectMetamorphosis."West Virginia ExtensionService. 1995. 20 February 2004.<http://www.caf.wvu.edu/~forage/4002.htm>.

Chanda uses a page break after the paragraph describ-ing the Egg Stage, to avoid leaving an orphaned heading at the bottom of this page.

33

Larval Stage The larva,alsoknownasacaterpillar,isequippedwithsimpleeyes,strongmandibles,threepairofjointedlegsinthefront,andfivepairofgraspingprolegsintheback.Caterpillarscomeinmanydifferentcolorsandpatterns,andsomealsohavehairontheirbacks.Thelarvalstagelastsfromabouttwoweekstoamonth.Thisstageisalsoknownasthe“feedingstage”fortheyoungcaterpillarasiteatsconstantlyandgrowsatasurprisingrate.Duetothisquickrateofgrowth,thecaterpillar’sskin(exoskeleton)becomestootightandmustbeshedoff.Thecaterpillarmoltsseveraltimesasitcontinues to grow, with each stage of growth being referred to as an instar. Whenthecaterpillarreachesitslimitofgrowth,itstopsfeedingandpreparestopupate(turnintoapupa).Pupal Stage Duringthepupastage,thecaterpillarlocatesasafeplacesuchasatreelimborleafwhereitcanspinasilkpadandattachitselfupsidedownbyitstailend.Somemayevensituprightwithasilkgirdlewrappedaroundtheirmid-sectiontosupportthem.Thelarvabeginstomoltforthelasttimeleavingasoft,fragilepupa.Thepupa,oftencalledachrysalis,hardensandbecomesagreenishorbrownincolorwiththorn-likebumpssothatitblendsinwithleavesandbitsofwood.Thisstageisarestingperiodduringwhichabutterflyformsinsidethepupa.Thecaterpillarinsidethechrysalisreleaseschemicalsthatturnitsbodyintoaliquidmush.Soonafter,legsandwingsaredevelopedandcompoundeyesandantennaeemerge.Adult Stage Thefinaladultstageofthemetamorphicprocessiswhentheadultbutterflyhatchesfromthepupa.Atfirst,thebutterfly’swingsarewrinkledupandwet;however,thebutterflypumpsfluidfromitsabdomenthroughtheveinsinitswings.Afterthewingsarebuiltup,thebutterflyhangsupsidedownforanhourormoretoletitswingsdrybeforeitattemptstofly.Atthispoint,thebutterflyisfullydevelopedandreadytofulfillitssolepurpose,toreproduce.Theadultbutterflyhasashortlifespan,althoughitvariesindifferentspecies.Somemayonlyliveafewdaysandothersmayliveupto12months;thelifespanofmost,however,fallswithinthisrange.

Themetamorphosisofthebutterflyisoneofthemostamazingprocessesinnature.Onthesurface,itishardtocomprehendhowsuchabeautifulbeingcanevolvefromthesimplestlittleworm.Thistransformationofthebutterflyfromegg,tolarva,topupa,toadultisonlyoneofthemanyexamplesofthenever-endingcycleoflife.

Chanda Adams

Process Analysis

2

Chanda repeats the name of the step she is describ-ing in the body of her paragraph rather than using a pronoun reference (i.e. "this stage") that would force her reader to check back to the heading in order to under-stand the statement.

Chanda does not use headings for her introductory or concluding para-graphs.

34 Process Analysis

In contrast to Chanda Adams' report on butterfly metamorphosis, Julia Pope uses headings before her opening and con-cluding paragraphs. Chanda's approach emphasizes the logical division of the process into four phases; Julia's approach empha-sizes the divisions of the report. Either approach is accept-able.

Julia uses transitions at the beginning and end of sections ("from the stomach," "after the extraction") to guide her reader through the process description.

If there had been fewer than two lines of text under the heading Elimi-nation of Waste, Julia would have used a page break to force the section to the next page.

Human DigestionIntroduction Thehumanbodyperformsthecomplexprocessofdigestionmultipletimeseveryday,providingnutrientsandenergyfromfood.Thedigestionprocessbeginsassoonasthepersonconsumesthefoodandcontinuesforseveralhoursafterconsumption.Thenutrientsfromthefoodarebrokendownintoaliquidmixtureandtheremainingportionisconvertedintowaste.Theprimarydigestivetractconvertsthefoodintoaliquidmixtureafterthefoodiseaten.Withinthenexttwohours,thesecondarydigestivetractprocessestheliquidmixtureandpreparesitforeliminationaswaste.

Primary Digestive Tract

Theformationofsalivainthemouthactivatesthedigestiveprocessbyclingingtothefood.Thesalivamakesiteasiertoswallowthefoodsothatthefoodcanmovealongthedigestivetractintotheopeningoftheesophagus.Theesophagusisthesecondpartoftheprimarydigestivetractandlookslikeanelastictube,movingfoodfromthebackofthethroattothestomach.Inthetimethatintakestoeatlunch,theesophagusisalreadymovingfoodalongthedigestivetracttothestomach.Asthesmallpiecesoffoodmovedowntheesophagus,thestomachsecretesgastricjuicesthatbreakdownthefood.Thegastricjuicesinthestomachplayavitalroleinthedigestiveprocess,allowingfoodtomoveontothesecondarydigestivetract.

Secondary Digestive Tract

Fromthestomach,thefoodentersthesmallintestine,whichistwenty-twofeetinlength.Thesmallintestinefurtherprocessesthefoodmixturewithhelpfromthreeimportantorgans:thepancreas,liver,andgallbladder.Thepancreasisresponsibleforproducingjuicesthatassistwiththedigestionoffatsandprotein.Inadditiontoproducingbile,ajuicethataidswiththeabsorptionoffatsintothebloodstream,theliverfiltersoutharmfulsubstancesorwastesanddetermineshowmanynutrientswillbepassedontotherestofthebody.Thegallbladderfunctionsasatemporarystorageforbiletobeusedwhenthebodyneedsit.Thisuniquedigestiveprocessallowsthebodytoabsorbproteins,vitamins,minerals,carbohydrates,andfatsfromthefoodthatiseateneveryday.Thesecondarydigestivetractprovidesessentialnutrientswhileextractingthewasteproductsforelimination.

Elimination of Waste

Aftertheextractionofnutrients,theremainingliquidmixturemovesalongthedigestivetractaswasteormaterialthatcannotbeusedbythebody.

35Process Analysis

2

Julia includes an informative dia-gram that she found at the KidsHealth online site. Unlike Chanda in the previ-ous example, Julia places her diagram near the end of the report. That is all right, particularly in a short report of this sort, but she should have referred to the figure early in her text, so readers would be alert to its presence and could refer to it while reading the descrip-tion.

The report has efficiently presented the basic phases of the digestive process and Julia concludes her report with a three-sentence sum-mary.

The waste travels to the large intestine. The large intestine is wider than the smallintestine,butnotnearlyaslong.Althoughtheappendixisnotvitaltothedigestionprocess,thisorganisattachedtothelargeintestine.Theeliminationprocessbeginswiththecolon,whichispartofthelargeintestine.Thecolonprocessesthewasteforfinaleliminationtoincluderemovinganywaterfromthewaste.Asthewasteproductbecomesharder,thelargeintestinepushesthesolidwasteintotherectum,whichistheverylaststoponthedigestivetract.Thesolidwastestaysintherectumuntiltheeliminationprocessiscomplete.Theeliminationofwasteprovidesafilteringmechanismthatallowsthebodytoremoveanyunnecessarysubstances.

Figure 1: Digestive SystemSource:“TheRealDealontheDigestiveSystem.”KidsHealth. 27 February 2004.http://kidshealth.org/kid/body/digest_noSW.htmlConclusion Althoughthedigestiveprocessisacomplexsystemofabsorbingnu-trientsandremovingwaste,thedigestionoffoodisvitalforsupportingthehumanbody.Theprimarydigestivetractpreparesfoodfortheconversiontonutrients,whilethesecondarydigestivetractextractsvitaminsandnutrientsthatarenecessaryforsustaininglife.Thebodythenallowsfortheeliminationofwastetoensurethatthedigestiveprocessfunctionsproperly.

Julia Pope

36 Instruction Set

Instruct

Writeaninformalreportofabout400-600wordsthatwillenablesomeoneelsetocompleteaprocedureassignedorapprovedbyyourinstructor.

Yourinstructionsetshouldhaveanintroductioninwhichyouinformyourreaderofrequiredmaterials,provideanoverviewoftheprocess,andex-plainthesystemofnotationthatyouwilluse.

Thebodyofyourinstructionsetshouldconsistofclearlynumberedinstruc-tions.Eachinstructionshouldaskyourreadertoperformasingletask.Each instruction should be autonomous. Your reader should not have to refertoanythingoutsideoftheinstructioninordertounderstandit.ReadListsinTechnicalWritingonpages172-173toreviewthebasicsoforderedand unordered lists.

Use checks or warning notes tohelpyourreaderalongtheway.Itisparticularlyusefultoprovideacheckattheend,thatwillhelpyourreaderknowifheorshehascompletedtheassignmentcorrectly.Trytotestyourinstructionsetbeforehandingitin.ReadTestingWritingonpages142-143.

STYLE NOTE

Donotbeafraidtorepeatidenticalsyntacticalstructures.Sentencevari-etyisnotimportantinawritingsituationsuchasthis.Parallel sentence structures canhelpyourreaderrecognizethesimilarityofrepeatedactions.Similaractionsshouldbedescribedinsimilarwords.

WARNINGYourinstructormayrequirethatyourinstructionsetbetestedbysomeoneelseintheclass.Ifthatisthecaseandthepersonwhotestsyourinstructionsetisunabletoreproducetheprocedureperfectly, your grade will be low-ered.Thus,itisimportantthatyoupre-testyourinstructionsanddoevery-thingyoucanto“idiotproof”them.

37Instruction Set

In this instance stu-dents were assigned to write instructions that would permit someone to repro-duce a diagram on a lined grid using only a straightedge and a pencil.

Anthony Beck be-gins his instruction set by carefully outlining the procedures that should be followed.

Headings are used to identify steps in the process and to rein-force the three-part structure set forth in the introduction. Process steps are numbered and indent-ed to avoid confusing them with the general instructions. Numer-als are used consis-tently throughout to refer to line numbers. Warnings about procedures that may cause confusion are highlighted to attract the reader’s attention.

Beck groups closely related actions into single steps. Since these blocks of prose may confuse some readers, it is usually best to place each distinct action in a separate step.

Syntactically

Instructions for Drawing Figure D

Thesearetheinstructionsfordrawingfigure“D,”whichwasassignedtomeonFebruary24,1986.Therearethreeblocksofinstructionsprovided.Thefirstblockofinstructionsconcernspreparingthegridfortheotherblocksofinstructions.Thesecondblockofinstructionsconcernsplacingandlabelingpointsonthegrid.Thethirdblockofinstructionsconcernsdrawingthedifferentlinesegmentsonthegrid.Theequipmentneededisonepencil,onestraightedge,andonelinedgridsup-pliedbytheinstructor.Preparing the index card Beforeyoustartdrawingthedesign,youmustfirstpreparethegrid.Thefol-lowingstepsshouldbecompletedwhenpreparingthegrid: 1.Placethegridsothelinesonthegridfaceup. 2.Numberthelinesonthegridstartingwiththeredlineasline1andthe

lastlineonthegridasline17.Numberthelinesonboththeleftandrightside of the card.

Remember,ifyouareaskedtogotoline1,itwillbethetoplineyouendupon.Ifyouareaskedtogotoline17,itwouldbethebottomlineontheindexcard.Labeling points Afterthecardhasbeenprepared,thenextstepistoplaceandlabelpointsonthe grid. Remember,inthisblockofinstructionsyouplaceandlabelpointsonthecardandyoudonotdrawanylinesegments.Thefollowingstepswillplaceandlabelalltherequiredpoints: 1. Place the straightedge on the left end of line 1 and the right end of line 14.

Placeapointwherethestraightedgecrossesline2andlabelthispointA.Placeapointwherethestraightedgecrossesline12andlabelthispointB.

2. Place the straightedge on the left end of line 14 and the right end of line 2. Placeapointwherethestraightedgecrossesline12andlabelthispointC.Placeapointwherethestraightedgecrossesline6andlabelthispointD.Placeapointwherethestraightedgecrossesline5andlabelthispointE.

3.PlacethestraightedgeonpointsAandD.Placeapointwherethestraightedgecrossesline4andlabelthispointF.

4.PlacethestraightedgeonpointDandthelowerlefthandcornerofthecard.Placeapointwherethestraightedgecrossesline13andlabelthispointG.

38 Instruction Set

parallel statements emphasize the simi-larity of these steps.

Headings and transitional phrases remind the reader of his place in the drawing process.

Beck’s summary of steps may seem redundant, but it provides the reader with an easy way to check his progress up to this point.

Statements such as this encourage the reader to check his work.

Beck’s method—identifying all points before drawing any line segments—is ef-fective, but it is not the only approach to this problem.

Beck’s final list of-fers the reader a last chance to check his work.

Suggestion: A visual description of the resulting figure would provide the reader with another way to check his success.

Nowyouhavecompletedplacingandlabelingallthepointsonthegrid.Yourgridshouldhavethefollowingpoints. 1. Point A on line 2. 2. Point B on line 12. 3. Point C on line 12. 4.PointDonline6. 5. Point E on line 5. 6. Point F on line 4. 7. Point G on line 13.Ifyourgriddoesnothavethesesevenpointsontheproperlines,backupandgothrough the instructions again.Drawing line segments Afterthepointshavebeenplacedandlabeledonthegrid,thenextstepistodrawthelinesegments.Drawthefollowingsegmentstocompletethefigure: 1.DrawalinefrompointAtopointB 2.DrawalinefrompointAtopointG 3.DrawalinefrompointAtopointC. 4.DrawalinefrompointAtopointE. 5.DrawalinefrompointEtopointB. 6.DrawalinefrompointDtopointC. 7.DrawalinefrompointDtopointG. 8.DrawalinefrompointDtopointF. 9.DrawalinefrompointDtopointB.10.DrawalinefrompointFtopointCFinal check of line segmentsYouhavenowcompleteddrawingthedesign.Yourgridshouldhavethefollowinglinesegments: 1.LinesegmentAB. 2.LinesegmentAG. 3.LinesegmentAC. 4.LinesegmentAE. 5.LinesegmentEB. 6.LinesegmentDC. 7.LinesegmentDG. 8.LinesegmentDF. 9.LinesegmentDB.10.LinesegmentFC.Ifyourgriddoesnothavetheselinesegments,gobackandlookattheinstructionsagain.

Anthony Beck

2

39Instruction Set

Instructions for Building Model Y

Followingaretheinstructionsforbuildingmodel“Y”outofcoloredplasticblocks.Therearetwosegmentsofinstructions.Thefirstsegmentisaninventoryoftheblocksneededtobuildthismodel.Thesecondsegmentisconcernedwiththeactualbuildingofthemodel.Theonlyequipmentneededisthelistedsetofblocks,whichisprovided.Throughouttheseinstructionsthestructuresontopoftheblockswillbereferredtoaspips.

Blocks Needed

The following list of blocks is sorted according to the color of the block and the numberofpipsonthetopoftheblock.Thenumberprecedingeachblockindicatestheamountofthatparticulartypeofblockyoushouldhave.

1-Blueblockwith8pips 1-Redblockwith8pips 1-Whiteblockwith8pips 1-Greenblockwith4pips 1-Yellowblockwith4pips 1-Blueblockwith4pips 1-Yellowblockwith2pips 1-Whiteblockwith2pips 1-Redblockwith2pips

Youshouldhaveatotalofnineblocks.Ifnotgobackthroughthelisttodeterminewhatismissingorwhathasbeenadded.

Building the Model

Onceyouhavedeterminedthatyouhavethenecessaryblocksforthismodelyouare ready to begin building it. Note,onceyoubeginbuildingthemodelDo Not turn themodelatanytime.Itshouldalwaysstayinthesamepositioninwhichitwasstarted.Eachstepinthissectiondescribestheplacingofaseparateblock.

1. Selecttheblueblockwith8pipsandplaceitinfrontofyouwithoneoftheshort sides facing you.

2. Selectthewhiteblockwith8pipsandturnitsothatoneoftheshortsidesisfacingyou.Placeitontheblueblocksothattheleftrowof4pipsonthewhiteblockiscoveringtherightrowof4pipsontheblueblock.

3. Selecttheredblockwith8pipsandturnitsothatoneoftheshortsidesisfacingyou.Placeitsothattherighttowofpipscoversthe4remainingpipson the blue block.

In this instance students were asked to write instructions that would permit a classmate to construct a spe-cific model with a predefined set of building blocks.

Wendy Miller effectively uses a simple system of headings to identify the sections of her report.

This initial list helps the reader check the block set.

Separate enumer-ated steps present instructions in a syntactically paral-lel manner: "Select … Place…."

1

40 Instruction Set

The numbered steps are overhung so that the numbers are prominent along the left margin.

Wendy's final check gives the reader a reasonable opportunity to catch errors and have a chance to correct them.

4. Selectthegreenblockwith4pips.Placeitontopoftheredandwhiteblocksinthecenter.Checktoseeifthereisone,andonlyone,rowofemptypipsallthewayaroundthegreenblock.Ifthereisnot,moveitaccordingly.

5. Selecttheyellowblockwith2pips.Turnitsothatoneofthelongsidesisfac-ingyou.Placetherightpipoftheyellowblockonthegreenblocksothatitcoverstheleftcornerpipfurthestawayfromyou.

6. Selecttheyellowblockwith4pips.Placeonecornerofitontheremainingleft corner of the green block.

7. Selecttheblueblockwith4pips.Placeonecornerofitontherightcornerofthegreenblockthatisfurthestawayfromyou.

8. Selectthewhiteblockwith2pipsandturnitsothatoneofthelongsidesfacesyou.Placeitsothattheleftpipcoverstheremaininggreenpip.

9. Selecttheredblockwith2pipsandturnitsothatoneofthelongsidesisfac-ingyou.Placeissothattheleftpipcoverstherightpipoftheyellowblockfurthestawayfromyouandtherightpipoftheredblockcoverstheleftpipclosest to you on the blue block.

Alloftheblocksshouldhavebeenusedbynow.Ifnot,gobackthroughthestepstoseewhichoneyoumissed.

Final Check

Nowyouhavecompletedthebuildingofmodel“Y.”Followingisasummaryofwhat it should look like.

* Onthebottomshouldbeablueblock. * Ontopoftheblueblockthereshouldbearedblockontheleftandawhite

block on the right. * Nextthereshouldbeagreenblockcenteredontopoftheredandwhite

blocks. * Ontopofthegreenblockthereshouldbetwoyellowpiecesontheleftwith

thesmallestblockbeingawayfromyouandthelargerblockbeingclosesttoyou.Thenontherightthereshouldbeablueblockfurthestawayfromyouand white block closest to you.

* Ontheverytopofthemodelthereshouldbearedblockthatcoverspartofayellowblockandpartofablueblock.

Ifanythinglookslikeitmightbeoutofplaceafterlookingthroughthislist,gobackthrougheachofthestepsforbuildingthemodelandmakesureyouhavedoneevery-thing as indicated.

Wendy Miller

2

41Instruction Set

This assign-ment asked online students to write instructions that would permit a reader to form one of three figures from 12 specified shapes.

Matt Brucker's introduction is abbreviated, but it provides an adequate, minimal description of the task at hand.

Matt consis-tently uses words and numerals for each number in this preparatory paragraph. This redundant ap-proach is frequently used in contracts and documents in which precision is vital. Alternatively, he could have used numerals through-out. See "Using Numbers" on page 148.

Matt gives his reader an introduc-tion to the approach that will be taken in this instruction set.

Instructions for Constructing Figure 2These instructions will allow you to construct Figure 2,atwo-dimensionalrectangleconstructedoftwelve(12)individualblocks.Preparing for AssemblyTherearethree(3)sizesofblocksusedinFigure2.Thefirstsizeisasmallsquareblock.Theywillbereferredtoas1x1blocks,withthefirstnumberrepresentingwidthandthesecondrepresentingheight.Therearefour(4)ofthesesizedblocksinthree(3)differentcolors-two(2)redblocks,one(1)yellowblock,andone(1)blueblock.Thesecondsizeisarectangularblockwhichisthesizeoftwo1x1blocksplacedsidebysidewiththetouchingsidesperfectlylineduptomakea1x2rectangle.Whenreferredtoasbeingaverticalrectangle,theserectangularblockswillmeasure1x2.Whenreferredtoasbeingahorizontalrectangle,theywillmeasure2x1.Therearefive(5)individual1x2rectangularblocks-one(1)red,two(2)yellow,andtwo(2)blue.Thethirdsizeisalargesquare.Itisthesizeoffoursmallsquares(1x1blocks)puttogethertomakeonesolid,perfectsquare.Thelargesquaremeasures2x2.Therearethree(3)ofthesesquares-two(2)red,andone(1)yellow. Thefollowinglistgivestheinventoryofcolorsandsizes. Size Color Quantity 1x1 Red (2) 1x1 Yellow (1) 1x1 Blue (1) 1x2 Red (1) 1x2 Yellow (2) 1x2 Blue (2) 2x2 Red (2) 2x2 Yellow (1)

Thesepieceswillbeassembledclockwise.Toassistwithassembly,sketchoutarectanglethatis6x5.Allblockswillbeplacedinsideofthissketchedrectangle.Besuretokeepthewidthhorizontalandheightverticalforallblocksaswellastherefer-encesketchatalltimesthroughoutconstructionofthe6x5rectangle.Assembling the Rectangle Duringassemblythetopsideofallblocksmustbeparalleltothetopedgeofthereferencesketch,thereforemakingallremainingsidesoftheblockparalleltoitsrespectivesideofthereferencesketch.Thewidthwillalwaysbelistedbeforeheight.Wewillbeginwiththeblocksalongtheouterperimeteroftherectangle,startinginthetopleftcornerandprogressclockwise.

1. Placethesingleblue1x1smallsquareblockwithboththetopsideandleftsidetouchingthesketchedperimeterintheupperleftcorner.

42 Instruction Set

2. Placeabluerectangularblockhorizontallysoitmeasures2x1.Thetopwidthtouchesthesketchedperimeterandtheleftheighttouchesandlinesupper-fectlywiththerightheightoftheprevioussmallbluesquareblock.

3. Placeayellowrectangularblockhorizontallysoitmeasures2x1.Thetopwidthtouchesthesketchedperimeterandtheleftheighttouchesandlinesupperfectlywiththerightheightofthepreviousblue2x1rectangleblock.

4. Placeared1x1smallsquareblockwithboththetopsideandtherightsidetouchingthesketchedperimeterintheupperrightcorner.Theleftsideshouldalsotouchandperfectlylineupwiththerightsideofthepreviousyellowrectangle

5. Placeayellow1x1smallsquareblockwiththetopsidetouchingandperfectlylineduptothebottomofthepreviousredsmallsquare.Therightsideshouldtouchtherightsideofthesketchedperimeter.

6. Placeayellow1x1smallsquareblockwiththetopsidetouchingandperfectlylineduptothebottomofthepreviousyellowsmallsquare.Therightsideshouldtoughtherightsideofthesketchedperimeter.

7. Placeabluerectanglemeasure1x2verticallywiththetopwidthtouchingandliningupperfectlywiththebottomofthepreviousyellowsmallsquare.Therightheightshouldtouchtherightsketchedperimeterandthebottomwidthshouldtouchthebottomsketchedperimeter,makingupthelowerrightcornerof the 6x5 rectangle.

8. Placeayellow2x2largesquarewiththerightheightlinedupperfectlyandtouchingtheleftsideofthepreviousbluerectangle.Thelowerwidthshouldtouchthelowersketchedperimeter.

9. Placeared2x2largesquarewiththerightsideheighttouchingtheleftheightofthepreviousyellowlargesquare.Thelowerwidthshouldtouchthesketchedperimeter.

10. Place a yellow 1x2 rectangle vertically with the right height touching the left heightofthepreviousredlargesquare.Thebottomwidthshouldtouchthelower-sketchedperimeterandtheleftheightshouldtouchtheleft-sketchedperimeter.

11. Placeared2x2largesquarewiththeleftheighttouchingtheremainingareaoftheleftsketchedperimeter

12.Alongtherightsideoftheprevious2x2largesquareimagineplacinganinvis-ible 1x2 rectangle vertically with the left side of the invisible rectangle touch-ingtherightsideofthered2x2square.Lineupthetopwidthofthe1x2withthetopwidthof2x2tomakeonecontinuouslinealongthetop.

13. Placetheremainingpiece,ared1x2rectangleverticallywithitsleftheighttouchingtherightheightoftheinvisible1x2rectangle.Lineupthetopwidthofthe1x2redrectanglewiththetopwidthofthe1x2invisiblerectangleto

2

Matt uses an enumerated list to help his readers keep track of their place in the instruction process. See Lists in Technical Writing on pages 172-173.

He uses the same syntactic pattern in each individual instruction. This parallelism helps his reader recognize the similarity of the actions. He is care-ful to describe the alignment and place-ment of each piece precisely.

Warning: Matt repeatedly refers to "the previous [piece]" in his instructions. Because he is always refer-ring to the piece that has been placed in the preceding step, it is not a problem, but be careful to make instruction steps self-contained. Avoid forcing your reader to look back at a previous step in order to understand the current step. If Matt had been referencing "the red rectangle from step 5" in step 9, it could cause mistakes.

43Instruction Set

makeonecontinuouslinealongthetop.Final Check Use the followingstepstocheckyourwork.Ifanydonotmatchyourfinalas-sembledrectangle,pleaserefertotheappropriatestepsabovetoreviewyourwork.

1. Theheightofthefinalrectangleshouldmeasure5unitstallandthelengthshould be 6 units long.

2. Startingintheupperlefthandcornerandprogressingclockwise,thecolorsaroundtheperimetershouldbeasfollows-blueintheupperlefthand,blue,yellow,redintheupperrighthand,yellow,yellow,blueinthelowerrighthand, yellow, red, yellow in the lower left hand, red.

3. Twoyellow1x1blocksontherightperimetermakea1x2verticalrectanglewhenviewedtogether.Touchingthisnewyellowrectangle’sleftedgeandliningupwithbothtopedgesisaninvisible1x2verticalrectangle.Proceedingtotheleftfromthisinvisiblerectangleareavertical1x2redrectangle,anotherinvisible1x2verticalrectangle,andfinallythered2x2.

Matt Brucker

3

Matt's final check uses three enumer-ated steps to check the construction.

44 Evaluation Memorandum

Writeamemorandumaddressedtoyourinstructorinwhichyouevaluatetheinstructionsetassignedtoyouinthepreviousexercise.

Yourmemorandummaybedividedintoparagraphs,anditmayuseheadings,butneitherisrequired.Yourmemorandumshouldincludean introduction,thatexplainsthesituationandthepurposeofthememorandum;aspecific,evaluative description of the instruction set you tested;anddetailed recommendationsregardingimprovementsand/oraspectsoftheinstructionsetthatshouldbeemulated.Alternatively,youmayuseanintroduction, strengths, needed improvements structure, as in thefollowingexample.

Avoidvaguejudgmentsineithercase.Convinceyourreaderbyusingspecificreferencesorquotations.Iftheinstructionsetdidnotwork,youwillneedtoshowspecificallywhyitfailedandhowitcouldbefixed.

FORMAT REQUIREMENTS:

Usetheproperformatforamemorandumasdescribedonpages170-171.Youareallowedtoarrangethetopmatterinavarietyofways,buttheaddressee,thesender,thedate,andthesubjectmustbeclearlydisplayed.Highlight your subject line and be sure that it clearly describes the subject of yourmemorandum.

Evaluate

45Evaluation Memorandum

MEMORANDUM

To: Dr.CarlBrucker,Head March5,1986 DepartmentofEnglish

From: Carl Hankins

Subject: Evaluation of Instructions for Diagram C

OnMarch3,1986,ItestedtheinstructionsfordiagramCandwasabletocompletethediagramsuccessfully.Inthismemo,Inotesomepossibleimprovementsandsomestrongpoints.

Suggested Improvements

Althoughtherearenomajorerrorsintheinstructions,afewchangescouldbemadetoeliminatepotentialconfusionandimproveclarity:

1. Instep2,thelinescouldbenumbered1through14insteadof0through13.Eventhoughthelinesarenumbered,itisdifficulttokeepfromas-sociatingthefirstlineonthecardwiththenumber1.

2. Step12oftheinstructionsshouldbeeliminated.Sinceitissimplyastatementandnothingexecutable,itshouldnotbeastepbyitself.

Strong Points

Alongwiththeimprovements,therearesomestrongpointsthatshouldbenoted.

1. Thedividingofinstructionsintothreemainsectionsstartsofftheinstruc-tionsinaclearandprecisemanner.

2. Theboldtypeofalllinenumbersandpointsisextremelyhelpful.Theboldtypestandsoutforquickandeasyreferenceandismorelikelytomakeanimpressiononthereader’smind.

3. Theunderliningofallpointsthatarebeinglabeledalsohelpsforeasyreferenceanddistinguishesthepointsbeinglabeledfromthepointsusedin drawing a line.

Ifcarefullyfollowed,theinstructionstodiagramCareeasilycompleted.Althoughafewimprovementscouldbemade,theinstructionsarelogical,thorough,andclear.

Various top formats are ac-ceptable, but basic information regard-ing the date, sender, receiver, and subject should be included.

Any memo should open with a clear and specific identi-fication of the situ-ation.

Carl's memo does not use a separate evaluative descrip-tion.

Headings can be effectively used in memos for greater accessibility and emphasis.

Suggestions for improvement should be specific.

Enumerating points helps the reader follow the argu-ment, but because there is no necessary sequence, Carl could have used bullets instead of numbers.

NOTE: This memo evaluates a suc-cessful instruction set. Unsuccessful instructions would require specific, detailed suggestions for making them work!

CH

46

MEMORANDUM

To: Dr.CarlBrucker,Head DepartmentofEnglish

From: Juanita Fox

Date: October8,1996

Subject: Evaluation of Instructions for Building Model AB

OnOctober1,1996,Itestedtheinstructionset,preparedbyJeremyD.Aish-man,forbuildingModelAB.Despitesomeuncertaintyregardingtheplace-mentofthetwofinalpieces,Iwasabletobuildthemodelsuccessfully.Inthismemo,Ihavesuggestedsomechangestoimprovetheinstructionsetandnotedsomeofitsstrongpoints.

Suggested Changes

Whencarefullyfollowed,theinstructionsetwaseasytocomplete,butafewchangesinitscontentcouldbemadetoavoidconfusionthatcouldarise.

• Thefirstblockofinstructions,“PreparingtheLegoBlock,”shouldnotetherearethreesizesofblockstohelpfamiliarizethereaderwiththematerialstheywillbeusing.

• The“Note”attheendofstep10whichtellsthereadertoplacetheblockata45degreeangleshouldbepartoftheactualstep.Thisisimportantinformationthatshouldnotbenotedseparate-lyasacheckforthatstep.

• Step11containsthesameproblemlistedinstep10andshouldbe changed also.

Strong Points

Theinstructionsetalsohassomestrongpointswhichenablesthereadertobuildthemodelcorrectly.

• Theboldtypeoftheenumeratedinstructionstepsallowsthestepstostandout,whichmakesthestepseasytofollowinthepropersequence.

Evaluation Memorandum

As part of the introductory paragraph, Juanita unambiguously states the outcome of her test.

The suggestions and comments are placed in bulleted lists and stated with efficient precision. A bulleted list is acceptable here because the items do not have a nec-essary sequence. An enumerated list would have the advantage of giving each suggestion a unique identifier such as "suggestion 2."

JF

47

• The“Note”attheendofsomeoftheinstructionsteps,suchasStep2,provideshelpfulinformationtoavoidconfusion.The“Note”alsoprovidesawaytochecktoseeifthestepwasex-ecutedproperly.

Althoughafewchangescouldbemade,theinstructionsetislogicalandclearenoughtofollowinordertobuildalegomodelcorrectly.

Evaluation Memorandum

Brucker,October8,1996 Juanita uses a second-page header. Headers of this sort can be set up in your word processor to appear at the top of the second and all subsequent pages.

48 Analytic Report

Yourinstructormaysupplyyouwithaquestionnaireanddatasettouseonthisassignment,oryourinstructormayhaveyouwriteandadministerashortquestion-naireaspartofagrouporindividually.

IMPORTANT NOTE:Ifyourinstructorassignsyoutocreateandadministeraquestionnaireinsteadofusingaprepareddataset,youwillneedtoreceiveapprovalasdescribedinTech'sInstitutionalResearchBoardpolicieshttp://www.atu.edu/re-search/docs/policiesandprocedures2015.pdf.

Write a memo reportof500-1000wordsinwhichyoupresentandanalyzethedatasuppliedbyyourinstructororthatyouhavegathered.Ifyoucreateaquestionnaireinagroup,thereportsaretobewrittenindividually.Yourreportshouldbeorga-nizedintothreemainsections:

1. Introduction: aspecificandthoroughdescriptionofthecircumstancesofdataacquisition,includingwhatquestionswereaskedandanyotherinformationthat will guarantee a full understanding of how the data was gathered.

2. Presentation of data:afullpresentationofthedata,includingafulldiscus-sioninwordsandatleastonetable.(Seebelow.)

3. Analysis:athoughtfuldiscussionofthemeaningoftheresultsreportedinthesecondsection.Thiscouldincludespeculationregardingthecauses,suggestedactionsthatshouldbeundertaken,orpredictionsbasedontheinformationyouhave gathered.

FORMAT REQUIREMENTS:

Yourreportshouldusememorandumformat(pp.170-171).Remembertoincludethesecond-pageheaders.Yourreportmustincludeatleastonetable(pp.175-178).

CALCULATION NOTE:

Percentagesareusuallymoreinformativethanrawnumbers,butbecarefulhowyoucalculatepercentagestobesurethattheyareclearandaccurate.Seetheexamplesonpage177.

Analyze

49Analytic Report

Subject: Survey Regarding ATU Library Hours

To:Dr.CarlBrucker,Head

From: Karl Vesecky, Jr.

Date:November30,2003

PURPOSE

AgroupoffourstudentsintheTechnicalWritingclassconstructedasurveyaskingabouttheparticipants'feelingstowardstheATUlibraryhours.Thelibraryisaplacewhereeverystudenthasbeenatonepointoranother,sothistopicseemedvalid. PROCEDURE

Thefollowingquestionsappearedonoursurvey:

1 What is your age? []Under18[]18-23[]24orover2 Doyouliveonoroffcampus? []On[]Off3 Doyouhaveaccesstoapersonalcomputeroutsideofthelibrary? []Yes[]No4 Doyouthinkthelibraryhoursshouldbe: []Leftastheyare. []OpenLater []Open24hoursaday.

Aftercombiningallofthesurveysthatwerecompleted,itwasfoundthatforty-twopeopleparticipatedinoursurvey.Thesesurveyswereseparatedbywhetherornottheparticipantlivedonoroffcampus.Thesetwogroupswerethenseparatedbywhetherornottheparticipanthadordidn’thaveaccesstoacomputeroutsideofthelibrary.Thesetwogroupswereagainseparatedbytheiranswerstothefourthquestiononthesurvey.

Table1wascreatedbyseparatingtheparticipantsbyageandwhetherornottheylivedonoroffcampus.Thepossibleresponsesforeachgroupwereone

Karl decides to place the subject line first.

Karl's introductory paragraph is brief, but provides enough basic information for his reader to under-stand the purpose of the memo report.

Karl reproduces the questionnaire and efficiently de-scribes the proce-dural information.

KV

50 Analytic Report

ofthreechoices:leavethehoursastheyare,havethelibrarystayopenlater,ortohavethelibraryremainopen24hoursaday.Thetotalsforeachwerethenconvertedintopercentagesandrecordedinthetable.

IncreatingTable1,Idecidedtoleaveoutthequestionconcerningwhetherornottheparticipanthadaccesstoapersonalcomputeroutsidetheli-brary.Ibelievethisquestiondidnotaffecttheresultsmuch,becausesomeparticipantsmighthavefeelingstowardsthehourseveniftheyhadaccesstoacomputer.Thelibraryhousesalotmoremeansofresearchbesidescomputeraccess.

Table 1: Survey of Responses Concerning Library Hours

RESULTS

Noparticipantssurveyedfitthecategoryor24&overwholiveoncampussonoinformationwasrecordedinthatcategory.

Note that any memo longer than one page requires an informative header on the sec-ond and all subse-quent pages.

Karl puts a label and a descriptive title above the table.

Rows and col-umns are clearly identified with head-ings. Percentages are calculated cor-rectly. (See the note on page 177). The use of subtotals and a grand total add useful information.

Cells with no data are marked with el-lipses.

Brucker,November30,2003,page2

51Analytic Report

Thirtyoutof42(71%)oftheparticipantssurveyedfellintotheagegroup18-23.Threeoutof42(or7%)wereunder18,and9outof42(21%)wereover 23.

Peoplewhowereunder18andlivedoncampusweresplit50-50onhavingthelibrarystayopenlateranditremainingopen24hours.Thosepeoplewhowereunder18livingoffcampustalliedinat100%sayingthelibraryshouldstayopenalldayandnight.

Thoseparticipantsfallinginthecategoryofage18-23livingoncampusprovedthattheywouldlikethelibrarytostayopenlaterbyaresponseof53%ofthevote.Thosewhoareage18-23livingoffcampusreportedthattheybelievethehoursarefinethewaytheyareandshouldremainunchanged.

Theninesurveyedpeopleovertheageof24(whoallliveoffcampus)re-spondedbyamarginof44%sayingthattheywouldlikethelibrarytokeeptheirdoorsopenlongerthantheycurrentlydo.

CONCLUSION

Theissueofwhetherornotthelibraryshouldchangeitshourscan’tbede-terminedontheresponsesofforty-twopeople,butjustbythissurveyitcanbeseenthatthelibrarymightwanttoreviewitshourspolicy.Amajorityofpeopleineachcategorybelievethelibraryshouldstayopenlaterifnot24hours.

Brucker,November30,2003,page3

To avoid start-ing a sentence with a numeral, Karl writes out "Thirty" as a word. He con-sistently uses the % symbol although most editors would prefer he use a number followed by the word "percent" as Todd Strawn does in the follow-ing example.

Karl's textual presentation of re-sults is often wordy and awkward, but it communicates the most important results and is ar-ranged in a logical order from youngest to oldest.

Karls' conclusion is brief but man-ages to present the basic message of the survey results clearly.

52

To: Dr.CarlBrucker,Head EnglishDepartment

From: ToddR.Strawn

Date: March25,2001

Subject: PublicOpinionTowardHuntingandRelatedIssues

PURPOSE

AgroupofsixmembersinyourTechnicalCommunicationclassdevelopedaquestionnaire.Thegroupusedthisquestionnaireforasurveyofpublicopiniontoward hunting and issues related to this activity.

PROCEDURE

Thequestionnairecontainedthefollowingquestions:

1. Areyoumaleorfemale?2. Whatagerangedoyoufitin(Under21,or21andOver)?3. Have you hunted?4. Doyoucurrentlyhunt(doyouhaveacurrentlicense)?5. Doyousupportoropposehunting?6. Doyouthinkhuntingtechnologicaladvancementsshouldbelimited?7. Doyouthinkhuntinghasapositiveornegativeeffectonwildlifepopula-

tion?

Eachofthesixgroupmembersadministeredtenquestionnairestoavarietyofpeopleofallagesandgendersforatotalofsixtypeoplesurveyed.Toidentifythetypesofpeopleparticipatinginthesurvey,thequestionnaireswereseparat-edfirstbyagegroupandthenbygender.Thegrouptabulatedtheresultsofthesurveybycountingthenumberofquestionnairesineachage/genderdivisionandbycountingthenumberofaffirmativeresponses(yesinquestionthree,four,andsix,supportinquestionfive,andpositiveinquestionseven)ineachdivision.

Thegroupconvertedthecountstopercentagesaftertheinitialcountsweretabulated.Table1showsthesepercentagesseparatedbymale,female,andtotalwithineachagegroup.Also,asanextensiontothegroupcalculations,

Analytic Report

Suggestion: The phrase "and Re-lated Issues" in the subject line is too vague.

Todd Strawn be-gins his memoran-dum report by giv-ing an efficient but thorough explana-tion of the purpose and procedure his group followed.

Although Todd does not specify the Yes/No choices here, each question is binary, making tabulation less com-plicated.

Todd is consis-tent in writing out the numbers in this paragraph as words.

53

Brucker,March25,2001,page2

Table1includesasectionofpercentagetotalsforeachgenderofallagesandforallpeoplesurveyedofallages.

RESULTS

Ofthepeoplesurveyed,mostmaleshadhuntedbefore,whereasmostfemaleshadnothunted.Thegroupinadvertentlysurveyedmoremalesthanfemalesthuscausingthemaleresponsestothequestionnairetohavemoreofanimpactontheoverallpercentageofpeoplewhohavehunted,whichwas65percent.

Table 1: Survey of Public Opinion Toward Hunting and Related IssuesAge, Gender Have you

hunted?Doyouhaveacurrent hunting

license?

Doyousup-portoroppose

hunting?

Shouldtechno-logical hunting advancementsbelimited?

Doeshuntinghaveapositiveor negative ef-fect on wildlife population?

Yes% Yes% Support% Yes% Positive%

Under 21, Male

64% 45% 91% 73% 82%

Under 21, Female

25% 0% 75% 63% 75%

Under 21, Total

47% 26% 84% 63% 79%

21 or Over, Male

86% 75% 89% 54% 89%

21 or Over, Female

46% 8% 92% 31% 85%

21 or Over, Total

73% 54% 90% 46% 88%

All Ages, Male

79% 67% 90% 59% 87%

All Ages, Female

38% 5% 86% 43% 81%

All Ages, Total

65% 45% 88% 53% 85%

Analytic Report

A memorandum report uses headers such as this one on the second and all subsequent pages.

When Todd writes about percentages here and on the next page, he uses numer-als and the word "percent."

The column head-ers in Todd's table include the entire question, so read-ers do not have to refer back to the list of questions at the start of the report. In the table he includes only the positive results, making comparison easier. He includes three sections in his table: under 21, over 21, and all ages. This gives his reader a full range of infor-mation.

54

Brucker,March25,2001,page3

Lessthanhalfofthepeoplesurveyedcurrentlyhunt,whichistosayhaveacurrenthuntinglicense.Only5percentofallfemalessurveyedcurrentlyhunt,andnofemalesunder21hadacurrentlicense.Malesinthe21andoveragegroupweretheonlygroupsurveyedwheremorethan50percenthadacurrenthunting license.

Themajorityofallpeoplesurveyedsupporthunting.Thesupportpercent-agesrangedfrom75percentinthefemalesunder21groupto92percentinthefemaleswhoare21andovergroup.Ofallpeopleofagessurveyed,88percentsupporthunting

Onlyslightlymorethanhalf,53percent,ofallpeoplesurveyedsupportlimit-inghuntingtechnologicaladvancements.Mostpeopleintheunder21agegroupsupportlimitinghuntingadvancements,foratotalof68percent.Thoughmostmalesinthe21andoveragegroupfavoredlimitinghuntingtechnologicaladvancements,mostwomendidnot,only31percent.Inthe21andoveragegroup,46percentofthepeopleofbothgenderssurveyedsupportlimitinghunt-ingadvancements.

Mostpeoplesurveyedbelievedthathuntinghasapositiveeffectonwildlifepopulation.Intheunder21agegroup,79percentofallpeoplebelievedhunt-inghasapositiveeffect,and88percentofpeopleinthe21andoveragegroupbelievedhuntinghasapositiveeffect.Overall,85percentofallpeoplesur-veyedreportedbelievingthathuntinghasapositiveeffectonhunting.

CONCLUSION

Thesurveyshowsthatthemajorityofpeoplesupporthuntingandparticipateinhuntingactivities.However,theresultsshowthatmostpeoplebelievethathuntingtechnologicaladvancementsshouldbelimited.Thisreflectsthatthoughmostpeoplesupporthunting,theybelievethathuntersshouldfacesomedegree of challenge.

Theresultsofthesurveyshowthatmostofthepeoplethatcurrentlyhuntaremales.Mostfemales,however,agreewithmalesonissuesrelatedtohunting,especiallyregardingtheirbeliefthathuntinghasapositiveeffectonwildlifepopulation.

Analytic Report

Although the table on the previous page displays the results of this questionnaire well, Todd is careful to give a full over-view of the results in his text. A report of this sort should use both graphics and text to present the information.

Todd's conclusion is short, but care-fully written. It states logical conclusions based on the results of the survey.

55

To: Dr.CarlBrucker,HeadEnglishDepartmentFrom: CharlotteL.HippDate: March15,2011Subject:HearingDifficultiesinOlderCongregation

PURPOSEAquestionnairewasdevelopedandusedtosurveythecongregationofFirstPresbyterianChurch,HeberSprings,Arkansas,todeterminethenumberofmembershavingdifficultyhearingspeakersinthesanctuaryandforthosehavingdifficulty,tolearniftheywouldbewillingtouseachurch-providedhearing device.

PROCEDUREThequestionnairecontainedthefollowingquestions: 1.Areyoumaleorfemale? 2.Isyourageover65? 3.Doyouhavedifficultyhearingtheministerspeakingfromthepulpit? 4.Doyouwearahearingaid? 5.Wouldyouwearachurch-providedhearingdevice?Sixty-four(64)questionnairesweredistributedtothecongregationofFirstPresbyterianChurch,HeberSprings,andsixty-two(62)questionnaireswerecompletedandreturned.Thequestionnairesreceivedwereseparatedfirstbygenderandthenbyagegroup.Thenextseparationcamebysplittingupthosewhohaddifficultyhearingtheministerorothersspeakingfromthepulpit.Asnooneundertheageof65answered“Yes”forquestionthreeandwouldhavenoneedforachurch-providedhearingdevice,thisgroupwasnotincludedinTable 1.

RESULTSMorefemalesthanmalesattendFirstPresbyterianChurch,HeberSprings,Arkansas,andreportedashavingthemostdifficultyhearinginthesanctuary.Ofthe53membersover65,sixtypercentwerefemale.Thirty-fourpercentofthe32femalesand33percentofthe21malesreportedhavingdifficultyhearingtheministerorothersspeakingfromthepulpit.Twenty-twopercentof

Analytic Report

Charlotte Hipp used this assignment to gather informa-tion on a perceived problem at her church. She felt that some hearing-impaired members were unable to fully benefit from the ser-vices.

When starting a sentence with a number, Charlotte writes the number out in words. She then appends the numerical version in parentheses.

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Brucker,March14,2011,page2thefemalesand24percentofthemalesstatedtheyworehearingaids.Sixteenpercentofthefemalesand19percentofthemalesadvisedtheywouldwearachurch-providedhearingdeviceprogrammedtothechurchamplifier.ThenumbersandpercentagesfortheseitemsarereflectedinTable1.

Table 1. Survey of Hearing Difficulties and Possible Solution, FPC, HS

FemalesOver65 MalesOver65 Total Over 65Number Percentage Number Percentage Number Percentage

TotalSurveyed 32 60% 21 40% 53 100%Doyouhavedif-ficultyhearingtheministersppeakingfromthepulpit?

11 34% 7 33% 18 34%

Doyouwearahearing aid?

7 22% 5 24% 12 23%

Would you wear a church-providedhearing device

programmedtothechurchamplifier?

5 16% 4 19% 9 17%

CONCLUSION ThesurveyreflectedtherearemembersofthecongregationofFirstPresbyterianChurch,HeberSprings,Arkansas,thathavedifficultyhearingspeakersfromthepulpit.Basedontheinformationgatheredfromthesurvey,especiallythat9ofthe18memberswhohavehearingdifficultyarewillingtowearachurch-providedhearingdeviceprogrammedtothechurchamplifier,thereisadefiniteneedforaction.Apresentationisbeingpreparedandwillbepresentedtothechurchdeaconswithinthenextfewweeksrecommendingthat9hearingdevicesbepurchasedandmadeavailabletothecongregation.Thesedevicesshouldprovidehearing-impairedindividualsanopportunitytoclearlyhearwhatisbeingsaidduringworshipservicesandgreatlyimprovetheirworshipexperience.

Analytic Report

This paragraph includes several numbers. Charlotte writes out as words the numbers that start sentences, but all other numbers are represented by numerals.

The numbers in the final paragraph are single words and would often be written as words, but Charlotte decides to be consistent in her use of numerals.

Charlotte's conclusion is straightforward and factual. She reports the actions that will proceed from the report.

57

Describe

Writeaninformalreportof500-1000wordsinwhichyoudescribeanobjectoramechanism.

Selectatopicthatisrelativelysimplesothatyouwillbeabletofullyandpreciselydescribeitinthelengthofthisreport.

Yourreportshouldhaveathree-partstructure:

1. Overview of the Mechanism or Object: providesthereaderwithnecessarybackgroundandadescriptionofthegeneralappearance.

2. Description of Major Parts: providesthereaderwithdetailedandparalleldescriptionsofthemajorpartsandtheirfunctions.

3. Description of the Mechanism in Operation or the Object in Use: typicallydescribesonefullcycleofoperation,butmaydescribetheusestowhichanobjectcanbeput.

ThisreportmaybesubmittedtoTurnitin.com,soreadPlagiarismonpages202-203.

FORMAT REQUIREMENT;

Yourreportmustincludeatleastonediagram.Besurethatyourdiagramisac-curately labeled and titled.

Objective Description

58

Description of Tabla

General Description

TablaisanIndianpercussioninstrumentthatproducesrhythmandhaslongcaptivatedtheaudiencewithitseuphonicspell.Tablacomprisestwodrumsets.Theright-handdrum,whichisresponsibleforthetrebleaudiocomponent,iscalleddayan,andtheleft-handdrum,whichisresponsibleforproducingbass,iscalledbayan.Thedayanisaconicaldrumshellcarvedoutofasolidpieceofhardwoodandhasoneopenendcoveredbyacompositemembrane.Thebayanisahemisphericalbowl-shapeddrummadeofpolishedcopper,brass,bronze,orclay.Likethedayan,acompositemembranecoversthebayan'sopenend.Bothdrumsstandabout25centimetershigh.Thedayan'sheadmeasuresapproximately14centimetersacross,whilethebayan'sheadmeasures22cen-timetersacross.

Major Parts

AsFigure1indicates,themajorpartsoftablaarethemainbody,pudi,gajra,kinar,syahi,maidan,vadi,guliandbirha.Eachofthepartsisdescribedbelow.

Figure 1: Tabla and Its Major Parts

Objective Description

Sajeed Poudyal opens his objective description with a "General Descrip-tion" that gives his reader on overview of the tabla

Throughout this report Sajeed sup-plies his reader with specific details regarding measure-ments or the compo-sition of parts.

Sajeed's original illustration is placed early in the report, so that readers will have it for reference as they read the de-scriptions of the in-dividual parts. The careful labeling of the individual parts is particualrly im-portant. Of course, if this illustration were not origianl, it would require a source note. Sajeed indicates its origi-nality by including a copyright notice.

© Sajeed Poudyal

59

Main Body (Kath)

Themainbodyoftablaiscalledkathandismadeofsheeshamwood,bab-hulwood,ormangowood.Alogofwoodisselectedandcutandmadehol-lowfrominsidesothatitisabouthalfaninchthick.Thediameterofthedrumgraduallydecreasesfromthebasetothetop.Thebaseofthetablaissolid.

Pudi

Thedrumheadcalledpudicomprisesthemaiden,syahiandgajra.Itisthemostimportantpartofthetabla,thepartfromwhichthepercussivesoundisproduced.Pudiisusuallymadefromgoathideordeerhide.

Gajra

Gajraistheareathatappearswovenaroundtheperimeterofthepudi.Thegajraholdsthepudioverthemainbodyofthetabla.

Kinar or Chati

Thekinaristhecircularpiecearoundthegajra.Thisisthesectionofthetablawhereoneproducesdifferenttypesofsounds.Thekinarisusuallyabout2cen-timeterswide.

Syahi or Ink

Acircularblackinkpieceonthetopofthetablaiscalledsyahi.Thisisusu-allymadeofminuteironfilings,inkandcoalpieces.Thesyahiisimportantasitgivesthetablemulti-harmonicproperties.Thesyahionthedayanisperfectlycentered;however,thesyahionthebayanisoffcentered,givingspaceforthepalmtorestonthebayan.

Maidan

Themaidanistheremainingcircularportionofthepudi.themaidanisusefulwhenplayingopensoundslike"tun"andhelpsthetablamakeareverberatingsound.

2

Objective Description

The descriptions of the individual parts are brief, stressing composition and purpose.

Sajeed uses a two-level system of headings with the second-level distin-guished by italics.

Each item is re-named in the text, so the reader does not have to rely on the headings for mean-ing.

Suggestion: Instead of changing the syntactic pattern in describing the syahi, Sajeed could have started this section "The syahi is a circu-lar black ink …"

60 Objective Description

Vadi

Thevadiismadeofcoworbuffalohideandgivesthemechanicalstrengthtothepudi.Thevadiisabout1centimeterwideand35to40feetlong.

Guli or Gatte

Guli or Gatte are cylindrical sliders that are used for raising and lowering the pitchofthetabla.Thepitchofthetablacanberaisedorloweredbypushingthegulidownwardsorupwardsrespectively.Thereareususally8gulisonthetabla.

Birha

TheGirhaisthesupportonwhichtablaanddaggarest.

How Tabla Produces Sound

Bothdrumsets,dayanandbayan,areplayedsimultaneouslywithbothhandsinstrictrhtymicpatterns.Theserhytmicpatternsareformedbyproducingacombinationofsoundsplayingagainstthevariouspartsofthetabla.Soundintablaisproducedasadirectresultofimpactofthehandandfingersagainstthevarioussubdivisionalcomponentsofthetablaset.

Sajeed Poudyal

3

Some editors would suggest that the "8 gulis" in the paragraph to the left should have been "eight gulis." Others would suggest that he use the numeral to be consistent with the numerals used with measurements.

61Objective Description

Kendall Tubb's introduction pro-vides context and clearly identifies the subject of her description.

She is careful to note that she is describing her particualr control-ler rather than a generic controller. This allows her to be precise and use her direct observa-tions.

Ms. Tubb is care-ful to reference the figures in her text.

Ms. Tubb uses original photo-graphs to which she has added labels; therefore, no source note is required. She has added a copyright notice to the photos.

Description of My Sony PlayStation 3 Controller

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

ThePlayStation3(shortenedtoPS3)isaseventh-generationvideogameconsoleandthethirdhomeconsoleinthePlayStationseriesproducedbySonyComputerEntertainment,Inc.ThePS3wasfirstreleasedon11November,2006inJapanandwassubsequentlyreleasedon17November,2006intheUnitedStates. OneoftheuniquecharacteristicsofthePS3isitscontroller.NotallPS3controllersarethesame,soIwilldiscussmycontrollerspecifically.Itisametallicblue,Sony-brandcontroller,completewithbothSixaxisandDualShock3,bothofwhichwillbeexplainedlater.ThisdiffersfromthefirststandardversionofthecontrollerthatSonyreleased,whichisblackanddoesnotincludetheDualShock3technology.ThePS3controllerisusedtomaneuvertheinterfacemenuandplaythegames.

MAJORS PARTS

AsFigures1and2illustrate,thePS3controllerhasvariouspartsthatperformvariousinputfunctions,alongwiththreeuniqueoutputnotifications.

Figure 1: Diagram of my Sony PlayStation 3 Controller (Front View)

62 Objective Description

Ms. Tubb places the two figures be-fore the description of parts in her text. This makes sure that readers know where to look as parts are described.

Ms. Tubb uses a two-level system of headings. The first level is bold-faced, all caps, and left-justified. The second level is bold-faced and left-justified.

Ms. Tubb is care-ful to rename each part she describes in her textual description. She does not rely on the heading to inform her reader what she is describing.

2

Figure2:DiagramofmySonyPlayStation3Controller(TopView)

PS Button

Unlikemostoftheotherbuttonsonthecontroller,thePSbuttonisonlyusedinrelationtothePlayStation3console,asopposedtohavingadditionaluseduringgames.IfpressedwhilethePS3isoff,itallowstheplayertoturntheconsoleonfromafar.Ifpressedwhileplayingagame,itwillbringuptheXrossMediaBar(XMB),whichisthebaseinterfacemenuoftheconsole.

START Button

TheSTARTbuttonisn’tusedintheXMB,butitdoeshaveuseingames.Oftentimes, thisbutton isonlyused topause thegameor toopenan in-gamemenu.Forexample,inTheElderScrollsV:Skyrim,STARTisusedtoopenthepausemenu.

SELECT Button

TheSELECTbuttonalsoisn’tusedintheXMB,butithasvarieduseingames.Forexample,inSkyrim,SELECTisusedtoenterwaitmode,whileinTheLastofUs,itisusedtoopenthebackpackinventory.

Left Analog Stick/L3 and Right Analog Stick/R3

ThetwojoysticksonthePS3controllerarecalledtheleftanalogstickandtherightanalogstick.Whileatrest,theystayinthecenteroftheirball-and-

63Objective Description

Ms. Tubb's descriptions follow a parallel structure in most instances, mentioning the location and ap-pearance and then concetrating on the function of each item.

3socket-stylepositions.Theycanbepressedinanydirection.IntheXMB,theleftanalogstickisusedtonavigatethemenu,whiletherightanalogstickisnotused.Ingames,theleftanalogstickallowsthecharactertomoveinspace,whiletherightanalogstickoftenmovesthecameraaroundthecharacterinthird-persongamessuchasFolkloreorTheLastofUsorturnsthecharacter’sbodyinfirst-persongamessuchasTheElderScrollsseriesortheFalloutseries.

Whentheplayerpresseseitheroftheanalogsticksstraightdownwhilestill intheirrestingposition,theplayerhasjustpressedL3orR3.Thesebut-tonshavenofunctionintheXMB,butingames,theysometimesgounusedandsometimeshavevariousfunctions,mostoftentogglefunctionsorcamerafunc-tions.Forinstance,inSkyrim,L3isusedtotogglesneakmodeonandoff,andR3isusedtoswitchbetweenfirst-andthird-personpointofview.However,inJourney, neither button is used.

Directional Buttons (Directional Pad/D-Pad)

Thegroupoffourarrow-lookingbuttonsontheleftsideofthecontrollercontainsthedirectionalbuttons(alsocalledthedirectionalpadord-pad).ThesebuttonsperformthesamefunctionastheleftanalogstickintheXMB,butingames,theyareoftenonlyusedtonavigatemenus(suchasinSkyrim)orforaquick-changeofsomefeature(suchasweaponsinTheLastofUsorlock-ontargetsinFolklore).

Triangle, Square, Circle, and X Buttons

ThegroupoffourbuttonsontherightsideofthecontrollercontainstheTriangle,Square,Circle,andXbuttons.IntheXMB,Triangle,Square,andCirclehavenofunction,butXisusedtomakeselections.Ingames,thesebuttonshaveawidevarietyofuses.Forexample,inFolklore,allfourbuttonsareusedforavarietyofcustomizableattackanddefensemoves,whereasinSkyrim,Triangleisusedtojump;Squareisusedtodraworsheathyourweapon;Circleisusedtoopenthecharactermenu;andXisusedtoselectitems,people,andoptions.

L1 and R1 Buttons

L1andR1arefoundontopofthecontroller.Theyareeachmarkedwitha“1”andhavenouseintheXMB.Ingames,theyhavevarioususes,suchasusingL1toaimandblockandusingR1toattackinFallout3orusingL1tolock-ontargetsandusingR1toabsorbweakenedenemies’powersinFolklore.

64

L2 and R2 Buttons

L2andR2arefoundontopofthecontroller.Theyareeachmarkedwitha“2”andhavenouseintheXMB.Ingames,theyhavevarioususes,suchasusingeitherL2orR2tosprintinSkyrimorusingL2tosprintandusingR2toenterlistenmodeinTheLastofUs.

Sixaxis

SixaxisisaSony-brandgamepadlocatedinsidethePS3controller.Thereisanotificationon the topof thecontroller thatallowsone toknow that thecontrollerhastheSixaxisfunction.SixaxiswasfirstproducedforPS3control-lersandallowsthecontrollertooperatewirelessly.AuniquefunctionofSixaxistechnologyisthatitallowsthecontrollertorecognizeitsplacementinspaceinregardstowhetheritislyingflatortiltedinsomedirection.Thistilt-recognitioncapabilityisnotusedinmanygames,butJourneytakesadvantageofSixaxisbyallowingtheplayertosimplytiltthecontrollerinordertomovethecameraaround the character.

DualShock 3

ThefirstPS3controllersdidnotincludetheDualShock3capability,butSonylateraddedittotheirofficialPS3controllers.DualShock3isalsoaSony-brandgamepadlocatedinsidethecontroller.ThereisanotificationonthetopofthecontrollerthatallowsonetoknowthatthecontrollerhastheDualShock3function.DualShock3allowsthecontrollertovibrateduetocertainin-gameoccurrences.Forinstance,inTheLastofUs,frequentbuildingcollapses,objectcollisions,andexplosionsallcausethecontrollertovibrateusingDualShock3.

USB Connector

TheUSBconnectoristheplug-inlocatedonthetopofthecontroller.BecausePS3controllersrunonrechargeablebatteries,thisiswheretheplayercanplugthecontrollerintotheconsoletorechargeitwhileplaying.

Port Indicators

Thefournumberedsquaresonthetopofthecontrolleraretheportindica-tors.Whenthecontrolleristurnedon,aredlightwillilluminatethesquarethatcorrespondswithwhichportthatcontrollerisregisteredas,meaningwhichplayerisusingthatcontroller.Ifonlyonepersonisplaying,thenthatcontrollerwillbe

4

Objective Description

Ms. Tubb's descrip-tions of the Six-axis and DualShock 3 break from the pattern of other descriptions by including a brief history of their introd-cution to the system. Ideally each descrip-tion would include the same elements.

65

playerone,butifmultiplepeople(uptofour)areplaying,theneachcontrollerwillbeassignedaport(onethroughfour).

OPERATION OF PS3 CONTROLLER

OncetheplayerhasturnedthePS3on,eitherusingthebuttonontheconsoleorthePSbuttononthecontroller,heorshecanuseeitherthedirec-tionalbuttonsortheleftanalogsticktomaneuvertheXMBandthenuseXtoselecttheoperationsheorshedesires.Whentheplayerhasstartedagame,heorshecanusetheanalogsticks,variousbuttons,andperhapseventheSixaxisandDualShock3capabilitiestoperformgame-specificfunctions.Somegames,suchasJourney,onlyuseaselectfewoftheavailablebuttonsandalsoutilizetheSixaxistilt-recognitioncapabilityandDualShock3vibration.Othergames,suchasSkyrim,useallthebuttonsandtheDualShock3vibrationbutdonotutilizetheSixaxistilt-recognitioncapability.AlthoughdifferentgamesusethefunctionsofthePS3controllerindifferentways,gamescomewithinstructionmanualsthatexplainhowthecontroller’svariouscapabilitiesareutilizedinthatspecificgame.

Kendall Tubb

5

Objective Description

Ms. Tubb uses the "he-or-she" construc-tion to avoid sexual bias, but she could have used a plu-ral construction to achive the same end without the awkward-ness of the he/she usage--"Once players have turned the PS3 on ... they can use either..." This would also avoid the shift in number error of writing "the player ... they."

66

Description of My Slightly Rusted Cheese Grater

General Description

Myhand-heldcheesegraterisasomewhatold-fashionedkitchendevicethatIsometimesfacetiouslycallaknucklegraterinstead.Iusemycheesegratertogratecheese,andsometimesvegetables,inuptothreedifferentways.Thisapplianceoftensavesmemoneybyallowingmetobuyless-ex-pensiveblockcheeseandgrateitathome,ratherthanbuyingtheexpensivepre-shreddedcheese.Becausemygraterismadeofmetal,itisslightlyrusted,thoughposingnoimmediatehealthhazard.

Description of Major Parts

AsFigure1indicates,mycheesegraterismadeupofahandle,fourmetalplates,andacircularshapedmetalframingaroundthebottomforbalanceandstability.

Figure 1: Front, Back, and Side Views of My Cheese Grater

Handle

Thehandleofmycheesegraterismadeofmetalandshapedlikeanupside-down,slightlyelongated“U.”ItsprimaryfunctionistogivemesomethingtoholdtoassurethattheappliancewillnotmovewhileIamintheprocessofgratingcheese.

Objective Description

Michelle Boren's report follows the three-part plan suggested in the assignment: over-view, description of major parts, de-scription of object in use.

Michelle's hand-drawn figure dem-onstrates that even simple diagrams can be effective.

Usually an as-signment of this sort would be written completely in the third person, but because this is a personal object and Michelle needs to describe herself using it, the first person is appropri-ate.

67

Front Panel

Thefrontpanelofmycheesegraterismadeofmetalandcontains24holes,slightlyprotrudingatanangletoallowthegratedcheesetofalldowntheinsideofthegratertobecollectedinapileafterthegraterislifted.Thispanelisspecificallydesignedtogratecheeseinlargerpiecesforusesuchaspizzatoppings.

Back Panel

Thebackpanelofmycheesegraterismadeofmetalandcontains125smallerholes,alsoslightlyprotrudingatanangletoallowforthecollectionofthecheeseinthebottomofthegrater.Thispanelisspecificallydesignedtogratecheeseinsmallerpiecesforuseasgarnishorsaladtopping.

SidePanel#1

Thissidepanelismadeofmetalandcontainstworectangular-shapedgrat-ers.Thispanelisspecificallydesignedtoallowonetograteslicesoffablockof cheese.

SidePanel#2

Thismetalframingisplacedaroundthebottomofthegratertoallowforstabilitywhiletheapplianceisinuse.

How I Use My Cheese Grater

Tousemycheesegrater,Iplaceitinthecenterofaplateonthekitchencountertop.Ithentakeablockofcheeseinmyrighthandandholdthehandleinmylefthand,pressingdownfirmlysothegraterdoesnotmove.Itaketheblockofcheeseandrubitindownwardstrokesagainstthechosenpanel.Idothisuntiltheblockofcheeseisgratedallthewaydown,orIhavegratedtheamountneededfortheintendedrecipe.IusuallystartwithabigblockofcheesesoIcangrateasmuchasIneedandstillhavemyknucklesintact.

Michelle Boren

Objective Description

Michelle's de-scriptions of parts are parallel and concise. In each in-stance she describes the physical condi-tion and its purpose.

Michelle's light-hearted conclusion shows that success-ful reports do not have to be deadly serious.

2

68

Description of a Medieval Knight’s Suit of Plate Armor

General Description

ThroughouttheMiddleAges,knightsneededarmorfortworeasons:toprotectthemselvesinbattles,tournamentsandjoustsandtodisplaytheirstand-ingasanimportantmemberofsociety.Medievalplatearmorisdifferentfrommedievalchainarmorinthatitutilizesironandsteelplatesinsteadofthousandsofinterlockingringsandleather.Thehelmetisacommoncomponentofplatearmorthatmostreadersknow.However,otherpiecesfittogethertocreateme-dievalplatearmorintotheprotective,sociallyidentifyingsuitthatitis.

Description of the Major Parts

AsFigure1indicates,themajorpartsofmedievalplatearmorarethehelmet,thepauldrons,thebreastplate,thererebraces,thevambraces,thegaunt-lets,thecuisses,thepoleyns,thegreavesandthesabatons.Eachofthepartsisdescribed after Figure 1, which is below.

Figure 1: TheMajorPartsofMedievalPlateArmorSource:"KnightArmorandWeapons."Dusksters.com.2014.http://www.ducksters.com/history/middle_ages/knight_armor_and_weapons.php.Accessed22November2014.

Objective Description

Mr. Garrett's brief introduction identi-fies the subject of the report while provid-ing a brief historical context.

Mr. Garrett refer-ences his figure in the text.

The figure is appro-priately placed at the start of the descrip-tion of the parts.

Mr. Garrett's Source note provides complete informa-tion. It has been modified to meet the 2016 MLA format requirements.

69

TheHelmet

ThehelmetillustratedinFigure1isanarmettypeofhelmet.Itfullycoversthewearer’shead.Inaddition,ithasavisorthatopensforthewearertogetabetterview,togetabreathoffreshairorjusttohelptakethehelmetoff.Itisnottobeconfusedwithclosehelm,however,thatcamelaterinthemedi-evalperiodandopensinmorethanoneplacethanthearmethelmetdoes.

The Pauldrons

Asanevolutionofthespaulders(whichonlycovertheshoulders),thepauldronscovertheareaaroundtheshouldersaswellasareasofthearmpits,thebackandeventhechest.Alsodifferingfromaspaulder,apauldronisaconnectedpieceoflayeredmetal,inordertocoverthelargerareaofprotec-tion.

TheBreastplate

Themetalbreastplate,oralsoknownasacuirass,coversthefronttorsoandisconnectedtoanotherpiecearmorofthatpartiallyprotectsthespinalareaoftheback.Thisbackpiecealsoservesasawayofholdingthebreastplateinplace,tighteningitandtakingitoff.

TheRerebraces

Thisrerebracesprotecttheareaoftheupperarmfromtheelbowuptothepauldron.Thisareaismovablebecauseitmustkeeptheall-importantelbowprotected(thearticulatedjointthatmoveswithandprotectstheelbowsiscalledthecowter,whichisnotonFigure1).

TheVambraces

Thevambracesprotecttheareaoftheforearmuptothererebracesandthecowter.Thislongpieceofmetal(orsomeknightsworeleather)wrapsaroundtheforearm,usuallybeingconnectedbylacingupstrings.Somemetalvambracesevenhavetheirowncowters.

The Gauntlets

Thegauntletscanbestylizedastheglovesoftheknight.Platearmorgauntletsarefullyarticulatedinordertoallowfreemovementofthefingers

Objective Description

Mr. Garrett is care-ful to rename each item he describes in the text of the de-scription rather than rely on the heading for identification.

For the most part, Mr. Garrett's descriptions are parallel, focusing on noting the func-tion of each part by noting what body part it is designed to protect.

70

andthehandsinhand-to-handcombat.Gauntletsalsoprotecttheever-im-portanthands,andevenserveasweaponsoftheirown(becauseoftheirsharpmetaledges)whennoothersuitableweaponisnearby.

The Cuisses Thecuissesprotectthethighareasofthelegsdowntotheknees.Somecuissesareonepieceofmetal,whileothersareconnected,layeredpieces.Somecuissesevenhadtheirownpoleyns.

The Poleyns

The poleyns sole job is to protect the knees. They are flexible, in order to provide movement (though sometimes not enough) to the entire leg. Main-ly, the poleyns are connected either to the cuisses or to the greaves.

The Greaves

The greaves protect the tibia area of the leg, from the knee down to the foot. They were especially strong in order to protect the ever-important legs from being cut out from under the knight. Some even had connected sabatons.

The Sabatons

The sabatons protect the knight’s feet; they are his shoes. Some even appear like metal shoes with flattened areas for the toes. Others, however, are pointed were the toe areas form and serve both as a fashion statement and as a weapon.

Medieval Armor in Use

Medieval armor was used for a number of reasons during the Middle Ages. Battles, jousts and tournaments called for critical protection from weap-ons such as swords, maces, pikes, poleaxes and many others, especially long bows and cross bows during battle. Yet, these suits of iron and steel were not perfect or impenetrable. The angles of the joints of the human body caused a lack of protection in nearly every suit, with differing suits leaving differing areas vulnerable (such is the neck, the armpit, the elbow and the knee). Skilled knights understood these weak spots and knew how to exploit them with their weapons.

By Taylor Garrett

Objective Description

Mr. Garrett ar-ranges his descrip-tions in a logical order, moving from the helmet down the suit of armor.

Mr. Garrett's efficient conclusion provides a useful commentary on the limitations of the armor that has been described.

71

Outline

Writeadecimaloutlinethataccuratelyreflectstheinformation contained in the articleassignedbyyourinstructor.Thismeansthatyoushouldnotincludeintro-ductoryorsummarymaterial.

Youroutlinemustadheretothefollowingrestrictions:

1. Neversubdivideatopicintofewerthantwoparts. 2. Besurethatallheadingsatthesamelevelaresyntacticallyparallel. 3. Besurethatyouroutlineincludesalloftheimportanttopicsdiscussed

in the original. 4. Besurethatyouroutlineaccuratelyreflectsthelogicoftheoriginal. 5. Trytomakeyouroutlineinformativebyincludingabbreviateddefini-

tionsorexplanations.

Bealertforstackedclassifications.If,forexample,anarticlestatesthatallgleebsaredrippyordroopyand,furthermore,thattherearethreetypesofgleebs:greengleebs,graygleebs,glossygleebs,thefollowingrepresentationwouldbeimpre-cise.

1.0 Gleebs 1.1 DrippyGleebs 1.2 DroopyGleebs 1.3 Green Gleebs 1.4 Gray Gleebs 1.5 Glossy Gleebs

The following would be one accurate version:

1.0 Attitudes of Gleebs 1.1 Drippy 1.2 Droopy

2.0 AppearanceofGleebs 2.1 Green 2.2 Gray 2.3 Glossy

© Allison Brucker

Decimal Outline

72 Decimal Outline

Anatomy and Function of the Eyeball

by John Eden

John Eden's explanation of the eyeball is taken from his work The Eye Book. This book attempts to answer the many questions that the average reader might have about eyes, glasses, and contact lenses. Eden is an M.D. and a practicing ophthalmologist.

Thehumaneyeis,ofcourse,adualorgan—twoeyesworkingtogethertotransmitvisualinformationtothebrain.Althoughitiscertainlypossibletoseewithonlyoneeye,ittakestwonormallyfunctioningeyestoachievenormalvision. Youreyeismadeupofnumerouskindsofhighlyspecializedcells,whichperformdif-ferentfunctions.Itisequippedwithmuscular,fibrousconnective,circulatory,andnervoussystemsofitsown.Althoughtheyaresimilartothosesystemsthatworkthroughoutyourbody,theyaredesignedtofillthespecialneedsof the eyes.

Thenormaladulteyeballisanellipti-calsphere,whichmeansitismoreegg-shapedthanperfectlyround.Ithasthreedistinctcon-centrictissuelayers.Thefirstservestoprotectyoureye’sdelicateinternalstructures,anditconsistsofthesclera—theopaquewhiteoftheeye—andthecornea—thetransparentlayerthatliesinfrontofthepupilandiris.

Thescleracoversaboutfive-sixthsofthesurfaceoftheeyeball.Itisinterruptedonlybythecorneainfrontoftheopticnerve,whichenters the eyeball at the back. Although not muchthickerthanthepageyouarereading,the

corneaandscleraarecomposedofextremelytoughtissues.Iwillnotsayitisimpossibletopiercethem,butittakesaverysharpobjecttravelingathighspeedtodoit.

Athinmembranecalledtheconjunc-tiva,whichisnottechnicallyapartoftheeyeball,separatestheexposedfrontandunex-posedbackportionsoftheeyeball.Itcoversthefrontpartofthescleraandthenlapsoverand continues forward onto the inner surface oftheupperandlowereyelids.Theconjuncti-vathusclosesoffthebackpartoftheeyeball,makingitimpossibleforanythingtogetlostin your eye or travel back into your head.

The second of the three layers is called theuvealtract,anditsmainfunctionsarecirculatoryandmuscular.Theuvealtractismadeupoftheiris,theciliarybody,andthechoroid.

Theirisistheround,coloredpartoftheeyethatsurroundsthepupil,anditisresponsibleforwhatwecallthecolorofoureyes.Themainfunctionoftheirisistopermitmoreorlesslighttoenteryoureye.Thepupilitselfissimplytheholesurroundedbytheiris,anditisthroughthisholethatlightpassesintoyoureye.Theinvoluntarymusclesoftheirisrespondprimarilytothestimulusoflight,con-strictingtomakeasmallerholewhenlightisbrightanddilatingtomakealargerholewhenlightisdimmer.Thisactionislikethatoftheirisdiaphragminacamera.Butpleasedon’ttakethisanalogytooliterally.Thehumanirisisnotamechanicaldevicewhoseopeningcanbe varied whenever you decide to do it. The actionisinvoluntary.Themusclesofyouririsdonotsnapnearlyshutwhenlightisverybrightandzoomopenwhenlightdims,butthe

73Decimal Outline

macula.Thistinyarea,whichrepresentsonlyasmallpartofthetotalretina,isitsmostvitalpart.Itisresponsibleforyoursharpcentralvi-sion,anditiswhatpermitsnormal20/20vision;therestoftheretinareceivesperipheral,orsidevision,anddeliversanimagethatisnotsosharpasthatcomingfromthemacula.

Althoughbloodvesselscrisscrossalmosttheentireretinalsurface,themaculacannotbefedinthismanner,sincethehighlysensitivereceptorcellswouldbeobscuredbythebloodvessels.Smallcapillariesfeedintotheedgeofthemacula,buttheexchangeofoxygenandcarbondioxideinthecentertakesplacebyab-sorptionthroughcellwalls.Nature’ssolutiontotheproblemworksquitewellaslongasnothinginterfereswiththedelicateprocess,butitdoesmakethemaculamorevulnerabletodamagethan the rest of the retina.

Inadditiontoitsreceptorproperties,theretinaisabletoadapttolightanddark.Theirisperformsthetaskofadmittingorexcludinglightfromtheinteriorofyoureye,butinadditiontothis,certaincellsoftheretina—thefamiliarrodsandcones—undergophotochemicalchangestoenable you to see in various light levels. When yougofromthedaylightoutdoorsintoamoredimlylitroom,therodsinyourretinaareac-

tivated and the cones deactivated to adjust to thelowerleveloflight;whenyoureturntothesunlight, the cones are again activated, and the rods function less so you can adjust to the bright-erlight.Ittakesabitoftimeforyourretinatoadjusttothelightchange—anhourforcompletelightordarkadaptation,thoughyouwillseewellinmuchlesstime—whichiswhywhenyougoinsideonasunnydaytheroomoftenseemsquitedark for a while until your eyes adjust to the new lightlevel.Theconesarealsoresponsibleforyourabilitytoperceivecolors.

Allthevisualinformationcollectedandrecordedbyyoureyeistransmittedtothebrainbytheopticnerve,whichenterstheeyeattheback of the retina. Because there is no retinal tissueatthatpoint,thisresultsinablindspot,anareathatcannotreceivevisualmessages.Youreyedoctorcanlocateandmeasureyourblindspotbycoveringoneeyeatatimeandperform-ingaspecialtest,butundernormalconditionsyoudonotnoticeyourblindspotbecausethearea it cannot see is seen by your other eye. However, even if you use only one eye, your blindspotisnotapracticalrealitysinceitissosmall.

74

Decimal Outlineof

“Anatomy and Function of the Eyeball”by John Eden

1.0 Thetwoeyesfunctiontogethertotransmitvisualinformationtothebrain.

1.1 Thehighlyspecializedcellsintheeyeperformdifferentfunctions. 1.2 Themuscular,fibrous,connective,circulatory,andnervoussystemsinthe eyefunctionspecificallyfortheeye.

2.0 The eye consists of three distinct concentric tissue layers.

2.1 Thefirst,aprotectivelayer,servestoprotecttheeye’sdelicateinternal structures.

2.1.1Thesclera,theopaquewhiteoftheeye,protectstheeye. 2.1.2 Thecornea,thetransparentlayerthatliesinfrontofthe pupilandiris,alsoprotects. 2.1.3 Theconjunctiva,thelayerthatcoversthefrontpartofthe sclera,preventsthingsfromgettinglostintheeyes.

2.2 Thesecondlayer,theuvealtract,functionsinacirculatoryandmuscular manner.

2.2.1Theiris,theround,coloredpartoftheeye,permitsmoreorless light to enter the eye. 2.2.2 The ciliary body, the organ between the iris and the choroid, functionsmuscularly. 2.2.3 The choroid, the layer behind the ciliary body, carries blood to nourishvariouspartsoftheeye.

2.3 Thethirdandinnermostlayeroftheeye,theretina,receivesandpasses messagesalongtothebrain.

2.3.1Themacula,thetinyareaslightlytotheoutersideoftheeyeball, givesthesharpcentralvision. 2.3.2 The rods and cones, certain cells in the retina, enable vision at various light levels.

3.0 Theopticnerve,thenerveenteringtheeyeatthebackoftheretina,transmits thevisualinformationtothebrain.

Staci Young

Staci Young's title accurately reflects the subject of her outline, including the article title and the author.

Young uses com-plete sentences at each level of her out-line. This guarantees syntactical parallel-ism and makes her outline informative. Complete sentences are not, however, a requirement of the as-signment.

Remember that the rule about never sub-dividing a topic into fewer than two parts applies to the first level of the outline as well. Thus, an outline without an entry for 2.0 would be in error.

Suggestion: using boldface or under-lining to highlight important terms might make this information more accessible

Decimal Outline

75

Abstract

Writeaninformativeabstractofthearticlethatisassignedtoyouinclass.Yourabstractwillbelimitedtoeither100or150words,dependingonthelength of your source article.

Rememberthatunlikeadescriptive abstract, which describes the subjects covered in an article, an informative abstractsummarizesthesubjects,methods,andconclusionsoftheoriginal.Ineffect,itisanabbreviatedsub-stitute for the original.

Yourinformativeabstractshouldusethesamevoiceastheoriginalarticle.Inotherwords,youshouldnotspeakofthearticleinthethirdperson.

Begin by reading the article for understanding. Then reread the article, un-derliningimportantstatements.Rereadtheunderlinedmaterialandelimi-nateredundancies.Typetheremainingunderlinedmaterialintoafile.Thisis the basis for your abstract.

Becauseyourabstractisclearlyidentifiedasacompressedversionoftheoriginalarticle,theusualrestrictionsregardingplagiarismdonotapplytothisassignment.Inthisinstance,youmayincludetheexactwordsfromtheoriginalwithoutusingquotationmarks.

Determinewhethertheresultingdocumentneedstobeshortenedorlength-ened.Reviseandedityourabstractwithtwogoalsinmind: efficiency–keeptheratioofinformationtowordsashighaspossiblebyusingembed-ding,parallelism,andprecisediction;coherence–transformyourcollectionoffragmentsintoacoherentwholebylogicalsequencingandjudicioususeoftransitionalphrases.

Informative Abstract

76 Informative Abstract

The Preservation of Historic GlazedArchitectural Terra Cotta

by de Teel Patterson Tiller

This article was excerpted from a Preservation Brief published by the Technical Preservation Services Division of the Department of the Interior.

Glazedarchitecturalterracottawassignifi-cantinthedevelopmentofimportantarchitecturalidiomsinthiscountry—specifically,the“ChicagoSchool,”theHighRiseandtheHistoricorBeauxArtsstyles.Infact,glazedarchitecturalterracottaisoneofthemostprevalentmasonrybuildingma-terialsfoundintheurbanenvironmenttoday.Pop-ular between the late 19th century and the 1930s, glazedarchitecturalterracottaofferedamodular,variedandrelativelyinexpensiveapproachtowallandfloorconstruction.Itwasparticularlyadapt-abletovigorousandrichornamentaldetailing.However,withchangingvoguesinmaterialsandarchitecturalstylesandrisingproductioncosts,glazedarchitecturalterracottafellintodisfavoranddisusebythemid-20thcentury.

Today,informationonthemaintenance,reha-bilitationandreplacementofglazedarchitecturalterracottaislimited,asaresourcesofnewglazedarchitecturalterracotta.Thisreport,then,willdiscusssomeofthemajordeteriorationproblemsthatcommonlyoccurinhistoricglazedarchitec-turalterracotta,methodsofdeterminingtheextentofthatdeteriorationandrecommendationsforthemaintenance,repairandreplacementofthedete-rioratedhistoricmaterial.

WHAT IS TERRA COTTA?

Generically,thebroadcastdefinitionofterracotta refers to a high grade of weathered or aged claywhich,whenmixedwithsandorwithpulver-izedfiredclay,canbemoldedandfiredathigh

temperaturestoahardnessandcompactnessnotobtainablewithbrick.Simplyput,terracottaisanenrichedmoldedclaybrickorblock.Thewordterra cottaisderivedfromtheLatinwordterra cotta, literally,“cookedearth.”Terra-cottaclaysvarywidelyincoloraccordingtogeographyandtypes,rangingfromredandbrowntowhite.

Terra cotta was usually hollow cast in blocks thatwereopentotheback,likeboxes,withinter-nalcompartment-likestiffenerscalledwebbing.Webbingsubstantiallystrengthenedtheload-bearingcapacityofthehollowterra-cottablockwithout greatly increasing its weight.

Terra-cottablockswereoftenfinishedwithaglaze;thatis,aslipglaze(claywash)oranaque-oussolutionofmetalsaltswasbrushedorsprayedontheair-driedblockbeforefiring.Glazingchangedthecolor,imitateddifferentfinishes,andproducedarelativelyimpervioussurfaceontheweatherfaceofthefinalproduct.Theglazeontheterra-cottaunitpossessedexcellentweather-ingpropertieswhenproperlymaintained.Ithadrichcolorandprovidedahardsurfacethatwasnoteasilychippedoff.Glazingofferedunlimitedandfade-resistantcolorstothedesigner.Eventoday,fewbuildingmaterialscanmatchtheglazesonterracottafortherangeand,mostimportantly,thedurability of colors.

TYPES OF TERRA COTTA

Historicallytherearefourtypesorcategoriesof terra cotta that have enjoyed wide use in the his-toryoftheAmericanbuildingarts:1)brownstone,2)fireproofconstruction,3)ceramicveneer,and4)glazedarchitectural.

Brownstone terra cotta is the variety of this masonrymaterialusedearliestinAmericanbuild-ings(mid-tolate19thcentury).Thebrownstonetypeisadarkredorbrownblockeitherglazed(usuallyaslipglaze)orunglazed.Itwashollowcast and was generally used in conjunction with

77Informative Abstract

othermasonryinimitationofsandstone,brickorrealbrownstone.Itisoftenfoundinthearchitec-tureofRichardUpjohn,JamesRenwick,andH.H.Richardson,andisassociatedwiththeGothicandRomanesqueRevivalmovementsthroughsuchornamentaldetailingasmoldings,finialsandcapi-tals.

Fireproof construction terra cotta was exten-sivelydevelopedasadirectresultofthegrowthoftheHighRisebuildinginAmerica.Inexpensive,lightweightandfireproof,theserough-finishedhollowbuildingblockswereideallysuitedtospantheI-beanmembersinfloor,wallandceilingcon-struction.Certainvarietiesarestillinproductiontoday,althoughfireproofconstructionterracottaisnolongerwidelyemployedinthebuildingindus-try.

Ceramic veneerwasdevelopedduringthe1930s and still used extensively in building con-struction today. Unlike traditional architectural terracotta,ceramicveneerisnothollowcast,butisasitsnameimplies;aveneerofglazedceramictileisribbedonthebackinmuchthesamefashionasbathroomtile.Ceramicveneerisfrequentlyattachedtoagridofmetaltiesthathasbeenan-chored to the building.

Glazed architectural terra cotta was the mostcomplexdevelopmentofterracottaasamasonrybuildingmaterialinthiscountry.Thehollowunitswerehandcastinmoldsorcarvedinclayandheavilyglazed(ofteninimitationofstone)andfired.Sometimescalled“architecturalceramics,”glazedarchitecturalterracottawasdevelopedandrefinedthroughoutthefirstthirdof the 20th century and has been closely associ-ated with the architecture of Cass Gilbert, Louis Sullivan,andDanielH.Burnham,amongothers.SignificantexamplesinthiscountryincludetheWoolworthbuilding(1913)inNewYorkCityandtheWrigleyBuilding(1912)inChicago.

Late 19th and early 20th century advertising

promotedthedurable,imperviousandadapt-ablenatureofglazedarchitecturalterracotta.Itprovidedforcrisp,vigorousmodelingofarchi-tecturaldetailsasthemoldswerecastdirectlyfromclayprototypeswithoutlossofrefinement.Glazedarchitecturalterracottacouldaccom-modatesubtlenuancesofmodeling,textureandcolor.Comparedtostone,itwaseasiertohandle,quicklysetandmoreaffordabletouse.Thoughttobefireproofandwaterproof,itwasreadilyadaptabletostructuresofalmostanyheight.Thecostofmoldingtheclayandglazingandfiringtheblocks,whencomparedtocarvingstone,rep-resentedaconsiderablesaving,especiallywhencastswereusedinmodularfashion—thatis,repeatedoverandoveragain.Maintenanceofthefiredandglazedsurfacewaseasy;itneverneededpaintandperiodicwashingsrestoreditsoriginalappearance.

Withthepassageoftime,manyofthephe-nomenalclaimsoftheearlyproponentsofglazedarchitecturalterracottahaveproventrue.Therearemanyexamplesthroughoutthiscountrythatattesttothedurabilityandpermanenceofthismaterial.Yetpresent-daydeteriorationofothersignificantglazedarchitecturalterra-cottare-sourcesultimatelybeliethoseclaims.Why?His-torically, the lack of foresight or understanding aboutthenatureandlimitationsofthematerialhas,inmanyinstances,allowedseriousdeteriora-tionproblemstooccurthatareonlynowbecom-ingapparent.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GLAZED ARCHI-TECTURAL TERRA COTTA AS A BUILD-ING MATERIAL

Glazedarchitecturalterracottahasmanymaterialpropertiessimilartobrickorstone.Italsohasmanymaterialpropertiesradicallydiffer-entfromthosetraditionalmasonrymaterials.Itisthosedifferencesthatmustbeconsideredforabetterunderstandingofsomeofthematerialcharacteristicsofglazedarchitecturalterracotta

78 Informative Abstract

whenitisusedasabuildingmaterial.

Difficult to Identify

Glazedarchitecturalterracottaprobablycomprisesoneofthelargestifnotthelargestconstituentmaterialinsomeofoururbanenvi-ronmentstoday.However,theinfinitevarietiesofglazinghavehiddenthisfactfromthecasualobserver.Oneoftheattractivefeaturesofglazedarchitecturalterracottainitstimewasthatitcouldbefinished(glazed)inexactimitationofstone.Infact,manybuildingownersandarchi-tectsalikeareoftensurprisedtodiscoverthatwhattheypresumedtobeagraniteorlimestonebuildingisglazedarchitecturalterracottainstead.

Two Separate Systems

Historically,glazedarchitecturalterracottahasbeenusedinassociationwithtwospecificandverydifferenttypesofbuildingsystems:aspartofatraditionalload-bearingmasonrywallinbuildingsofmodestheight,andasacladding materialinHighRiseconstruction.Ascladding,glazedarchitecturalterracottaoftenutilizedanextensivemetalanchoringsystemtoattachitorto“hangit”ontoawallframingsystemorsuper-structure.Inthefirstinstancetheanchoringwaslimited;inthesecond,theanchoringwasoftenextensiveandcomplex.Likewise,inthefirstinstance,deteriorationhasgenerallybeenlimited.However,whereglazedarchitecturalterracottawasusedascladding,particularlyinhighriseconstruction,present-daydeteriorationandfailureare often severe.

Complexity of Deterioration

Deteriorationis,bynatureofthedesign,infinitelycomplex-particularlywhenglazedar-chitectural terra cotta has been used as a cladding material.Deteriorationcreatesa“domino”-likebreakdownofthewholesystem:glazedunits,mortar,metalanchors,andmasonrybackfill.In

noothermasonrysystemismaterialfailurepoten-tiallysocomplicated.

Poor Original Design

Therootofdeteriorationinglazedarchitectur-alterra-cottasystemsoftenliesinamisapplicationofthematerial.Historically,glazedarchitecturalterracottawasviewedasahighlywaterproofsystemneedingneitherflashing,weepholes,nordrips.Thissupposition,however,hasprovedtobeuntrue,asseriouswater-relatedfailurewasevidentearlyinthelifeofmanyglazedarchitecturalterra-cotta clad or detailed buildings....

79Informative Abstract

Suzanne Lippard's title fully identifies the subject of her abstract, including article title and author.

Suzanne is able to use the exact words of the orig-inal–"an enriched molded clay brick or stone"–without using quotation marks because this entire paragraph is presented as a compressed version of Tiller's article.

Subordination, series, and other embedding tech-niques are used to increase the ef-ficiency of the prose.

Suggestion: This abstract still needs work on coher-ence. The sentences do not all connect smoothly with each other.

Informative Abstractof

“The Preservation of HistoricGlazed Terra Cotta”

by de Teel Patterson Tiller

Glazedarchitecturalterracotta,anenrichedmoldedclaybrickorstone,isoneofthemostwidelyusedmasonrybuildingmaterialsintheUnitedStates.Usuallyhollowcastblockswithinternalwebbingforstrengthening,terracottaisglazed,givingitexcellentweatheringproperties.Fourtypesareusedtoday:brownstone,fireproofconstruction,ceramicveneer,andglazedarchitectural.Thedurable,impervious,andadaptablenatureoftheglazedarchitecturalterracottawaspromotedinthelate1800sandearly1900s.However,alackofinformationandunderstandingofthemasonryhasledtosomedeteriorationproblems.Glazedarchitecturalterracottaisverydifficulttoidentifybecauseofitssimilaritiestobrickandstone.Ithasbeenusedspecificallyasload-bearingmasonryandascladdingmaterialinhigh-rise

construction,wheredeteriorationhasbeenmoresevere.Thedeteriorationproblemiscomplicatedandoftenisconnectedtothemisapplicationofthematerial

Suzanne Lippard

80

Apply

Write aletterofapplicationandarésuméinresponsetooneoftheadver-tisementssuppliedbyyourinstructor.Youmustusetherealfactsofyoureducationandexperience.

Yourlettermightusethefour-paragraphformatoutlinedbelow:

1. Anintroductoryparagraphthatidentifiesyourselfandstatesyourinterestinthespecificposition.Youmayalsoindicateyoursourceinformationregardingthepositionorthepersonwhore-ferredyoutotheposition.

2. Abodyparagraphinwhichyoubrieflydiscussyoureducation.Trytorelateyoureducationtothespecificneedsoftheemployer.

3. Abodyparagraphinwhichyoubrieflydiscussyourworkexperi-ence.Trytorelateyourworkexperiencestothespecificneedsoftheemployer.Ifyouconsideryourworkexperiencestrongerthanyour educational background, discuss it before you discuss your education.

4. Abriefconcludingparagraphinwhichyouindicateyouravail-abilityforandinterestinaninterview.Includeyourtelephonenumber.

Yourrésuméshoulduseheadings,underlining,boldface,indentation,andcarefulsequencingtocreateanaccessible, organized, and readable document.Yourrésuméshouldincludecontact information, educational background, and work experience.Youmaychoosetoincludesectionsonreferences,specialskills,awards,orcommunityinvolvement.

Twobasictypesofrésumésarereverse-chronological and functional. The reverse-chronologicallistseducationalbackgroundandworkexperienceinreversechronologicalorder–themostrecentfirst.Thiscreatesanarrativeofyourexperience.Thefunctionalrésuméemphasizesskillsandaccomplishments.Itisparticularlyusefuliftherearegapsinyourworkexperienceoryouarechangingcareers.Manysuccessfulrésumésarehybrids,combiningreverse-chronologicalandfunctionalelements.

Job Application

81Job Application

Electronic Applications

Theexamplesofapplicationlettersandrésumésonthefollowingspagesusefictiousnamesandinformation.AlloftheotherexamplesinthiseditionofArkansas Tech WritingareactualassignmentswrittenbyTechstudentsinsections of ENGL 2053 Technical Writing.

Thisassignmentsasksyoutocreateaprintedletterandrésumé,buttodayapplicationsareoftencompletedandsubmittedonline.ServicessuchasLinkedinareimportanttools.Tech'sOfficeofCareerServicescanhelpstudentswithrésumépreparationandprovideusefuladviceregardingjobinterviewsandsearches.TheCareerServicesOfficeislocatedinSuite229oftheDocBryanStudentServicesCenter.Theycanbereachedbyphoneat(479)968-0278andonlineathttp://www.atu.edu/career/

CareerServicesencouragesyoutocreateaLinkedinprofileandconsiderthefollowing guidelines:

1. Startwithaprofessionalphoto2. Makeyourheadlinestandout3. Fillouttheexperiencefieldwithyourmostrecentworkhistory4. Completeasmuchoftheprofileasyoucan5. Onlyaddpeopleyouknow.

82

110EastFifthSt. Russellville,AR72801 April22,2016

Mr.JamesPurdy,DirectorBoyScoutsCouncilofArkansas1247MenafeeDriveHotSprings,AR72798

DearMr.Purdy:

IamwritingyouinregardtoyourrecentopeningforanAdministrativeAssistanttotheDirector.IwillgraduatefromArkansasTechUniversityinMay,2017,withaBachelorofSciencedegreeinEmergencyAdministrationandMangement.

MystudiesatArkansasTechhaveallowedmetodevelopabroadrangeoftechnicalandinterpersonalskills.Inadditiontodevelopingmyoralandwrittencommunicationskillsandstudyingcrisismanagmentandpreparedness,Ihavecompletedaseriesofcertifications,includingtheFEMAProfessionalDevelopmentSeries.

MyworkwiththeTechPublicSafetyOfficeandmyexternshipwithBestOrganizationEverhavegivenmeimportantpracticalexperiencewithworkingeffectivelywitharangeofclientsandcreatinginformativedocuments.Offcampus,myworkasavolunteerfirefighterhastaughtmeresponsibilityandthebenefitsofteamwork.

IhavebeenactivelyinvolvedinBoyScoutssince2008,servingoncampstaffforsixyearsandasAssistantCampDirectorforthepasttwoyears.IamcurrentlyanAssistantScoutmasterforPack248inRussellville,Arkansas.

Ifeelthatmytrainingandworkexperience,combinedwithoversixyearsofScouting,couldbevaluabletotheCouncilinachievingitsfuturegoals.Ihaveenclosedacopyofmyrésuméandlookforwardtotalkingtoyouinperson.

Sincerely,

JosephStudentenclosure:

This example uses the modified block format for this letter (p. 166).

The purpose of his letter is stated at the beginning.

This example uses three body para-graphs. In addition to paragraphs on education and work experience, a sepa-rate paragraph on the scouting experi-ence is added due to its special relevance to this position.

The letter con-cludes with an assertion of interest in the position and encouraging his reader to consider an interview.

Joseph Student

Job Application

83

This sample résumé is primarily functional, making use of bulleted lists.

A small font is used in order to fit all of the information on one page.

This résumé con-centrates on selling abilities rather than providing a neutral summation of bio-graphical informa-tion.

This résumé does not include refer-ences. Most career advisors suggest they are uneccessary as they are included in most job applica-tion forms, but it is advisable to have a second page of refer-ences available when they are needed. See the second applica-tion example.

Job Application

Joseph student110EastFifthSt.;Russellville,AR72801;479.968.8019;joe.student@gmail.com

QUALIFICATIONS

• MicrosoftOffice • Oral&WrittenCommunication• DisasterPreparedness • OperationsContinuity• SafetyPolicies&Procedures • GISMapping• CrisisManagement

EDUCATIONBachelor of Science in Emergency Administration and ManagementAnticipatedMay2017ArkansasTechUniversity,Russellville,AR

• CriminalJusticeminor • Dean’sList,GPA3.9• EAMStudentoftheYear • President,AssociationofEmergencyManagers

PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCEStudent Worker Aug.2013–presentPublicSafety,ArkansasTechUniversity,Russellville,AR

• EditedcampusEmergencyProcedureGuideandParkingMapfornewschoolyear.• Checkedautomatedcarregistrationsystemandmailedtagstostudentsandstaff.

Externship June2014-Aug.2014BestOrganizationEver,Hope,AR

• Draftedemergencyevacuationplansanddistributedmaterialstoofficestaff.• Assistedwithstafftrainingforresponsetofire,extremeweather,andotherunanticipatedemergencies.• Developedtrackingsystemtoimproveefficiencyandcommunicationbetweendepartments.

COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENTVolunteer Firefighter Oct.2013-presentPopeCountyVolunteerFireDepartment,Russellville,AR

• Respondtocallsason-callfirefighterforcommunityoutsideRussellvillecitylimits.Assistant Scoutmaster and Assistant Camp DirectorPopeCountyBoyScoutCouncil,Russellville,AR

TRAINING AND CERTIFICATIONS

• FirstAid/CPR,2012–present • LEADAcademy,2014• ArkansasCLEST(LawEnforcement) • FirstPersonShooter• BasicDisasterLifeSupport • EmergencyMedicalTechnician

FEMA Professional Development Series Certifications

• EmergencyPlanning(IS-35.B) • LeadershipandInfluence(IS-240.A)• FundamentalsofManagement(IS-230.C) • EffectiveCommunication(IS-242.A)• DecisionMaking&ProblemSolving(IS-241.A)

84

14 Parkway Blvd.Russellville,Ar72801 May18,2016

Ms.JenniferBordenPersonnelDirectorResortsInternational,IncKansas City, Kansas 70254

DearMissBorden:

Isawyouradvertisementforajuniormanagementposition,andIwishtoapplyforthejob.Enclosedismyresumealongwiththreereferencesforyourconsideration.IwillgraduatefromAraknsasTechUnviersity,withaBachelorofSciencedegreeinBusinessAdministrationinMayof2017.

Ihaveoversixyearsofexperiencesupervisingstaff.AtthetimeofmyhonorabledischargefromtheU.S.Navy,Iwastheleadpettyofficerovertwelvemenandwomen.ThelastfouryearsIhaveemployedasmanyas22employeesatatime,andfeelIhavelearnedtheskillsofmotivationandteamwork.Ialsohavefouryearsexperienceinmanagementinoperatingasmallbusiness,increasingprofitsandrevenuesforfiveconsecutiveyears.

IstartedmydegreebytakingonlineclasseswhileIwasstillservingintheNavy.Sincemydischarge,Ihavecompletedclassesrequiredformydegreewhileworkingfull-timeandstartingtoraiseafamily.In2015,IwasselectedtobeoneofthepresentersatArkansasTech'sSmallBusinessForum,attendedbybusinessleadersfromtheRiverValley. Ifeelthatmymaturity,workexperience,anddedicationwouldbeaconsiderableassettoResortsInternationalandthenewBlueLakeResort.Ilookforwardtoaninterviewandhopetohearfromyousoon.Youcanreachmeat(501)967-8019after4:00p.m.ifyouhaveanyquestions. Sincerely,

SallyStudent

enclosure:

This example uses the block format (p. 167).

The letter clearly states the purpose at the start.

This letter places work experience first because it is the strongest part of the application. The letter emphasizes management and supervision experi-ence rather than nuclear technology knowledge to fit this position.

The letter makes an effort to connect her qualifications to the needs of the employer.

The letter's tone is assured and staight-forward.

Sally Student

Job Application

85

SallyStudent14 Parkway Blvd.

Russellville,Ar72801HomePhone479967-8019sally.student@suddenlink.net

WORKHISTORY

2012-Present Co-owner/operator, Positive Fabrication, Inc. • Overseepayroll,purchasing,accountspayableandreceivable. • Directlyinvolvedinhiring,quarterlystatementsandplanning.

2008-2012 Reactor Operator, USS Arkansas (CGN-41) U.S.Navy • Operatedanddidmaintenanceona75megawattreactor. • ResponsiblefortraininginReactorControlsDivision. • Leadpettyofficerfortwelvemenandwomen. • HonorablydischargedasanE-5.

2005-2007 Sales Represeantative,ArkansasPaper • ResponsibleforwholesalemarketinginWesternArkansas • Preparedmonthlyreportsforcorporateoffice EDUCATION

2011-2017 BachelorofScienceinBusinessAdministration(anticipated) Arkansas Tech University • VicePresident,BusinessAdminsitrationClub • Presenter,ArkansasTechSmallBusinessForum,2015.

2007-2008 ReactorOperatorsLicense,NavyNuclearPowerSchool,Orlando,Fl.2007-2008 ElectronicTechnician,NavyNuclearField“A”School,Orlando,Fl.

SPECIALSKILLS

• MicrosoftOffice • Experiencewithaccountingandbookkeeping • Experiencewithpersonnelmanagement

Job Application

This résumé in-cludes a photograph. This is not a required element, but is becoming more com-mon as employers use online resources such as Linked in.

This is an example of a reverse chrono-logical résumé that appends a short sec-tion on skills.

The bulleted lists in the work history sec-tion do not attempt to list all activities, but emphasize those that seem most signficiant and relevant.

The names, positions, phone numbers, and email addresses of three references are in-cluded on a second page that can be used when appropriate.

86

SallyStudent14 Parkway Blvd.

Russellville,Ar72801HomePhone479967-8019sally.student@suddenlink.net

REFERENCES

Dr.FeliciaCramdonProfessorofBusinessAdminsitrationArkansas Tech UniversityRussellville,AR72801(479)964-0393fcramdon@atu.edu

CaptainArnoldManfredU.S.Navyretired253 Highway 27Danville,AR72833(479)264-8413captain.arnold@gmail.com

Mr.FrederickGarethPresidentFirst Bank of Yell County912FrontStreetDardanelle,AR72834(479)967-2151fgareth@yellbank.com

Job Application

Be sure that all of the individuals listed on a references page have agreed to recommend you and agreed to have the contact information you list distributed to employers.

87

Recommend

Aspartofagroupyouwillbeaskedtoreviewanumberofapplicationlettersand select the best candidate.

Thegroupshoulddiscusstheapplicationsandreachaconsensusregardingthestrongestcandidateandthatcandidate’sgreatestassets.

Thegroupwillwriteasinglememoaddressedtotheinstructor.Inthememo,thegroupwill:

1. brieflydescribethesituation(asinglesentencemightdo);

2. clearlystatetheirrecommendation;

3. describe in detailsupportingreasonsfortheirrecommendation.Thisshouldnotincludedisparagingcommentsregardingthecandi-dateswhoarenotbeingrecommended.

FORMAT REQUIREMENT:

Thememoshouldlistthenamesofev-eryoneinthegroup,andeachmembershouldintialhisorhername.

Recommendation Memorandum

88

MEMORANDUM

TO: Dr.CarlBrucker,Head English and Foreign Languages

FROM: VickySmith,RexGarner,andMaryKeener

DATE: August13,1986

SUBJECT: Recommendation to Hire Jim Brooks as Administrative Assistant

OnAugust13,1986,wereviewedtheapplicationsforadministrativeassis-tant.Althoughallapplicantshadsomeexcellentqualifications,JimBrooks’communicationskillswerethedecidingfactorinrecommendinghimforthisposition.

Hiseducationalbackgroundincludesabachelor'sdegreewithteachercerti-ficationinsocialstudies,andheisawaitingcertificationinEnglish.Hisap-parentsuccessinexpressinghimselfwellenoughtoattainhonorsinhisfieldatArkansasTechUniversityandthecourseswhicharerequiredforteachingcertificationdistinguishhimfromtheothercandidatesintheareaofcommu-nicationskills.Theeffectivepresentationofhisapplicationletteralsodem-onstratedhisabilitytocommunicate.

Althoughnotasstrongassomeoftheotherapplicantsinsupervisoryskills,Brookshashadsomeleadershipexperience.Brookswasalsotheonlyap-plicantwholistedanyfamiliaritywiththeScoutingprogramorwhoindicatedanobjectivetoworkinthefieldofcommunications.

Overall,Brooksimpressedusasthemostqualifiedofthefourcandidatesfortheposition.WerecommendthathebeplacedasAdministrativeAssistantandbeevaluatedinsixmonthstoseeifhehasdevelopedthenecessarysuper-visory skills.

Vicky Smith, Rex Garner, and Mary Kenner’s memo has a clearly defined subject line that accurately forecasts the content.

At the start, the memo briefly identi-fies the situation.

Sufficient support for the group’s recommendation is supplied, but more specific details would be helpful.

VS RG MK

Recommendation Memorandum

89

Present

Createawell-organized,logicalpresentationusingPowerpoint(orsimilarsoftware).Useaminimumoften(10)slidesandamaximumoftwenty(20)slides.Makesurethattheformattingandlookoftheslidesremainsconsistent.ThisassignmentwillfamiliarizeyouwithbasicPowerpointtechniques.Otherpurposesmaydependonthetopictheteach-erchooses.ThePowerpointslideshowmaybeanassignmenttofurtherexplaintheProcessAnalysisorsharetheresultsoftheResearchReportwiththeclass.Anotherpossibleassignmentmaybetocreateapresentationaboutyourselforatopicofspecialinteresttoyou.Thefirstslideofthepresentationmustincludeyourname,thecoursenameandsectionnumber,andthetitleofthepresenta-tion.Thesecondslideisaprevieworoutlineofthepresenta-tion.Youmustincludeatleasttwo(2)imagesorclipartitems.Youmustalsohaveatleastone(1)animationeffectintheslideshow.Youmayalsoinclude sound effects, video, word art, links to ex-ternalfiles,andoriginalart/images.Ifyouuseex-ternalfilesorlinks,pleasebesuretheyareincludedintheoverallfilefolderyouturninforthisassignment.Iftheclassmeetsonline,theteachermayaskforyoutonarrateyourpresentationortouseMicrosoftProducer(combinesthePPTandvideo/audiointooneshow).Forclassesthatmeetinabrick-and-mortarsetting,studentsmayturnintheassign-mentviaaflashdriveorCDorsomeotherapprovedmethod.Forcoursesthatmeetonline,theassignmentmustbesubmittedelectronicallyusingBlackboardorsometypeofFTPfunction.YouwillbesubmittingthepresentationastheoriginalPower-Pointpresentationsomakesurethatallofthefilesusedarekeptinonefolder.Makesurethatyourfolderislabeledwiththefirstinitialofyourfirstname,underscore,thenyourlastname(e.g,JaneDoe’spresentationwouldbesavedasJ_Doe.pptinthefolderJ_Doe).SearchthewebfortipsoncreatingeffectivePPTslideshows.Common Tips:• Rehearsewhenusingthetimedslideshowfeatureand/orifthereisatimelimit.• Avoidusingtoomanywordsontheslide.• Checkfontsize(readability)andcolorcontrasts.• Makesuretheimagesyouuseareofenoughqualityandarenotblurry.• Avoidreadingfromtheslide;employkeywords/concepts.• Considerputtingyourinitialsinoneofthelowercornersofeachslidetoshow

your audience that you authored the slide.See"BasicPowerpointCommunicationRatingSheet"onpage144.

Presentation

90 Presentation

Slide 1 – The first slide includes important introduc-tory information: the title, the presenter’s name, and course. In some cases, this page would also include the date of the presentation.

Slide 2 – The second slide pro-vides an outline of the presentation. This overview lists the order in which the presenter will proceed through the presentation. Ashley animates bulleted lists by having items appear on mouse click.

Slide 3 – This slide provides the defini-tion of Leukemia that the presenter will use throughout the slideshow. As this information is com-monly available, no citation is needed as long as Ashley is not using someone else's words. She should, however, consider including a source for the images used in the presentation.

Slide 4 – Provides a comparison be-tween healthy cells and those attacked by Leukemia.

91Presentation

Slide 5 – Lists some potential causes of Leukemia.

Slide 6 – Further defines Leukemia by classification. Ashley emphasizes impor-tant terminology by using different text color.

Slide 7 – Speci-fies the four types of Leukemia.

92 Presentation

Slide 8 – Devel-ops the first type of Leukemia (AML). This slide begins a conistent pattern of a text slide followed by an illustration.

Slide 9 – Image of AML Leukemia-attacked cells.

Slide 10 – Devel-ops the next type of Leukemia (ALL).

93Presentation

Slide 11 – Image of ALL Leukemia-attacked cells.

Slide 12 – Devel-ops the third type of Leukemia presenter listed (CML).

Slide 13 – Images of CML Leukemia-attacked cells.

Suggestion: Ashley might have modified her graphic so that the four types were labeled by the ap-propriate image.

94 Presentation

Slide 14 – Develops the fourth type of Leukemia listed (CLL).

Slide 15 – Image of CLL Leukemia-attacked cells.

Slide 16 – Discus sion of the treatment available for the four types of Leukemia and concludes the presentation as promised in the outline. This “final” slide not only marks the conclusion of the visual presentation, but it also invites audience interaction through questions and comments.

95Research Report

Writeaformalresearchreportwith1000-2000wordsofbodytext.Yourreportmustcontainthepartslistedbelow:

1.titlepage. 2. letteroftransmittal. 3. table of contents. 4. tableoffigures. 5. informativeabstract. 6. 1000-2000wordsofbodytext(4-8pages)utilizingappropriate

andconsistentsystemofheadings. 7. atleastonegraphorchart. 8. atleastonetable. 9. glossary(ifneeded). 10. appendices(ifdesired). 11. list of references.

Youmayselectanytopic,butselectingatopicthatfitsyourinterestsormajormaymakeiteasierforyoutoputforththeeffortrequiredtoproduceadocu-mentofwhichyouwillbeproud.Onceyouhaveselectedyourtopic,trytolimitittoanappropriatelengthforthisassignment.Often,readinganentryinageneralreferenceworkisanefficientwaytogetanoverviewofyoursubjectthatcanhelpyouidentifythespecificareaofyourgreatestinterest.

Researchmustbeapartofyourproject,butyoumaysupplementyourreviewofrelevantliteraturewithdatayougatheryourself.Yourreportmustlistaminimumofthreereferences,andeachofthesereferencesmustbecitedinthebodyofyourtext.Youmayuseanyofthefourdocumentationmethodsdescribedinthetextbookbeginningonpage206.

Ofcourse,youwillconscientiouslyavoidplagiarism.Thisreportmaybesub-mittedtoTurnitin.com,soreadPlagiarismonpages202-203.

Ingeneral,youcanusethefollowingreportasamodel,buteachpartofthereportwillbediscussedinclass.

Thisprojectextendsoverseveralweeks.Anearlystartwillallowyoutoshowmedraftsordiscussideasbeforethereportmustbehandedin.Itwillalsogiveyoutimetoacquiresourcesthatmayneedtobeorderedthroughinterli-brary loan.

Research

96 Research Report

HowDoInsectsFly?

Preparedfor

Dr.CarlBruckerTechnicalWritingInstructorArkansas Tech University

byGregD.Bobel

December12,1985

It is important that your title clearly indicate the content of the report. It is more important to be informative than to write a “catchy" title.

The precise spacing of information on the title page may vary, but it should not be crowded to the top or the bottom of the page.

97Research Report

ii A.T.U.Box843 Arkansas Tech University Russellville,Arkansas72801

December12,1985

Dr.CarlBruckerDepartmentofEnglishArkansas Tech UniversityRussellville,AR72801

DearDr.Brucker:

ThefollowingresearchreportwasrequestedbyyouforthepurposeofmyfulfillingawrittenassignmentinthecourseTechnicalCommunications.Asyouhaveseenfrommytitlepage,Ihavechosenthesubjectofinsectflightformyreport.Iwasinspiredtowritethisreporttofurthermypreviousknowledgeaboutinsects.Furthermore,myminorinwildlifemanagementhasbeenmademorecompletebytheinformationIobtainedinwritingthisreport.

Ipresentafairlyspecificoutlineofinsectflightandflightprocessesinthisreport.Throughout,Iusenight-flyingmothsasamainsubjectofdiscus-sion.However,therearesomanyspeciesofinsectsthatitisdifficultinsuchareporttopresentanoverallviewwithoutacertainamountofgeneral-izing.Itisimpossible,insuchacomplicatedfieldasentomology,tostudytheflightprocessesofanyinsectandnotfindexceptionsbetweendifferentspecies.IfIhavesucceededingivingmyreadersageneralknowledgeofthewayinsectsfly,andifIhavestimulatedthemtomarvelattheworldofthesecreatures,thisissufficient.

Sincerely,

GregD.Bobel

Front matter is numbered in small roman numerals, beginning with the title page. If you are using Microsoft Word, entering a non-continuous section break at the end of the front matter will allow you to number your body text in Arabic numerals and restart the page count at one.

The letter of transmittal gives you an opportunity to customize your report for different readers. By emphasizing the topics of special interest to individual readers, you increase the usefulness of your report.

A letter of transmittal should explain the purpose of the report. It also provides you with an opportunity to explain any particular problems that limited or redirected your research.

Greg Bobel's letter uses the modified block format displayed on page 166.

Greg D. Bobel

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iiiTable of Contents

Letter of Transmittal ............................................................................................... iiTable of Figures ......................................................................................................ivAbstract .....................................................................................................................v

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................1

Description and History .........................................................................................1Statement of Purpose ...............................................................................................1Target Audience .......................................................................................................1Scope ......................................................................................................................1

BECOMING AIRBORNE.......................................................................................2

The Airfoil .................................................................................................................2Application of the Bernoulli Principle ..................................................................2

WING LOADING ...................................................................................................3

Pressure of the Upper and Lower Surfaces of a Wing ..........................................3Bird and Insect Aerodynamics ...............................................................................5

ANGLE OF ATTACK .............................................................................................5

The Lift Overcoming the Weight of the Flying Object .........................................5Maintaining Flight by Use of Stalling Speed and Degree of Pitch of the Wing .............................................................................................................6High-Speed Vibration and Changeable Pitch of Wings ......................................7

HOW WINGS ARE ATTACHED ..........................................................................7

Wing Attachment Plates ........................................................................................8

WING MOVEMENT .............................................................................................9

RESILIN, THE “RUBBER” OF INSECTS ........................................................10

FLYING HEIGHT .................................................................................................11

CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 11

Works Cited ..........................................................................................................12

All heading entries in the table of contents must appear in the text exactly as they are presented in the table of contents.

In this report, Greg creates a simple two-level system of headings, using capitalization to distinguish the primary and secondary levels.

It is not necessary to represent every heading in your report in the table of contents, but it is usually helpful to do so.

Leader dots help the reader line up page numbers on the page. In your word processing program you can set a right-justified tab with automatic leader dots.

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iv

Table of Figures and Tables

Figure 1: Comparison of a 10-degree angle of attack (top) and 20-degree angle of attack ...........................................3

Table 1: Wing-load ratios and lift of several moth species at three different degrees of wing pitch ................................4

Figure 2: Angle of attack ....................................................................5

Figure 3: Relationship between the weight of four different species of moths and lift for various angles of attack ....6

Figure 4: A corn earworm moth’s wing hinge ................................8

Figure 5: Insect-wing mechanics ......................................................9

Greg Bobel includes many figures in his report. Note that the lengthy, informative titles are written out here exactly as they appear in the text.

Table and figures are listed in the order in which they appear in the text. They are numbered in separate sequences; thus, this report includes Figure 1 and Table 1.

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vAbstract

Theevolutionofinsectsdiffersfromthatofotherflyinganimalsinthatthethorax(middlesection)oftheinsectbodyhasevolvedtoprovidethemechanismforflight,butnotattheexpenseofitsabilitytomovethelegsalso.

Fossilinsectsoftwohundredmillionyearsagohadtergallobes;thesewereflattenedstructuresprojectingsidewaysfromthetopofthethoraxwhichservedasglidingorgans,anditisbelievedthatthewingsofmodern-dayinsectsdevelopedfromjustsuchlobes.Ifthisideaiscorrect,thenonemaylookattheselobesastrueairfoils,orfixedwings,wheretheairfoilisthatportionofaflyingobjectthatpro-duces lift.

TheliftingactionofawingisexplainedbestbyBernoulli'sprinciple.Thisstatesthatthepressurestream,whetherliquidorair,isleastwherethevelocityisgreatest,andthepressurevariesinverselyasthesquareofthevelocity.Efficientairfoilsaredesignedwithcurveduppersurfacesandflatundersurfaces.Thusairflowingovertheuppersurfaceisforcedtotravelfartherandasaresultitsvelocityisincreased.Thisincreasecausesadecreaseinpressureabovethewing.Theairthatflowsbeneaththewinghaslessdistancetotravelandisslowedupslightly,result-inginanincreaseintheairpressureonthelowersurfaceofthewing.Thegreaterpressurebelowforcesthewingupwardintotheregionoflesserpressure(partialvacuum)above,andthetotalliftproducedisequaltothedifferencebetweenthetwo.

Anotheraeronauticaltermthatmustbeconsideredwhendiscussingtheairfoilisthe“angleofattack.”Theflatbottomofawingiscalledthechord,andthistermisappliedtothedistancefromtheleadingedgetothetrailingedgeofawing.Theangleofattackistheanglebetweenthechordandthehorizontalflightpathoftheflyingobject.

Abasicprincipleofflightstatesthattheliftincreasesinalmostdirectpropor-tiontotheincreaseintheangleofattack,uptoacertainangleknownastheangleofmaximumlift,orstallingangle.Withoutexceedingthestallingangle,levelflightsmaybeattainedatthepointwhereliftovercomestheweightoftheflyingobject.

Theinsectwingisnotjustafixedairfoilbutratherissomethinglikeahelicopterbladeofchangeablepitch,wherepitchisthewingangleatasingleinstantofflighttime.Thewingdoesnotflaplikeabird’swingbutvibratesathighfrequencies,andthepitchandangleofattackchangecontinuallyduringthesevibrations.Thehigh-speedvibrationandtwistingmovementsoftheinsectwingrequirealmostunbeliev-ablecontrolofitsmusclesandanextremelyefficientmethodbywhichthewingsareattached to the body.

This is an infor-mative abstract because it attempts to summarize the information of the report, rather than merely list the sub-jects covered as a descriptive abstract would.

Suggestion: The abstract is the most often read and therefore the single most important part of a formal report; nevertheless, Greg Bobel's abstract is too long for the overall length of his report.

101

Although the first page of body text is page 1, the num-ber is usually not included until the second page.

The body of Greg Bobel's report is divided into two-levels. The level of a particular section heading is typo-graphically clear.

Thoughout the report Greg uses the MLA documen-tation style, giving the author's last name and the page number in a paren-thetical reference following the cited material. It would be more typical for a biological paper of this sort to use APA or CSE/CBE style (author-year).

Specific sections on purpose, audi-ence, and scope are not required, but the introduction of any formal research report should supply the reader with necessary background and an understanding of

INTRODUCTION

Description and History

Theevolutionofinsectsdiffersfromthatofotherflyinganimalsinthattheirwingshavebeenaddedtotheirearthboundlegs.Suchisnotthecasewith birds and bats, which have lost the ordinary use of their front legs as theseevolvedforflight.Thethorax(middlesection)oftheinsectbodyhasevolvedtoprovidethemechanismforinsectflight,butnotattheexpenseofitsabilitytomovethelegsalso.Theprayingmantisisanexcellentflier,butithasnottradeditsflyingabilityforitsfrontlegs,whichareusedforbothwalkingandgrasping.Itseemsthatinsomerespectsinsectshavechangedmoreeffectivelythanthevertebrates,andthisaccountsfortheirsuccessinsurvivingoverthevastagesofevolution(Burns66).

Allinsectsdonothavewings,andmanyhavewingsmodifiedintootherstructures.FossilinsectsfromtheCarboniferousperiod(twohundredmillionyearsago)havefullydevelopedwings,buttheyalsohavesmallflattenedlobesprojectingsidewaysfromthetopofthethorax.Thesearecalledtergallobes,anditisbelievedthatthewingshavedevelopedfromjustsuchlobes(Burns70).

Somescientiststhinkthat,inancientinsects,thelobesservedasglidingorgansthatallowedtheanimaltolaunchitselfintolong,steepglides(Burns62).Ifthisideaiscorrect,thenonemaylookattheselobesastrueairfoils,orfixedwings.Inordertounderstandhowinsectsfly,onemustfirstunderstandtheprinciplesbehindtheworkingofanairfoil;forthemoderninsectwingis,afterall,amovableformofsuchastructure(Bobson24).

Statement of Purpose

Thebasisofthisreportwasthequestion,“Howdoinsectsfly?”Toanswerthisquestion,severallibrarymaterialswerecompiledandinterpretedtoformulateanin-depthanswer.

Target Audience

TheprimaryaudienceconsistsofDr.CarlBruckerandinterestedfacultymembersamongtheDepartmentofEnglish.Thesecondaryaudiencemayincludestudentsinterestedinthestudyofinsects(entomology).

Research Report

102 Research Report

the rationale of the project.

Technical terms such as airfoil and Bernoulli's Prin-ciple should be explained unless you are writing for a techni-cally sophisticated audience. This explanation can be incorporated into your text, as it is here, or gathered into a glossary.

Greg forces a page break early so his Figure 1 will not be sepa-rated from its label and source notes.

2Scope

Thereportcoversonemajortopic:Anexplanationoftheflightprocessof insects.

BECOMING AIRBORNE

The Airfoil

Anairfoilisthatportionofaflyingobjectthatproduceslift.Thewingsofanairplanearefixedairfoils,thoseofbirdsandinsectsaremovableairfoils.Theforcesthatactonthewingsofaplanearethesameasthosethatgetakiteairborne(Huskins11).

Application of the Bernoulli Principle

TheliftingactionofawingisexplainedbestbyBernoulli'sprinciple.Thisstatesthatthepressureofanyfluidstream,whetherliquidorair,isleastwherethevelocityisgreatest,andthepressurevariesinverselyasthesquareofthevelocity.Efficientairfoilsaredesignedwithcurveduppersurfacesandflatundersurfaces.Thusairflowingovertheuppersurfaceisforcedtotravel farther and as a result its velocity is increased. This increase causes a decreaseinpressureabovethewing.Theairthatflowsbeneaththewinghaslessdistancetotravelandisslowedupslightly,resultinginanincreaseintheairpressureonthelowersurfaceofthewing.Thegreaterpressurebelowforcesthewingupwardintotheregionoflesserpressure(partialvacuum)above(Doxiadis158).Thetotalliftproducedisequaltothedifferencebetweenthetwopressures(Figure1).Astheangleincreases,theliftincreases;sincetheairisforcedtoflowfartherandfasterabovetheairfoil,airwould"burble"backoverthewindandforceitdownintoastall.

103Research Report

Figures should be introduced and discussed in your text; however, any figure must also be effectively labeled and titled to ensure that it can be read and understood independent of the accompany-ing text. Greg's labels, which were originally read-able, have become blurred by years of reproduction in this text.

3

Figure 1. Comparison of a 10-degree angle of attack (top) and a 20-degree angle of attack.

Source: Leonard Carr. The Book of Entomology.Boston:Macmay,1975,p.111.

WING LOADING

Pressure on the Upper and Lower Surfaces of a Wing

Theliftthatisproducedbyeachsquarefootofwingsurfaceiscalledwingloadingandisgiveninpoundspersquarefootforairplanes.Thewingloadingofanairplanemayrangefromsixorsevenpoundspersquarefootforsmallplanesto25poundspersquarefootforlarger,speedierplanes(Calvin23).Atsealeveltheatmosphericpressureisoveratonpersquarefoot,sothatonlyaveryslightdifferencebetweenpressureontheupperandlowersurfaceofawingisrequiredtoproducelift.Figure2showsthewing-loadratiosforseveralspeciesofmoths.Wingloadingfortheseinsectswasfoundbyobtainingtheirweightingramsanddividingtheweightintothetotalareaofthefrontandhindwings,asmeasuredinmillimeters.Thus,asFigure2shows,thecornearwormmothandfallarmywormmoth(membersofthenoctuidfamily)haveamuchhigherwing-loadratiothandothelarger-bodiedsphingidgroup–thebeautifullypatternedsphinxmoths(Burns81).

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Tables are tra-ditionally labeled above, whereas figures are labeled at the bottom. Note that figures and tables are numbered in separate sequenc-es as they appear in the text.

Source notes following figures or tables indicate where Greg gathered his information.

This premature page break avoids leaving a heading "orphaned" at the

4Table 1: Wing-load ratios and lift of several moth species at three different degrees of wing pitch.

Source:ThomasBurns.The Insect Handbook. New York: John Wiley & Sons,1977,p.209.

Becausethesphinxeshaveheavybodiesandthin,taperedwings,theymorecloselyresemblethefasterswept-wingedjets(Bobson8).Sincetheyhavealowerwing-loadratio,theymustmaintainahigherspeedthannoctuids(thatis,increasethevelocityofairflowacrossthewings)tomaintainenoughlifttoremainairborne.Thenoctuidmothswiththeirlighterbodiesandlargerwingsurfacesflyatslowerspeedsandaremoremaneuverablethanthefast-flyingsphinxes(Carr169).

105Research Report

bottom of the page.

Using topic sen-tences can help your reader follow com-plicated discussions. Similarly, using transitional words such as “thus” helps underscore the relationship of paragraph elements.

Using labels and guidelines within a diagram helps make it self-explanatory.

5Bird and Insect Aerodynamics

Thesamecomparisoncanbemadeforbirds.Theactionofaironthewingsofmothsisessentiallythesameasthatuponwingsofbirdsifoneconsidersthemasairfoils.Thereisanimportantrelationshipamongbirdsthatalsoshowsupininsectaerodynamics.Highrelativewingareainanorderofbirdssignifiesalightweightspecieswitharelativelyslow,unevenflight;butlowwingareausuallyindicatesheavierbirdswithswift,directflight.Thusthelight-bodiednoctuidmoth,whichaverages5.4inwing-loadratio,canbecomparedwithcertainperchingbirds,suchassparrows,forwhichthewing-loadratioof32speciesaverages4.5.Incontrast,thesphingidmoths,witha3.5ratio,canbecomparedwiththefalconsat2.6(Huskins243).Theclassicalnaturalistwillreadilyagreethattheswift,directflightofthefalconandthesphinxmothwillhavemuchincommon,whereasthecornearwormmothismorelikethesparrow(Calvin106).

ANGLE OF ATTACK

The Lift Overcoming the Weight of Flying Object

Anotheraeronauticaltermthatmustbeconsideredwhendiscussingtheairfoilisthe“angleofattack.”Theflatbottomofawingiscalledthechord,andthistermisappliedtothedistancefromtheleadingedgetothetrailingedgeofawing(Burns71).Theangleofattackistheanglebetweenthechordandanimaginarylineparalleltotheearth.(Figure2)Figure 2. Angle of attack

Source: O. E. Calvin. The Insect World.NewJersey:Prentice-Hall,1979,p272.

Abasicprincipleofflightstatesthattheliftincreasesinalmostdirectproportiontotheincreaseintheangleofattackuptoacertainangleknownastheangleofmaximumlift,alsocalledthestallingangle(Carr164).At

106 Research Report

6toogreatanangle,airstartstoburbleinsteadofflowingsmoothlyoveranairfoil,sothatthestallinganglemaybeconsideredthe“burblepoint.”(SeeFigure1.)Levelflightsmaybeattainedatthepointwherelift,dependingupontheangleofattack,overcomestheweightofthefloyingobject(Doxiadis169).

Maintaining Flight by Use of Stalling Speed and Degree of Pitch of the Wing

Amongmoths,levelflighttakesplaceatamuchlowerangleforthelight-bodiedmothswithhighwing-loadratio—forinstancethefallarmyworm—thanforheavymothswithlowwing-loadratio.At10milesperhour,noctuidscanremainairbornewitha6-degreeangleorless,buttheheavier-bodiedsphingidswithlesswingareainproportiontoweightrequireatleasta12-degreeangleofattack.Large-bodiedsphingidsat10milesperhouranda12-degreepitch,withinasingleinstantofflighttime,wouldactuallybebelowthestallingspeed(Figure3).Forinstance,onelargesatellitesphinxweighted1.726gramsandhadawing-loadratioof3.Suchamothat12degreeshasaliftofonly1.616grams(Burns63).

Figure 3. Relationship between the weight of four different species of of moths and lift for various angles of attack.Source: NielsonDoxiadis. The Living Insect,SanFrancisco:W.H.FreemanandCompany,1981,p.301.

References within the text direct the reader to the appro-priate figure.

Axes and incre-ments must be clearly labeled on graphs. Increment spacing should be regular and consis-tent. Greg's labels, which were origi-nally clear, have be-come blurred after years of reproduc-tion in this text.

107Research Report

7ThearrowsinFigure3pointtotheaveragebodyweightforeachspecies,andeachpointistheaveragecalculatedliftingramsforeachangleofattackat10milesperhour.Pointsbelowthelineoflevelflightfallbelowthemaximumliftneededtomaintainflight.Theheavy-bodiedsphingidmothswouldaverageatleast12degreesforaflightspeedof10milesperhour,whereasthelight-bodiedfallarmywormmothwouldstayairborneatsixdegrees.

Onemustrealizethatsuchmeasurementsarevalidwhencalculatedforonlyoneinstantduringflightandatonespeed,sothatitisonlyatthisparticularinstantandangleofattackthatthemothcouldbeconsideredbelowstallingspeed.Asthespeedofthemothincreases,theangleofpitchmaydecrease,keepingthebalancebetweenstallingspeedanddegreeofpitchofthewing(Deyley116).Thenoctuidmothscanmaneuverbetterintightplacesthansphingidmoths,mainlybecauseofthegreaterwing-loadratio,butalsobecausetheyaresmallerandbeattheirwingsmorerapidly(Carr187).

High-Speed Vibration and Changeable Pitch of Wings

Theinsectwingisnotjustafixedairfoilbutratherissomethinglikeahelicopterbladeofchangeablepitch.Itdoesnotflaplikeabird’swingbutvibratesathighfrequencies,andthepitchandangleofattackchangecontinuallyduringthesevibrations.Insectwingmovementissocomplicatedandtheshapeofthewing,becauseofitsflexibility,changessodrasticallythatwingmotioncannotbedescribedbyasimplemathematicalformula.Thehigh-speedvibrationandtwistingmovementsrequireofaninsectalmostunbelievablecontrolofitsmusclesandanextremelyefficientmethodbywhichthewingsareattachedtothebody(Calvin111).

HOW WINGS ARE ATTACHED

Aninsect’swingsarecoupledtoitsbodybyaseriesofcomplicatedplates,butunlikethearrangementforthelegsandotherappendages,therearenomusclesconnectedinsidethewingitself.Thewingsconsistofathinupperandlowermembraneseparatedbysupportinrodlikestructurescalledwingveins.Taxonomists–expertsinclassifyingfamiliesofinsects–usethearrangementoftheseveinstoseparatefamiliesofinsects.Theveinsusuallyhavespecificanduniquearrangementineachclassificationgroup(Bobson14).

Dividing informa-tion into manage-able units makes complex material more digestible.

Careful use of headings makes the information more accessible.

Once again, Greg is careful to define a technical term–"taxonomists"–that might be unfamiliar to his audience.

108 Research Report

8Wing Attachment Plates

Thecouplingplatesthathingethewingstothethoraxaresupportedbyathinmembrane.Theplatesarethusquiteflexibleandarearrangedinrelationtoeachotherinawaythatallowsthevibratingwingtopivotfreely.Alloftheseplatesarecalledtheaxillaryplates,andtheyaredevelopedonlyininsectsthatfoldtheirwingshorizontallyovertheirbacks,asinthecaseofmothsandflies(Figure4).Someinsects,suchasthemayfliesandbutterflies,hold their wings together vertically over their backs when they are at rest. Dragonflieskeeptheirwingsextendedatrest.(May61).

Figure 4: A corn earworm moth's wing hinge Source: Thomas Burns. The Insect Handbook. New York: John Wiley and Sons,1977,p.244

Thecomplicatedhingethatattachesthefrontwingofacornearwormmothtoitsbodyismadeupofanumberofseparatesclerites,orhardplates(FtoL).AtoEarethescleritesoftheinsect’sthorax;Misthetubethatsuppliesairtowingtissues.

Thewing-bearingsegmentofthethoraxiscalledthepleuronandiscomposedofpleuralsclerites.Theirarrangementisverycomplicatedand

Figures should be placed adjacent to or immediately following their dis-cussion in the text. There should be a specific reference in the text directing the reader’s atten-tion to the figure.

Suggestion: Although Greg explains the let-tered parts of the diagram in the fol-lowing paragraph, he should have included a legend with the graphic to increase its au-tonomy.

109Research Report

9showsconsiderablevariabilityamongfamiliesofinsects.Themechanicalusefulnessofmanyoftheseformsisnoteasytounderstand,butgenerallytheyarearrangedinsuchawayastofurnishafulcrum(apointofsupport)forthewingandasattachmentplatesforthepleuralwingmuscle.Thewingfulcrumiscalledtheuppermarginofthepleuron(Burns91).Itisbracedinternallybyaridge(Huskins247)thatextendsfromthewingprocesstothecoxa(hipjoint).Thetop,ordorsal,partofthewing-bearingportionofthethoraxiscalledthetergum.Itliesagainstthewingsandishingedtothembythefirstandfourthaxillarysclerites(Figure5).

Figure 5. Insect-wing mechanics.Source: O. E. Calvin. The Insect World.NewJersey:Prentice-Hall,1979,p.312.

OntherightsideofFigure5,thewingisdepressedasthelongitudinaldorsalmusclecontracts,warpingthetergumandarchingitupward,whichforcesthewingdownonthepleuralfulcrum.OntheleftsideofFigure5,thewingiselevatedasthetergosternalmusclecontracts,pullingthetergumdownwardandforcingthewinguponthepleuralfulcrum.

WING MOVEMENT

Ingeneral,thewingstrokeconsistsofanupstroke,adownstroke,and

Do not feel that you must restrict your discussion to simple subjects that an English professor is likely to understand easily. You may discuss technically sophis-ticated ideas, but you should strive to make them as clear as possible. By the same token, you should not feel required to select a scientific or techno-logical subject.

Greg drew the illustrations for his report, but they were copied from other sources; thus, it is important that he include the source notation for each.

Some editors would not like a heading with only one line of text beneath it at the bottom of a page.

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10forwardandarearwardmovement;and,aspreviouslystated,apartialrotationorchangeofpitch(Calvin113).Bothliftandforwardmotionareproducedbytherapidmovementsofthewings.Althoughforwardmovementisimportant,mostinsectscanhover(someevenflybackwardorsideways),andairflowoverthewingsisnottheonlythingthatcauseslift(Bobson13).

Thewingedinsect,althoughoriginallyaglider,morecloselyresemblesahelicopterthanafixed-wingedairplane(Bobson14).However,thewingmovementsareofcoursenotrotary,butvibratory.

Thepowerfortheserapidvibrationscomesprincipallyfromtwosetsofmusclesinthethorax.Theyarethelongitudinaldorsalmuscleswhichoncontractionservetodrawthewingsdown,andthetergosternalmuscleswhichoncontractionliftthem(Huskins254).Indetail,thelongitudinaldorsalmusclescontractandarchthewing-bearingtergaupwardbypullingagainsteachendwherethemuscleisattached;thisinturndeflectsthewingsdownwardonthepleuralfulcra.Thetergosternalmusclesareattachedtothetoplateraledgeofthetergalplatestothenonmuscularwings(Calvin118).

RESILIN, THE “RUBBER” OF INSECTS

Resilinisapartoftheelastichingesoftheinsect'swing.Itisarubber-likeproteindiscoveredbyTorkelWeisfogn;itsnamecomesfromtheLatinresilire,“tojumpback”(Bruns57).Itwasoriginallybelievedthattherecoiloftheinsectwingwasduesolelytotheelasticmovementsofthebox-likethoraxasthemusclespulledinandout.Withthediscoveryofresilin,however,atleastone-thirdoftheenergywasshowntobestoredinthewinghingeitself(Bobson38).Thishighlyefficientsubstancewasfoundtocomefromtheepidermalcells.Itisspringlikeinthewayitstoresandreleasesmechanicalenergy.Dr.Weisfoghdiscoveredthisremarkableinsect“rubber”byobservingtherecoiloftheforewingsintheisolatedthroaxofadesertlocust.Afterheremovedthewingmusclesanddorsaltergalplate,thereremainedconsiderablerecoilinthewinghingesthemselves.Asimplechemicalcolortestlaterconfirmedthepresenceofthesubstanceinmanypartsoftheinsectcuticle.Partsofinsectsthatcontainrefilincanbestaineddeepblue,andthistechniquehasshownitinsuchwidelydifferentpartsaswinghingesandmarginsofabdominaltergites.Thisremarkablematerialcontributestotheoverallelasticityofaninsect’sexoskeleton(Burns59).

Foreign words such as scientific terms taken from Latin are underlined or italicized.

References to specific scientific experiments and measurements make the discussion more interesting and more convincing.

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11FLYING HEIGHT

Theevolutionarydevelopmentofhighlyefficientwingshascontributedtothespreadofinsectspeciesintoagreatmanydifferentenvironments.Manyspeciesareknowntomakelongdispersalormigratoryflights(Calvin94).Becauseitisdifficulttoattachtagstoorvisuallyfollowmigratoryinsectsasonedoeswithbirds,littleisknownoftheirdispersalandmigratoryroutesandstilllessoftheheightsatwhichtheyfly.Certainspecieshavebeentakenathighaltitudesbytrapnetsmountedonthewingsofairplanes(Bobson42).Aretheseinsectsblowntosuchheightsoraretheyactuallyflying,asinthecaseofmigratorybirds?Inoneexperiment,cornearwormswerecollectedashighas1,000feetbyattractingthemtolighttrapsmountedonatelevisiontowerofthatheight.Theywereshowntobeactuallyflyinghigherthanthetraps,asthelightsweremountedinsideaconeandvisibleonlyfromabove.Theywerealsoobservedcomingdirectlytothetrapataheightof1,000feetatnight(Huskins291).Consideringthattheearwormmothweighslessthanonegramandlivesanaverageof10daysasanadultflyingmoth,onecanappreciatetheremarkableflightpowersofsuchaninsect(Deyley216).

CONCLUSION

Evenifthestudyofinsectflightwerenotimportanttothefieldsofavionicsandbiology,itwouldstillattractagreatnumberofinterestedresearchers.Anindividualcannotlookatamoth,withitsfiercedesireforaglowingflame,andnotwonderhowsuchastrangeanimalfunctions.Whenonekillsamoth,hemostcertainlycrushesapieceofbiologicalengineering(May62). Thereisanamazementinlookingatsuchstructuresasthelegsandthroax,thewings,thesclerites,thevariouswingmuscles,andotherparts.Eventheleastcuriousmightaskhowsuchacreature’sflyingabilityevolved.Theworldofinsectflightisacomplexoneandeventheyoungestamongpeoplesoonbecomeawarethatitisadifferentworld(Calvin121).Itisalmostasifspeciesofflyingmachinesexistedrightinthebackyard,available to study.

Greg Bobel does not attempt to sum-marize the informa-tion of his report in the conclusion, but he does provide a strong sense of clo-sure and attempts to put the highly technical discussion that has preceded into a more human perspective.

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Works Cited

Bobson, J.H. An Understanding to Entomology.NewYork:ComstockPublishing Co., 1973. Print.

Burns,Thomas.The Insect Handbook.NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,1977.Print.

Calvin, O.E. The Insect World.NewJersey:Prentice-Hall,1979.Print.

Carr, Leonard. The Book of Entomology.Boston:Macmay,1975.Print.

Deley,C.B.The Moth Book.NewYork:DoverPublications,1982.Print.

Doxiadis,Nielson.The Living Insect.SanFrancisco:W.H.FreemanandCompany,1981.Print.

Huskins,SamuelInsects and the Length of the Day. New York: Holiday House, 1969. Print.

May,J.W.“CrossroadsoftheInsectWorld.”National Geographic Magazine 141December1971:60-66.Print.

Greg Bobel uses the Modern Language Association documentation style that was current in 1999. For information on the 2016 MLA documentation style, see pages 210-213.

This list of works cited is not numbered, but arranged alphabetically with the author's last name overhung to the left.

Each work is listed one time, and only works that have been cited in the text are included.

Greg could have included appendices or a glossary at the end of his report.

Suggestion: In MLA style the full first names should be written out if known. Greg uses initials for four of the sources listed here.

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113

The Impact That Killed the Dinosaurs

Prepared for

Dr. Carl BruckerTechnical Writing Instructor

Arkansas Tech University

ByBrent Hogan

May 1, 1999

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ii

1277BakersCreekRd. Russellville,AR72802

May1,1999

Dr.CarlBruckerDepartmentofEnglishArkansas Tech UniversityRussellville,AR72801

DearDr.Brucker:

ThefollowingresearchreportwasassignedbyyouforthefinalassignmentintheTechnicalCommunicationsclass.Ihavechosentodomyresearchreporton the extinction of the dinosaurs relating to the asteroid collision theory. This subjectinterestsmebecause,withthelengthintimeinvolved,Istillcannotgraspthenotionthatsomethingsocatastrophiccouldhavehappenedtotheearthtowipeoutalmostalllife.Ithasfascinatedmesincechildhood,andIhopeothersarefascinatedaswell.

Theinformationincludedinvolvestryingtograspthespaceoftimethatsepa-ratesthepresentandtheasteroidimpact,thedevelopmentofthetheory,gather-ingofevidence,andapictureofwhatthedinosaurswouldhaveexperienced.Ihopethatbysupplyingthesedetails,thereadercangainafullviewoftheeventsinthepastandtheirdiscoveryinthepresent.

Sincerely,

Brent Hogan

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As part of his letter of transmit-tal, Brent Hogan explains his choice of topic and previews his approach to the topic.

Brent Hogan

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iiiTable of Contents

Letter of Transmittal . .............................................................................. iiTable of Figures ...................................................................................... ivAbstract .....................................................................................................v

INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................1

Description of Mass Extinction ...............................................................1Audience ....................................................................................................1The Distance in Time ...............................................................................1

THE THEORY .........................................................................................2

How the theory developed ........................................................................2Evidence .....................................................................................................3 WHAT THE DINOSAURS EXPERIENCED .......................................4

CONCLUSION ........................................................................................5

WORKS CITED ........................................................................................6

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Brent creates a simple two-level sys-tem of headings by using capitalization.

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ivTable of Figures and Tables

Table 1:A Walk Through Time ...............................................................2

Figure 1: Artist's Rendition of Asteroid Collision .................................3

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Brent's report in-cludes the minimum number of graphics required by the as-signment: one table and one figure.

The titles are pre-sented here exactly as they appear in the text.

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vAbstract

In1980,LuisandWalterAlvarezcameforthwiththetheorythatdino-saurssufferedmassextinctionduetoanasteroidimpact65millionyearsago.Thetheorydevelopedbecausetheyfoundalayerofiridium,arareearthele-ment,atthesamedepthindifferentareasoftheworld.Atfirstthetheoryhadfewsupportersuntil1989whenscientistsfoundahugecraterofftheYucatanPeninsulainMexico.Thecraterwasestimatedatbeing65millionyearsold.Theasteroidcausedthesuntobeblockedfordecades,leavingmanyspeciestobecomeextinct.

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Brent's short abstract tries to summarize the most important informa-tion in the report.

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INTRODUCTION

Description of Mass Extinction

Theextinctionofthedinosaursorthe“K-Textinction”isoneofthemosttalkedaboutandmosttheorizedmassextinctioneventsinhistory.Sincethediscoveryofdinosaurfossilsalmosttwohundredyearsago,scientistshavewonderedhowlongagodidtheylive;howlongagodidtheydie;andwhatbrought on their extinction? Pastmassextinctionisindicatedbythepresenceofadeadzone,ageologicallayercontainingfewfossilremainsbetweenlayerswithevidenceofextensivelife.Thedeadzonerepresentsthetimeofamassextinctionanditsaftermath”(Studying1997).

Thedateofthemassextinctioncanbedeterminedbyseveraldifferentmethods:radioisotopeanalysisofigneousrocks,magnetismofrocks,positionsoftherocks,andindexfossils.Chemicalanalysisofthedeadzone“revealsmuchaboutconditionsatthetimeoftheextinction”(Studying1997).Alteredformsofquartzoranoverabundanceofrareelementshelpsubstantiatethetheoryofamassmeteorcollision.

Audience

TheprimaryaudienceintendedforthispaperisDr.Brucker.Thesecondaryaudienceisintendedforanyonewhomaywanttolearnaboutthecollisionthatkilledthedinosaurs.Thispaperisnotintendedforprofessionalpaleontologistsorscientiststhatareinthefieldofdinosaurstudy.

The Distance in Time

Thedistanceintimecanbeverytoughtovisualize.Tenyearsseemslikealongtime,butamillionyearsisjustanumber.Ifweimagineawalkthroughtimeinwhicheachstepequals1000years,thefollowingtable,whichwasdevelopedbyDr.DaleGnidoveandpublishedintheColumbusDispatch, showsyouhowfaronewouldwalktowitnesscertainimportanteventsinthehistoryofEarth(Poling,Walk,1999).

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Brent uses APA style (author-year) for his documenta-tion. APA and the author-year version of CBE style are often used in the life sciences.

Brent forces an early page break here, so the table on the following page will not be inter-rupted.

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2Table 1: A WalkThrough Time

Approximate Distance

Time(in years)

Event

2steps 2,000 thetimeofChrist10steps 10,000 thefinaldaysofthemammmoths,mastodons

anssaber-toothedcatsatthecloseofthelastgreat Pleistocene glaciation.

30miles 65million theK-Textinctionthatincludedthenon-aviandinosaurs

100miles 225million theappearanceofthefirstdinosaursandmam-mals

120miles 245million thegreatPermianextinctionthatwipedoutmostlifeonearthincludingthetotaleradica-tion of Trilobites

140miles 300million theappearanceofthefirstreptiles170miles 360million theappearanceofthefirstinsects200miles 435million theappearanceofthefirstlandplants205miles 440million theappearanceofthefirstrvertabrates270miles 579million theappearanceofthefirstanimalswithhard

shells280miles 600million theappearanceofthefirstmulti-cellularanimal650miles 1400million theappearanceofthefirstnucleatedcells1800miles 3900million theformationofthesldestrocksknowntoday2100miles 4600million theformationoftheEarthitself

Source: Poling,J.(4January1999).Awalkthroughtime.Retrieved1May1999,fromhttp://www.dinosauria.com/jdp/misc/walk.html.

THE THEORY

How the theory developed

ThetheoryofanasteroidkillingthedinosaurswasfirstproposedbyLuisAlvarezandhisson,WalterAlvarez.Theywereonageologicalexpedi-tioninItalywhenthey“accidentallydiscoveredabandofsedimentaryrockthatcontainedunusuallyhighlevelsofarareelement,iridium.....Chemicaldatingtechniquesputtherockataround65millionyearsold.Coincidentally—ornot,thatisaroundthetimethedinosaursdiedout”(Alvarez).

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Traditionally, tables are labeled at the top.

Use a consistent unit of measurement in a table if possible.

Source notes for online sources in APA style should in-clude the name of the author (if known), the date on which the information was posted (if known), the title of the site or web page, the date on which you ac-cessed the page, and the complete URL (Universal Resource Locator).

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Theydevelopedthetheorybasedontheevendistributionofiridiumindifferentpartsoftheworld.Theirhypothesisstatesthat“theiridium...wastheresultofagiantasteroidthathitEarth,sendingsmoke,dust,andiridiumintotheatmosphere”(Alvarez).Theytheorizedthattheresultinglowtemperaturecausedbytheblockingofthesunkilledmanyspecies,includingdinosaurs.Whentheairbornepollutionfinallysettled,itleftthefinelayerofiridium.(Al-varez).

Figure 1. Artist 's Rendition of Asteroid CollisionSource:Maas,A.(1January1999).Retrieved1May1999,fromhttp://execpc.com/~maas/extinction/asteroid.html.

Evidence

TheAlvarezmeteortheorywasnotwidelyaccepteduntil1989whenscientistsfirstdiscoveredevidenceofahugeimpactcraterintheGulfofMexi-co.ThecraterwaslocatednorthofChicxulub,offMexico'sYucatanPeninsula.Later studies found evidence of debris washed out of the Gulf by waves that wentinlandasfaraswhatisnowArkansas(Poling,More,1999).

Theasteroidiswidelybelievedtohavehadadiameterofsixmilesormore.(SeeFigure1).“Itgougedacrater150to180mileswide”(Poling,More,1999).Soil,water,sulfur,androckwereliftedintotheatmosphere,blockingthesun'slight.Volcanicactivityincreased,andtherewerenumerous

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Suggestion: Brent should try to avoid using such long quo-tations. More of this information should have been processed and put into his own words.

This figure was more useful and more impressive in color, as printed in Brent's original report.

3

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massiveearthquakesandwildfires.

RichardD.Norris,headoftheoceandrillingexpeditionofftheYucatanPeninsula,saidthat“theexpeditionrecoveredthreecoresamplesthathavetheunmistakablesignatureofanasteroidimpact”(Poling,More,1999).Hewasreferringtoabrownlayerfoundinthecoresamplesthatisthoughttobetheremnantsoftheasteroid.

Norrisalsostatedthatwhentheasteroidimpactedit“wouldhaveinstantlybeenreducedtovaporandthrownhighintothesky.....thensnoweddown,likeafinepowder,allovertheglobe"(Poling,More,1999).Indeed,browndepositshavingahighcontentofiridiumlikethoseinthecoresamplehave been found elsewhere .

WHAT THE DINOSAURS EXPERIENCED

JeffPolingbasesthefollowingdescriptionofwhatthedinosaursmayhaveexperiencedoninformationtakenfromaPeterShultzandStevenD’Hondt’sarticleinGeology(Poling,K-T,1999).

1.Abrilliantflasheruptedinthesoutheastastheasteroid rammedintoMexico'sYucatanPeninsula,gougingout acraterabout120mileswideandvaporizingtheupper crust. 2.Abrilliant,hotplumeofvaporandincandescent“sun- bright”debrisarcedacrosstheskyatabout7to10persecond,thencrashedontoNorthAmerica. 3.Scaldingheatkilledcountlessland-dwellingplantsand animals.Forexample,90percentofknowntypesofleaf- bearingtreesandplantsbecameextinct,accordingtothe fossil record. 4.Asloweryetstillhigh-velocitycloudofdust,debrisand moltenmaterialthensweptoverNorthAmerica. 5.Finally,anhourormoreaftertheimpact,moredustbegan fall fromthesky,perhapsfordays,asmaterialwasdispersed aroundtheglobe.(Poling,K-T,1999)

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Because Brent uses several sources by the same author, he includes a key word from the web page title in his par-enthetical citations.

4

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CONCLUSION

Thefewspeciesthatdidsurvivetheasteroidimpactarebelievedtohavedwelledinthewaterandintheair.Someareevenbelievedtobethean-cestorsofsomeoftoday'sbirds.Whichevertrailthedinosaurpopulationtook,whethertoextinctionorevolution,theimpactofftheYucatanPeninsulaalteredthecoarseofalllifeonearth.Andifnotfortheimpact,thehumanracemaynever have evolved to unravel this story.

Research Report

Clearly, Brent's report is somewhat thin, but it is an effective example of a report that meets the assignment's requirements. The research reports in the course do not need to be lengthy or develop original data. They do need to be presented cor-rectly and include all the required parts and formatting.

5

123

6 References

Alvarezfindsevidenceofdinosaur-killingasteroid.(n.d.).A Science Odyssey: People and Discoveries.Retrieved1May1999,fromhttp://cgi.pbs.org.wgbh/aso/databank/entries/do80di.html.

Maas,A.(1January1997).Deathbycosmiccollision.Retrieved1May1999,fromhttp://www.execpc.com/~maas/extinction/asteroid.html.

Poling,J.(12December1998).Awalkthroughtime.Retrieved1May1999,fromhttp://www.dinosauria.com/jdp/misc/walk.html.

Poling,J.(4January1999).K-Textinctioneventmysterymaybesolved.Re-trieved1May1999,fromhttp://www.dinosauria.com/jdp/impact/impact.htm.

Poling,J.(6January1999).MoreEvidenceForAsteroidImpactFound.Re-trieved1May1999,fromhttp://www.dinosauria.com/jdp/impact/wham.htm.

Studyingextinctions.(1997).Retrieved1May1999,fromhttp://www.Zoom-Dinosaurs.com/subjects/extinction/Study.html.

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In APA style, this page is called "Ref-erences" instead of "Works Cited" as in in MLA style.

Brent relies en-tirely on web-based sources and too heavily on sources from the same indi-vidual.

Suggestion: Try to use more diverse source material.

In APA style, the author's name is rewritten for each in-dividual source and arranged chrono-logically by the date of publication. Note that the online articles with no known author are alphabetized by their titles.

For information on APa style see pages 214-217.

124 Research Report

A New World Power:The History of the Atomic Bomb during World War II

Prepared for

Dr. Carl BruckerTechnical Writing Instructor

Arkansas Tech University

ByMark R. Holt

December 20, 2014

125

13 Pawnee Ct.Maumelle,AR72113

July 1, 2016

Dr.CarlBruckerDepartmentofEnglishArkansas Tech UniversityRussellville,AR72801

Dr.CarlBrucker:

ThefollowingismyresearchreportthatIhavewrittenatyourrequestforTechnicalWriting.ThetopicIhavechosenformyreportistheatomicbombanditsroleduringWorldWarII.Thistopicisonethathasalwaysfascinatedme,andtounderstandtheoriginsofsuchpowercanbetterhelpunderstandthestartofthemodernage.

ThisreportgathersabriefoverviewofthehistoryoftheatomicbombfromitsconceptualizationtoitseventualusetoattempttoendWorldWarII.OneofthemainfocusesofthispaperistheU.S.MilitaryresearchintonucleararmamentduringWorldWarII,AprojectknownastheManhattanProjectbymost.Thegoalistogiveabriefbutclearearlyhistoryoftheatomicbomb.

Sincerely,

Mark Holt

MarkHolt

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ii

Mr. Holt uses the block format (p. 167) for his letter of transmittal.

Mr. Holt's letter provides and brief and direct summary of his purpose for writing and the focus of the report.

126

Table of Contents

Letter of Transmittal ...................................................................................iiTable of Figures ..........................................................................................ivAbstract ........................................................................................................v

INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................1

A World at War ...........................................................................................1Statement of Purpose ..................................................................................1Audience.......................................................................................................1

THE DISCOVERY OF POWER ...............................................................1

THE MANHATTAN PROJECT ...............................................................2

Clinton Engineer Works .............................................................................3Project Y ......................................................................................................4J. Robert Oppenheimer ..............................................................................4Codename: Trinity ......................................................................................4

A WORLD FOREVER CHANGED .........................................................5

August 6th, 1945 ...........................................................................................5Three Days Later ........................................................................................6

CONCLUSION ...........................................................................................8

End References ............................................................................................9

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Each entry on the Table of Cotents mirrors a heading in the text of the report. The word-ing is identical and the boldfacing and capitalization are the same as the headings in the report.

127

Table of Figures and Tables Figure 1: Einstein–Szilárd Letter .............................................................2

Figure 2: Map of the Clinton Engineer Works ........................................3

Figure 3: Map of the Trinity Test Site ......................................................5

Figure 4: Nagasaki, Japan, before and after the atomic bombing of August 9, 1945 .............................................................................7

Table 1: Compararison of the Atomic Bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki .......................................................................................7

Figure 5: Relationship between the distance from the hypocenter and the Percent of Deaths in that Distance Range ..........................8

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The items are list-ed in the order in which they appear in the text. Some more extensive reports might have separate Table of Figures and Table of Tables.

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Abstract

Theresearchandcreationofthefirstatomicbombmarkedastarkchangeinthehistoryofhumanity.Theconceptoftheatomicbombwasatfirstmerelyjustasuggestionofoneofthepossibleusesoffissilematerialssuchasuranium.WhenitwaslearnedthattheGermangovernmentmightactuallyberesearchingsuchtechnologies,theUnitedStatesdecidedtodoitsownresearch.Fromthisfear,theManhattanProjectwasborn,aprojectthatendedupbeingoneofthemostcostlymilitaryresearchprojectsuptothatpointintime.Fromthisprojectcamethefirstnuclearweapons,whoselevelofpowerwasneverbeforeseen.Withthispowerinhand,theUnitedStatesdecideditwasthebestwaytoendthewarinthePacific,andindoingso;theUnitedStatesdroppedtheonlytwonuclearbombseverdroppedinwar.

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The informative abstract is the sin-gle most imnportant part of the report because it is the section that will be read by more read-ers than any other. Mr. Holt decides that the overall ra-tionale for dropping the weapons is the most important part of the report, so he focuses on that here.

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INTRODUCTION

A World at War AftertheendofTheGreatWar(WorldWarI)thepoliticalstateoftheworldwasinshambles.GermanywentunderaperiodofrevolutionduringwhichtheKaiser(WilhelmII)abdicatedhisthrone,andwasbanishedtoexile.1 ThisinstabilityalongwiththedemandforreparationsfromthealliedpowersledtohyperinflationintheGermaneconomy,andadepression.2 WiththeGermaneconomyinshambles,thepeopleofGermanyweredesperatetoseetheircountrybecomegreatagain.TheNationalSocialistGer-manWorkers’party(theNaziParty)tookadvantageofthisandproposedradi-calideasincludingtherejectionofthetermsoftheTreatyofVersailles,andthepromotionofhateinanattempttoguidetheiraggression.3 Though they did not technicallywhenanyelections,theNazipartycoercedtheelectedpresidenttodeclareAdolfHitlertobeChancellorofGermany.

Overtime,throughradicalpropagandaandfearmongering,HitlerslowlyledGermanytobecomeimperialisticinitsefforts,andGermanystartedinvadingneighboringcountriestoseizenewterritory.Manycountrieswerewilling,butwhenGermanygottoPoland(whowasbackedbythetheUnitedKingdomandFrance, 4 fightingbrokeout,thusstartingthebeginningofWorldWarII.

Statement of PurposeThisreportwascreatedinordertogiveabriefhistoryoverthedevelop-

mentanduseoftheatomicbombduringWorldWarII.Theresearchforthisreportiscompiledfromvarioussourcesofinformationfromtheinternet,andbothreportsandtext.

AudienceTheintendedaudienceofthispaperisDr.Brucker.Anyadditionalstu-

dentsorfacultywishingtounderstandalittlebitaboutthehistoryoftheatomicbombduringWorldWarIImayalsofindsomeusefulinformationwithinthisreport.

THE DISCOVERY OF POWER

InDecember1938,twoscientist,OttoHahnandFritzStrassmann,discoveredthaturaniumwasamaterialabletoundergoanewconceptcalledspontaneousfission.Fromthisrealization,itwastheorizedthatnuclearchain

Research Report

Mr. Holt uses a two-level system of headings in his report, distinguish-ing the levels by the type of capitaliza-tion.

Because Mr. Holt is using the numerical CSE citation sequence style (pp. 218-221), the superscripted numbers in the text are source cita-tions rather than footnotes.

130

reactionscouldbeachievedcreatingvastamountsofenergy.LeóSzilárdreal-izedthatthesechainreactionscouldbeharnessedtocreatevastamountsofenergy,orpossiblyeventocreatesupermassivebombs,withhugedestructivecapability.5

Figure 1: Einstein-Szilárd LetterSource:Einstein-Szilárdletter.AtomicHeritageFoundation.[accessed2014Dec8].http://www.atomicheritage.org/einstein-szilard-letter

SzilárdlearnedthataGermanphysicisthadbeenpublishingarticlesonnuclearchainreactions,andwasconcernedthatGermanymightberesearchingintofissionweaponstogivethemanadvantageinthebrandnewworldconflict(WorldWarII).Withthisfearinmind,SzilárdcomposedalettertotheUnitedStatesPresidentFranklinD.Roosevelt(seeFigure1),withthebackingsigna-tureofnotablephysicistAlbertEinstein.AlongwithwarningtheUnitedStatesagainstthepotentialnewweaponGermanywasattemptingtodevelop,SzilárdalsorecommendedthattheUnitedStatesstartitsownresearchintoharnessingthepowerofnuclearfission.6

Uponlearningofthisstartlingnewfact,PresidentRooseveltappointLymanBriggstotheheadoftheAdvisoryCommitteeonUranium.ThisnewcommitteewastobetaskedwithinvestigatingintothepotentialimplicationsoftheconceptsproposedbytheEinsteinSzilárdLetter.Thecommitteefoundthetheoreticalweaponproposedbythelettercouldbecomeamajorthreat.7 After thisconclusion,PresidentRooseveltmadeanExecutiveorder,creatingtheOf-ficeofScientificResearchandDevelopment.8

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2

This graphic does not reproduce clearly in this pub-lication. If this were the original report, it would be better to exclude the graphic unless a clearer version could be included.

Mr. Holt's source note includes the name of the page, sponsoring organization, date on which it was accessed, and the URL.

131

THE MANHATTAN PROJECT

TheManhattanDistrictProject(betterknownastheManhattanProj-ect)wasaU.S.ArmyCorpofEngineersprojectheadedupbyGeneralLeslieGroves,whosegoalwastoresearchintoanddevelopafullyworkingfissionbomb.9Theprojectwasoneofthelargestmilitaryresearchprojectseverundertake,withacostofabout$2billion(equivalentto$23billionintoday’sstandard).

Clinton Engineer Works Oneofthemajorconcernsaboutthisprojectwaspickingasuitableplacetocreatethematerialsneededtomaketheatomicbomb.GeneralGrovestook into account a few different factors into his choice of location including populationdensity,accessibility,andutilities.Withallthesefactorsinmind,GeneralGroveschosearuralareainTennessee(laternamedOakridge)tobethebaseofoperationsforthematerialsneedfortheManhattanProject.ThelocationwasnamedtheClintonEngineerWorks,andhadalowpopulationdensity, with access by railroad and highway, as well as the nearby Norris Damforasourceofelectricity.10

Figure 2: Map of the Clinton Engineer WorksSource:JonesE.Manhattan:thearmyandthebomb.NewYork(NY):Sch-neider,2012,p.131.

OakridgeconsistedofafewmainfacilitiesdirectedatthecompletionoftheManhattanproject(seeFigure2).Oneofthemostimportantbuildings wasK-25.Itwasthebuildingwheretheuraniumwasactuallyenriched,so

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3

Numerical styles of documentation vary. This CSE Citation Sequence style uses super-scripted numbers, but other use numbers in brackets that may or may not be superscripted.

The source note provides the complete informa-tion that would be included in a bibliography.

Mr. Holt references the graphic in his text

132

thatitwouldbeinaformthatwasuseablefortheatomicbomb.K-25wasthelargestbuildingintheworldatthetimeofitscreation11

Project Y Themilitaryneededaveryisolated,remoteplacetobothresearchandeventuallytesttheatomicbomb.Itwasdecidedthatthebestplacetoachievethesegoalswouldbeinthedesert,inaplacecalledLosAlamos,NewMexico(originallydubbedProjectY).AtfirstGroveswasskepticalofthelocation,butafterOppenheimershowedhimthelocation,Grovesdecideditwasexactlythelocation they needed. 12

J. Robert Oppenheimer OneofthemostimportantpeopleontheManhattanprojectwasJuliusRobertOppenheimer,atheoreticalphysicistwhowasappointedbyGeneralGrovestheheadofscientificresearchfortheproject.Groves,andmanyoftheofficersinvolved,whereatfirstconcernedaboutthechoiceofOppenheimerforleadingthedevelopmentofthebomb,ashispoliticalbeliefsweremoreleftlearning.Groves,however,wasimpressedwithOppenheimer’samazingknowledgeinnuclearphysics,andfelthewasthebestmindforthejob.Duetohisinvolvementinthedevelopmentoftheatomicbomb,Oppenheimerisoftenconsideredoneofthe“fathersoftheatomicbomb.” 9

Codename: Trinity InJanuary1944,itcametoOppenheimer’sattentionthatitwouldbebeneficialforafulltestofthecapabilitiesofthebombtobeadministered.Grovewasconcernedwithideaofnotbeingabletorecoversomeoftheplutonium-239,asitwasexpensivetosynthesizeitfromtheUranium-238.OppenheimerwaseventuallyabletoconvinceGrovesthattheonlywaytogetaccurateresultswouldbethroughafullscaletest,andGrovesfinallyagreed.13 ThecodenameforthetestwastobeTrinity.

ThereweremanysitesconsideredfortheTrinitytest,butthesitethatwaschosenwasAlamogordoBombingRangeinNewMexico(seeFigure3).ThedecisionwasmadethattheconditionswouldbebestforthetestonJuly16,plusPresidentHarryS.Truman’sinsistencethatthetesttakeplacebeforethePotsdamConference.13TheofficialtestwasperformedlikeplannedonJuly16,1945at5:29.Theexplosionwasequivalenttothatof20kilotonsofTNT,andproducedenoughheattomakethedesertsandturntoglass.14 The explosionitselfreachedaheightof7.5miles.15

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Headings help readers locate par-ticular sections of the report.

In citation-sequence numeri-cal styles, every reference to a single source uses the same identifying number, as with source 9 here.

Mr. Holt's textual reference to Figure 3 appears on the page before the graphic. This is not a prob-lem, but it would not be a good idea to place the textual reference on a subse-quent page.

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Figure 3: Map of the Trinity Test SiteSource:JonesE.Manhattan:thearmyandthebomb.NewYork(NY):Schneider,2012,p.131.

A WORLD FOREVER CHANGED

ByAugust1945,theUnitedStateshadbeenatwarwiththeJapaneseforthreeyear,sevenmonths.16 TheonlystepleftfortheUnitedStatestoachievevictoryoverJapanwastotakethemainland.TheUnitedStateshadalreadybeenconductingfirebombingonthemainland,causingthedeathsof100,000to200,000deathsofJapanesecitizensinTokyoalone,buttheJapa-nesewereunwillingtogiveintothedemandsoftheallies.12 The invasion of themainlandwasgoingtobeacostlyattack,butsomethingneededbedone.17

August 6th, 1945TheUnitedStatescametotheconclusionthatthemosteffectivemeth-

odforendingthewarwastomakeuseoftheatomicbomb.Afewtargetswere

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chosenasthebestpotentialtargetsforthebombing.ThesepotentialtargetsincludedKokura,Yokohama,Niigata,Hiroshima,andKyoto,allofwhichmetthecriteriathattheybeatleast3milesindiameter,theblastwouldbeeffec-tive, and the target would not be attacked by August.18ItwasfinallydecidedthatHiroshimawastobethefirsttarget.

At8:15AMAugust6th,1945,aplanebythenametheEnolaGaydroppedtheLittleBoy(anatomicbomb)ontoHiroshima,Japan,taking44.4secondstoreachtheground.Uponhittingthegroundtheexplosionvaporizedanareaonemileindiameter,andcreatedfiresinanareaaboutfourmilesindiameter.19Approximately80,000peoplediedalmostinstantlybytheblastornearafterbythefireoftheexplosion.20 Figure 4 shows before and after aerial photographsofNagasaki.Table1showscomparativeeffectsoftheHiroshimaandNagasakibombings.Figure5givesagraphicalrepresentationoftherela-tionshipbetweenproximitytothehypcenteranddeathrates.

Three Days Later AfteranattemptatdemandingsurrenderfromtheJapanese,theUnitedStatesinterceptedamessagethatmadeitclearthattheJapanesewerenotready to give in to defeat. 21ItwasobvioustotheUnitedStatesthatanothershowofpowerwasnecessary,sopreparationofthenextatomicbomb,TheFatMan,wentunderway.

Duetosomedelays,causedbyafailedfuelpump,theoriginaltargetofKokurawasengulfedinsmokefromnearbyfirebombingraids.Thecrewofthe Bockscar changed directions and headed for their secondary target, Naga-saki. When they arrived, clouds initially obscured their view of the target, but at11:01AMthecloudsclearedandtheydroppedtheFatMandownonNaga-saki.Theresultingexplosionwasequivalentto21KilotonsofTNT,comparedtoLittleMan’syieldbeingequivalentto16kilotons. 22

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In citation-sequence numerical styles, every refernece to a single source uses the same identifying number, as with source 12 here.

Mr holt attaches two figures and a table near the end of his report. It would have been more effeective if these graphics were better integrated in the report. There are, however, types of technical reports in which tables and even figures are grouped together in appendices at the end of the report.

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Figure 4: Nagasaki, Japan, before and after the atomic bombing of August 9, 1945Source:U.S.NationalArchives.[accessed2014Nov28].http://www.archives.gov/research/military/ww2/photos/images/rg77-163.jpg

Table1belowcomparethedestructioncausedbytheHiroshimaandNagasakibombs.Figure5comparesthenumberofimmediatedeathstothetotaldeathraterelativetodistancefromthehypocenter.

Table 1: Comparison of the Atmoic Boms in Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Hiroshima NagasakiHeightofburstpoint 280+/-20m 500Areawhereroof-tilesmelted 600m 1000mAreaWheregranitestonemelted 1000m 1600m

Source:HiroshimaCommittee,HiroshimaandNagasakibombing.[accessed2014Dec5].http://www.hiroshimacommittee.org/Facts_NagasakiAndHiro-shimaBombing.htm

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Figure 5: Relationship between the distance from the hypocenter and the Percent of Deaths in that Distance Range.Source:HiroshimaCommittee,HiroshimaandNagasakibombing.[accessed2014Dec5].http://www.hiroshimacommittee.org/Facts_NagasakiAndHiro-shimaBombing.htm

CONCLUSION OnAugust15,1945theEmperorofJapangavehisspeechonthesur-renderoftheJapanesepeopleanditwasbroadcasted.TheofficialsurrenderofJapancameonSeptember2,1945.23RepresentativesofJapanboardedtheUSSMissouri,andsignedtheJapaneseInstrumentofSurrender.24

Itisoftenarguedwhetherornottheuseoftheatomicbombwasneed-edtoendthewarinJapan.Supportersofitsusestatethatitpotentiallysavedatleast500,000U.S.trooplives,andpossiblyevenpreventedtheJapanesefromhavinghighercasualtiesaswell.Thoseopposedoftenstatethattheveryideaoftheatomicbombisunethical,andthattheU.S.governmentdehumanizedtheJapanesepeoplebydoingso.25Whetherornotthebombendedthewaris uncertain, but it was certain that its creation changed the world forever, for good or for evil.

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137Research Report

End References1."GermanRevolutionof1918–19,"[Online].Available:http://

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%9319.[Ac-cessed7December2014].2."1919-1933:aneconomicoverview,"LondonJewishCulturalCentre,

2011.[Online].Available:http://www.theholocaustexplained.org/ks3/the-nazi-rise-to-power/economic-issues/1919-1933-an-economic-overview/#.VITAIc-nDVgo.[Accessed7December2014].3.D.Goldhagen,Hitler'sWillingExecutioners:OrdinaryGermansandthe

Holocaust,NewYork:Knopf,1996.4.A.Beevor,TheSecondWorldWar,NewYork:Weidenfeld&Nicolson,

2012.5.W.LanouetteandB.Silard,GeniusintheShadows:ABiographyofLeo

Szilárd:TheManBehindTheBomb,NewYork:CharlesScribner'sSons,1992.6.L.SzilárdandA.Einstein,"Einstein–Szilárdletter,"1939.7.V.Jones,Manhattan:TheArmyandtheAtomicBomb,Washington,D.

C.:UnitedStatesArmyCenterofMilitaryHistory,1985.8.R.G.HewlettandO.E.Anderson,TheNewWorld,1939–1946,Univer-

sityPark:PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress.,1962.9.L.Groves,NowItCanBeTold:TheStoryoftheManhattanProject,New

York:DaCapoPress,1962.10. J. a. Jackson, City Behind a Fence.11.M.Williams,"TheBigSecretattheClintonEngineeringWorks,"14th

June2013.[Online].Available:http://www.acontinuouslean.com/2013/06/14/the-big-secret-at-the-clinton-engineering-works/.[Accessed20147December].12.R.Rhodes,ThemakingoftheAtomicBomb,NewYork:Simon&

Schuster,1995.13.L.Hoddeson,P.W.Henriksen,R.A.MeadeandC.L.Westfall,Critical

Assembly:ATechnicalHistoryofLosAlamosDuringtheOppenheimerYears,1943–1945,NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1993.14.P.Parekh,T.Semkow,M.Torres,D.Haines,J.Cooper,P.Rosenberg

andM.Kitto,"RadioactivityinTrinititesixdecadeslater,"JournalofEnviron-mentalRadioactivity,vol.1,no.85,pp.103-120,2006.15.H.D.Smyth,AtomicEnergyforMilitaryPurposes:theOfficialReport

ontheDevelopmentoftheAtomicBombundertheAuspicesoftheUnitedStatesGovernment,1940–1945,Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1945.

9

There are many varieties of numeri-cal documentation styles. This report uses the CSE Cita-tion Sequence style. In some versions of numerical docu-mentation the en-tries are overhung instead of indetned as they are here.

Mr. Holt uses many more sources than would be expected for an assignment of this sort.

138 Research Report

16."WorldWarIIinthePacific,"20June2014.[Online].Available:http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005155.[Accessed7De-cember2014].17."HistoryLearningSite.co.uk,"2014.[Online].Available:http://www.

historylearningsite.co.uk/operation_downfall.htm.[Accessed7December2014].18.G.Dannen,"AtomicBomb:Decision—TargetCommittee,May10–11,

1945,"[Online].Available:http://web.archive.org/web/20050808014201/http://www.dannen.com/decision/targets.html.[Accessed7December2014].19.W.McraneyandJ.McGhan,"RadiationDoseReconstructionU.SOc-

cupationForcesinHiroshimaandNagasaki,Japan,1945-1946,"1980.20.H.Committee,"Hroshima&NagasakiBombing,"[Online].Available:

http://www.hiroshimacommittee.org/Facts_NagasakiAndHiroshimaBombing.htm.[Accessed7December2014].21.E.P.H.E.P.Hoyt,Japan'sWar:TheGreatPacificConflict,NewYork:

McGraw-Hill,2007.22.T.M.E.District,TheAtomicBombingofHiroshimaandNagasaki,

CreateSpaceIndependentPublishingPlatform,2013.23.M.Fisher,"TheEmperor'sSpeech:67YearsAgo,HirohitoTransformed

JapanForever,"15August2012.[Online].Available:m.theatlantic.com/in-ternational/archive/2012/8/the-emperors-speech-67-years-ago-hirohito-trans-formed-japan-forever/261166/.[Accessed8December2014].24."USSMissouriInstrumentofSurrender,WWII,".Available:PeralHar-

bor,HistoricalMarkerDatabase,www.hmdb.org.25.J.S.Walker,"TheDecisiontoUsetheBomb:AHistoriographicalUp-

date,"DiplomaticHistory,pp.97-114,1990.

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139

Readability Indices

How to Compute Gunning’s Fog Index

RobertGunning'sFogIndex,publishedinTechniqueofClearWriting,wasoneofthefirsteffortstoquantifythereadabilityoftextualmaterial.Thenumberthatresultsfromthefollowingcalculationsismeanttocorrelatetogradelevel.

1. Countthewordsandsentencesinarepresentativepassageofabout100words

2. Dividethenumberofwordsbythenumberofsentencestogivetheaveragelengthofeachsentence

3. Countthenumberofwordsofthreeormoresyllablesthatarenot(a)propernames,(b)combinationsofshorteasywordslikehousekeeperorbutterfly,or(c)verbsthataremadethreesyllableslongbysuffixessuchas-ed,-es,or-ing

4. Addtheaveragesentencelengthfromstep2andthenumberof“difficult”wordsfromstep3.*

5. Multiplytheresultingsumby0.4.

GunningFogIndex=[(numberofwords/numberofsentences)+“difficultwords”]x0.4

The Bible,forthemostpart,hasaFogIndexof6or7.Timemagazinemeasuresabout10.EventheAtlanticMonthlyhasaFogIndexofonly12.Remember,justbecauseapersonhaslotsofschoolingandcanunderstandwrittenmatterwithaFogIndexof17-plus,doesn’tmeanshelikestoreadsuchstuff.

*Ifyouareusingasamplemuchlargerthan100words,dividethenumberof"difficult"wordsbythenumberofwordsinthesampleandmultiplythequotientby100.Addtheresultingnumbertothe average sentence length.

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140

Flesch Reading Ease Formula

Readabilitytestingofmaterialsforadultreaderswaspopularizedinthe1940sbyRudolphFlesch.TheFleschReadingEaseFormulacalculatesascoreof0-100foraselectedpassage.Thehigherthescore,theeasierthepassageistoread.FormoststandarddocumentstechnicalwritersaimforaFleschReadingEastscoreof60-70.

TheformulafortheFleschReadingEasescoreis

206.835-(1.015xASL)-(84.6xASW)

whereASL=averagesentencelength(thenumberofwordsdividedbythenumberofsentences)andASW=averagenumberofsyllablesperword(thenumberofsyllablesdividedbythenumberofwords).

Flesch-Kincaid Readability Index

J.PeterKincaidadaptedRudolphFlesch'sformulatocreatetheFlesch-KincaidGradeLevelscore.LiketheGunningFogIndex,theFlesch-KincaidReadabilityIndexpurportstoratetextbyU.S.grade-schoollevel.Forexample,ascoreof8.0meansthataneightgradercanunderstandthedocu-ment.Manyprofessionalssuggestthatformoststandarddocumentsthataredesignedtobereadbyawideaudience,atechnicalwritershouldaimforascoreofapproximately7.0to8.0.

TheformulafortheFlesch-KincaidGradeLevelscoreis

(.39xASL)+(11.8XASW)-15.59

whereASL=averagesentencelength(thenumberofwordsdividedbythenumberofsentences)andASW=averagenumberofsyllablesperword(thenumberofsyllablesdividedbythenumberofwords).

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141Analyzing and Testing Writing

Word Processing Programs and Readability Indices

Mostwordprocessingprogramswillcalculatethereadabilityoftextordocumentsthatyouselect.WhenMicrosoftWordfinishescheckingspellingandgrammar,itcandisplaytheFleschReadingEasescoreandtheFlesch-KincaidGradeLevelfortheselectedpassageordocument.Seetheillus-trationbelowforanillustrationofWord'sReadabilityStatisticsdisplay.

Some Sample Readability Scores from This Text

GregBobel's"HowDoInsectsFly?"hasaFleschReadingEasescoreof47.8andaFlesch-KincaidGrade Level score of 11.2.

ToddStrawn's"TheFourStrokesofaFour-StrokeEngine"hasaFleshReadingEasescoreof51.8andaFlesch-KincaidGradelevelof11.7.TheMicrosoftWorddialogueboxanalyzingStrawn'sreportisshown to the right.

JohnEden's"AnatomyandFunctionoftheEyeball:hasaFleschReadingEasescoreof58.9andFlesch-Kin-caid Grade Level of 9.7.

GregGrady's"TheUpperclassman"hasaFleschReadingEasescoreof70.3andaFlesch-KincaidGrade Level score of 7.1.

142 Analyzing and Testing Writing

Testing Writing

Aneffectivewaytodiscoverhowtechnicaldocumentscanbemademoreinformative,persuasive,andusableistotestthem.Testsaredesignedtoanswertwogeneralquestions:

•Howcanthedraftbeimproved?• Isthedocumentgoodenough?Inotherwords,howcloseisittoanacceptablefinalversion?

ThefollowingguidelinesfortestingwritingarebasedonmaterialintheseventheditionofPaulAnderson'sTechnical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach, 2011.

1. Establish test objectives.Theseareaseriesofquestionsaboutyourdocument.Dotheheadingshelpreadersaccessinformationefficiently?Arereadersabletocompletethetask?Doreadersunderstandthetechnicaltermsinthedocument?Youcanalsoestablishmeasurable criteriasuchassayinginstructionsaregoodenoughifreadersareabletocompletethetaskinlessthanfiveminuteswithnoseriouserrors.

2. Select test readers like your target readers.Inordertodothiseffectively,youmusthavea clear understanding of the your intended audience. Consider the knowledge and cultural backgroundofyourtargetaudiencewhenselectingtestreaders.Thenumberoftestreadersmaydependonthetypeofdocument.Asmallnumberoftestreadersmaygiveanaccurateviewoftheeffectivenessofinstructions.Alargernumberoftestreadersmaybeneededtogetanaccuratepictureofreaders'understandingofacomplicateddocument.

3. To focus on usability, ask your readers to use the document in the same way that your target readers will.Asarule,thetargetreaders'useofthedocumentwillbeofthreetypes:(1)performingatask,(2)locatinginformation,or(3)understandingandrememberingcontent.

(1)Performancetesting:Askyourreadertoperformthesametaskasyourtargetreadersinasettingsimilartotheonetargetreaderswillbeinandusingmaterialsandtoolsthatwillbeavailable to your target readers.

(2)Location testing:Askyourtestreadertofindparticularpiecesofinformationinthedocumentasquicklyaspossible.Thisisaneffectivewaytotesttheeffectivenessofheadings,indices, and table of contents.

143

(3)Understandability tests:Askyourtestreadertoreadthedocumentandthenuseawrittentestorinterviewtodeterminehowwelltheyunderstoodwhattheyread.Youcould,forexample,askyourreadertoidentifyacorrectparaphraseofthecontentortoapplytheinformationinthedocumenttoafictionalsituation.

4. To focus on persuasiveness, test how the document affects your readers' attitudes. Interview test readers.Questionsshouldfocusonthereaders'attitudestowardboththeinformationinthedocumentandthemannerinwhichthedocumentispresented.Youcanuseopen-endedquestionssuchas"Howdoyoufeelaboutthecompany'snewproduct?"orquestionsbasedonascale"Onascaleof1(veryappealing)to5(veryunappealing),howdoyoufeelaboutthecompany'snewproduct?

5. Avoid biasing results.Testinghaslessvalueiftheresultsarebiasedbyyouractions.Refrainfrominterveninginthetestingprocessandbecarefultowordquestionsinanunbiasedmanner.Toincreaseobjectivity,considerhavingsomeoneelseconductthetestforyou.

6. Consider re-testing.Testingearlyinthedraftingprocessandfollowingupwithtestsoflaterdraftscanbebeneficial.

Analyzing and Testing Writing

144 Rating a Presentation

Basic Powerpoint Communications Rating Sheet

Speaker(1):_____________________ Topic:______________________

Speaker(2):_____________________

Criteria for Evaluation:

Content____/15

___/3effectiveintroduction(gotaudienceattention)&preview___/7overallorganization/development(flow)___/2assignedcontentispresent___/3effectiveconclusionand/orsummary________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

PersonalMannerofPresentation____/5

___/2vocalqualityofdelivery(dynamics/volume/enthusiasm/emphasis)___/2speed/paceofdelivery(notrushed;didnotreadfromslides)___/1exhibitsunderstandingofthematerial________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

ConsiderationoftheAudience____/10

___/2textiseasytoread(fontandcolor)___/5visualsareaestheticallyappealingandappropriate___/3theslideshow“works”properly(nohiccups,nofilesmissing,timingisright)________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_________/30=TotalScore

145Review of Basic Writing Skills

Sentence Errors

Fragments,commasplices,andfusedsentencesareseriouserrorsbecausetheyindicateuncer-tainlyregardingthebasicstructureofwritingandcanleadtoseriousmiscommunication.

Clauses:Aclauseisagroupofwordsthatcontainsalegalsubject-verbcombination.Clausescan be either independent or dependent.

Connectives: FourmaintypesofwordsareusedtoconnectelementsinEnglishsentences:relative pronouns, subordinating conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, and coordinating conjunc-tions.

Table 1: Types of Connectives

Thesemakeaclause Thesekeepaclause Dependent Independent

relative subordinating conjunctive coordinating pronouns conjunctions adverbs conjunctions

who although however and whom before nevertheless but whose if then for that since therefore so which when thus or before consequently nor many others many others yet

Youcanmemorizetherelativepronounsandcoordinatingconjunctions.Youcandifferentiatesubordinating conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs by testing to see if they can be relocated within theclause.Onlytheconjunctiveadverbscanbemoved.

Forexample,theconjunctiveadverb“then”canbelocatedinseveralplacesinthefollowingsentence:

I bought new shoes; (then), I (then) went (then) to Walmart (then).

If,however,thesubordinatingconjunction“when”wereusedinthesamesentence,itcouldhaveonly one location:

I bought new shoes (when) I went to Walmart.

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Checking Sentence Errors

Withthebasicunderstandingofclausesandconnectives,youanalyzeasentenceusingthefollowingprocess.

1. Determinehowmanyclausesthesentencescontains. <> Locateall"legal"verbs(excludinginfinitivesandparticipleswithouthelpingwords). <> Matchthe"legal"verbswiththeirsubjects.

2. Determinehowmanyclausesareindependent. <> Clausesthatbeginwithsubordinatingconjunctionsaredependent. <> Mostclausesthatbeginwithrelativepronounsaredependent. <> Otherclausesareindependent.

3. Counttheindependentclauses. <> Ifthesentencecontainsnoindependentclauses,itisasentencefragment. <> Ifthesentencecontainsoneindependentclause,ithasnosentenceerrors. <> Ifthesentencecontainstwoormoreindependentclauses,youneedtotest their connection.

4. Testthewayinwhichindependentclausesareconnected. <> IfIC,IC=commasplice. <> IfICIC=fusedsentence(run-on). <> Else=noerrors.

Fixing Sentence Errors

Fourwaystorepairacommasplice(IC,IC)orfusedsentence(ICIC). 1. IC,andIC. 2. IC;IC. 3. DC,IC.orICDC. 4. IC.IC.

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Commas

Althoughtherearemanyrulesregardingtheuseofcommas,thefourbelowwillcovermosttroublingsituationsandgiveyoulogicalreasonsforplacingcommasinyourwriting.

1. Place a comma before a coordinating conjunction that is being used to connect two in-dependent clauses.

Example: Jeffreyateallhispotatoes,buthedidn’tfinishhissalad.

2. Place a comma after a dependent clause or long introductory phrase at the beginning of a sentence.

Example: When Jeffrey is hungry, he will eat anything.

3. Separate nonessential dependent clauses with commas.

Essential: Themanwho is wearing the red hat will give you $100.

Nonessential: Mr.Spry,who likes red hats, will give you $100.

4. Separate interjections that interrupt your sentence with commas. Example: Thenewtextbook,however,isamajorimprovement.

Subject-Verb Agreement

Thefollowingsentencesprovideexampleoftrickysubject-verbagreementproblems.

1. Hereunderthechairs(is,are)aten-year-oldcat.2. Eachoftheaccelerators(is,are)compatiblewiththiscomputer.3. Eitherthesquirrelsorthedog(is,are)diggingupmygarden.4. BothFredandJill(is,are)leavingforClevelandtonight.5. Invisible Manisoneofthosebooksthat(is,are)worthreadingmorethanonce.6. Invisible Man istheonlyoneoftheassignedbooksthat(is,are)worthreadingatall.7. Economics(is,are)mygreatestacademicfear.8. Mygreatestacademicproblem(is,are)frequentabsences.

(Seeanswersonpage228)

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Pronoun Agreement and Reference

Thefollowingsentencesprovideexamplesoftrickypronounagreementandreferenceprob-lems.Pronounsneedtoagreewiththeirantecedentsinperson,number,andgender.

1. Mr.Jones,Mrs.Jones,and(we,us)aregoingtothechurchpicnicthisafternoon. 2. Eachofthestudentshandedin(her,their)assignmentlate. 3. Theprofessor(who,whom)wehiredhasanoutstandingpublicationrecord. 4. Thegirl(who,whom)gaveusdirectionswaspretty. 5. Thenewconsultantstoldthearchitectsthat(they)wouldneedtoreexaminetheconstruction

plans.[Whatshouldsubstitutefor"they"?] 6. Sallywalkedoutonherboringjob,herinsensitivehusband,andhermind-numbingdegree

program,pleasedtobethroughwith(it).[Whatshouldsubstitutefor"it"?] 7. SallytoldmethattherecipientsofthenewscholarshipswereGeorgeand(her,she). 8. IncontrasttoSallyand(I,me),thenewgroupmemberseemedenthusiastic. 9. (Us,We)groupmemberswillhavetoworktogetheroutsideofclass.10. Ifastudentcompletesalloftheassignments,(you,he,she,they)willprobablypass.

(Seeanswersonpage228)

Using Numbers

Ingeneral,technicalwritersbelievethatnumbersarebestexpressedinfigures(37)ratherthanwords(thirty-seven).Althoughpracticeregardingtheuseofnumbersintechnicaldocumentsvaries,somecommonlyacceptedrulesarelistedbelow. 1. Use words for numbers

<> thatarelessthan10: two nine <> thatarefree-standingfractions Wehavecompletedthree-fourthsoftheproject. <> thatexpresstimestatedwithouta.m./p.m. onefifteen ninethirty <> thatareordinals first third

2. Use figures for numbers <> thatare10orgreater 17 347,615 <> thatexpressfractionsusedasmodifiersorjoinedtowholenumbers 3/8-in.drillbit 61/2

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<> thatexpressdates June 11, 1991 August 12 <> thatexpresspagenumbers page12 page243 <> thatexpresspercentages 23percent 5percent <> thatexpressages 6-year-oldcomputer <> thatexpressamountsofmoney $12.96 $247.00 <> thatexpresstimewitha.m./p.m.designation 4:45p.m. 8:30a.m. <> thatarepartofagroupofmixednumbers Forthatprojecttheyneeded14actors,2videocameras,and24videocassettes.

3. Never begin a sentence with a number written as a figure.

Eighty-threepercentoftherespondentsopposedthenewtax.

4. If one number must be placed immediately before another, write out the first and use a figure for the second.

Iorderedtwenty-seven4-gigabytedrives.

Hyphenation

1. Hyphenate compound modifiers that precede the noun that they modify.

thefirst-placeteam theteamwasinfirstplace

2. Hyphenate adverb-participle compounds before a noun unless the adverb ends in -ly.

thehard-drivingrain theslowlyfallingsnow

3. Hyphenate ratios that are used as adjectives and precede the noun.

atwo-to-onemajority Theplanwaspassedtwotoone

4. Hyphenate a series of compound adjectives preceding a noun.

Ourprogramadmitssixth-,seventh-,andeighth-gradestudents.

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Capitalization

1. Capitalize proper nouns, books, languages, days of the week, months, holidays, names of organizations, races and nationalities, historical events, and names of structures.

Iranian WitherspoonHall Invisible Man August OperationDesertStorm GroundhogDay

2. Capitalize titles that precede a proper noun

PresidentRobertBrown RobertBrown,president

3. Capitalize words such as street or college only when they are used with a proper noun.

ArkansasTechUniversity Twenty-ThirdStreet atwo-yearcollege aone-waystreet

4. Capitalize directions when they denote specific location, not simple direction.

the Northwest turn north at the corner

Abbreviations

1. In formal writing, avoid abbreviating days of the week, months, names of disciplines, states, countries, or words such as street or road.

Tuesday,July22,1997 WestSixteenthStreet

2. Abbreviate units of measurement only after they have been spelled out in full the first time and are used often in your report.

In"HowDoInsectsFly?"GregBobelmeasurestheweightofmothsingrams;forexample,thesphinxmothweighs.628gr.

3. Use only the abbreviations that you are confident your reader will understand. Iwasdrivingatmorethan80mphwhenthetrooperspottedme.

4. Try to avoid using abbreviations in graphics.

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151Review of Basic Writing Skills

Some Common Technical Abbreviations amp ampere kw kilowatt BTU BritishThermalUnit kwh Kilowatthour C Celsius lb pound c cubiccentimeter m meter cm centimeter mg milligram cuft cubicfoot ml milliliter db decibel m millimeter F Fahrenheit mph milesperhour FM frequencymodulation no number fp footpound oz ounce fpm footpoundminute psf poundspersquarefoot ft foot psi poundspersquareinch gal gallon r roentgen gr gram rpm revolutionsperminute hp horsepower sec second j joule t ton kg kilogram ts tensilestrength km kilometer va voltampere

Clarity

<> Use articles, prepositions, linking verbs, and relative pronouns to avoid ambiguous and overly condensed sentences, sometimes called “telegraphic writing.”

overly condensed: SuggestiontochangeWonderBoynicknamerejected. revised:ThesuggestiontochangetheWonderBoynicknamewasrejected.

<> Avoid the wordy and ambiguous use of “There is” as a sentence opener.

wordy: There is a Lyle Lovett concert scheduled in January revised: A Lyle Lovett concert is scheduled in January.

<> Avoid “It” as a sentence opener, unless “it” has a clear antecedent..

wordy:Itwashernewattitudethatlandedhertheposition. revised: Hernewattitudelandedhertheposition.

<> When possible, state ideas positively to avoid confusion.

negative: Theraspberrysherbertwasnotmyfirstchoice. positive: Theraspberrysherbertwasmysecondchoice.

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Diction

<> Use one word instead of a phrase

wordy: WesoldalargenumberofRazorbacktickets. revised: WesoldmanyRazorbacktickets.

<> Avoid redundant expressions. wordy: Mydogappearstobefeelingill. revised: Mydogseemsill.

redundant:Weareexpectantlylookingforwardtotheconcert. revised: We are looking forward to the concert.

<> Eliminate vague intensives.

cluttered: We actuallymadeveryfashionablet-shirts,butwehadtopricethemextremely high in order to reallymakeatrueprofit.

concise: Wemadefashionablet-shirts,butwehadtopricethemhighinordertomakeaprofit.

<> Avoid needless technical terminology.

useless jargon: Whenallpartiesinterfacesynchronouslywithinthegivenparameters,theprojectwillberenderedoperative.

revised:Whenwecoordinateourefforts,theprojectwillsucceed.

<> Use acronyms only when the reader already knows the meaning. Be sure to give the definition of an acronym when it is first used.

correct: MothersAgainstDrunkDriving(MADD)issponsoringafundraisernextweek.

<> Be careful when using euphemisms. Avoid understating the facts. understated: Mr.Baxterwasletgofromthecompanybecausehedidnotmeetourneeds. clear: Mr.Baxterwasfiredbecauseofhisrepeatedabsences.

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Tone

<> In adjustment or sales letters use the pronouns you and your to make your writing seem more personal.

impersonal tone: Membersoftheclubwillreceiveanawardforvolunteering. personal tone: Asamemberoftheclub,youwillreceiveanawardforvolunteering.

<> Use neutral expressions to avoid stereotypical sexist language. Avoid the use of mascu-line third person singular when referring to both male and female. Do not use expres-sions that belittle behavior by one gender.

sexist: Areyouinterestedinbecomingastewardess? neutral: Areyouinterestedinbecomingaflightattendant? sexist: Eachprojectengineershouldpresenthisplanstomorrow. neutral: Allprojectengineersshouldpresenttheirplanstomorrow.

Voice

<> Use active voice to present a direct and straightforward sentence.

inappropriate passive:TheroleofSpockwasplayedbyLeonardNemoy direct: LeonardNemoyplayedtheroleofSpock.

<> Use passive voice to state a sentence concerning an unknown, unimportant, or unappar-ent agent.

appropriate passive: Allmemosinthisfirmarefiledinacentraldatabase.

ThespellingandgrammarcheckerinMicrosoftWordandmanyotherwordprocess-ingprogramswillcalculatethepercentageofpassivesentencesinapieceofwriting.Forexample,25percentofthesentencesinJohnEden's"AnatomyandFunctionoftheEyeball"(page72)arepassive.Thearticleonthefollowingpages,writtenbyKentPorterofFairfieldSemiconductorhumorouslyunderscorestheproblemsinher-entinusingthepassivevoiceintechnicaldocuments.

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Usage of the Passive VoiceKent Porter

Fairchild Semiconductor

Widespreadpopularityhasbeengainedbythepassivevoiceinbusinessandtechnicalcommunica-tion.Thechiefreasonforitsutilizationisthatdocumentsaregivenanauraofunassailableauthoritybyit.Thefollowingmemorandumisofferedasanexample:

Ithasbeendecidedthat,effectiveimmediately,thedoorstotheplantwillbelockedat0900eachday.Onlythoseemployeeswhohavebeenissuedaspecialpasswillbepermittedtoenterthereafter.Allotherswillnotbeadmitted,andwillbedockedtheday'spay.

Fromthismemo,itcannotbedetermined—

* Bywhomthisactionwasdecided. * For what reason the action has been undertaken. * Bywhomthedoorswillbelocked * Bywhomthespecialpassisissued. * Bywhomtheemployee'spaywillbewithheld.

Therefore,whileamightydictumhasbeenarticulatedbythismemo,responsibilitycannotbeas-signedtoanyone;itcanonlybeassumedthatthepolicywaswrittenandisadministeredbyGod.

Parallelscanbefoundthroughouttechnicalwriting.Inaprogrammingmanual,forexample,itissaid that

Registersareloadedfrommemoryaddresses,butthememorylocationsfromwhichthedataaretakenarenotalteredintheprocess.

Fromthisentry,itcanbeconcludedthattheseactionsarenotperformedbyanyoneoranything,butinsteadoccurasifbymagic.Furthermore,itismadeclearbythepassivevoicethatthetruthoftheseassertionsisunquestionable.Statementsinthepassivevoicearethusmadetosoundponder-ouslyofficial.

Atthispoint,thenatureofthepassivevoiceshouldbeexplained.Passiveusageisdividedintotwobasic categories:

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Category1: PassivewithoutResponsibleAgency /subject/+/formofverbTOBE/+/pastparticiple/Examples: Mondayshavebeencanceled. Taxes should be abolished. Technicalwritingisjudgedtobeeffectivewhenitcannotbeunderstood(by anyone).

Category 2: Extended Passive IT/formofverbTOBE/+/pastparticiple/+THAT /anticipatedoutcome,expressedinthepassive/Examples: Ithasbeendecidedthatbreakfastwillbeserved. Itshouldbenotedthatresultsmaynotbeachievedasexpected. Itistobesupposedthatreasonsforthetaxincreasesareunderstood.

Apotentialbenefitaccruedbyusageofthepassivevoiceisthatthewriterisforcedtoconstructlongersentencesthanwouldberequiredbytheactivevoice.Anopportunityisthuscreatedfortheintroductionofobscure,pompouswordsandconvolutedphraseology,withtheresultthattheauraofdivinepronouncementisfurthermagnifiedandthetrivialismadetosounddisproportionatelyimpor-tant.

Perhapsthemostsignificantbenefitachievedbythepassivevoiceintechnicalliteratureisthatthereaderisboredtotearsbyit.Allbutthemostmotivatedarethusdiscouragedfromreadinganymorethanisdeemedtobenecessaryinordertohaveaspecificquestionanswered.Theuseroftheprod-uctbeingdescribedisthereforepreventedfromlearningmuchaboutit.

Inshort,iftechnicalliteratureweretoberenderedintheactivevoice—

* Itsmeaningwouldbeclarifiedforthosereadersunversedintechnobabble: * The trivial would be revealed for what it is: and * Theauraofmysterywithwhichhightechhasbeensurroundedwouldbediminished.

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Partition and Classification

Partition isananalyticalprocessinwhichone wholeisdividedintoitsconstituentparts.

Classification isananalyticalprocessinwhichoneconsistentbasisofclassificationisusedtosepa-rate adefinedsetofdistinctitemsintocategories.Aclassificationshouldadheretothefollowingstructural rules:

1. Completeness.Eachiteminthedefinedsetmusthaveacategoryintowhichitwillfit.

2. Exclusivity. Eachiteminthedefinedsetmustfitintoonlyone category.

3. Appropriateness. Even the mostskillfullyconstructedclassificationisuselessifitdoesnotfittheneedsofitsintended audience.

Intheexampletotheright,thesetofeightMartian-VenutianTri-BlastSpecialsfromBuckRogerscomicsisclassifiedonthebasisoforientation, resulting in four categories.

Rhetorical Strategies

157Rhetorical Strategies

The set of twenty-fourdraw-ings on the right sideofthispagecanbeclassifiedinmanyways.Practiceformulat-ingunambiguousbasesforclassifi-cation.Suggesting,forexample,thatthe drawings be classifiedaccord-ingto"shape"istoovague;how-ever, basing a clas-sificationonthenumberofsidesoftheinteriorshapeswouldbemuchclearer.

Notice that individual draw-ings will fall into different categories dependinguponthe basis for clas-sificationused.

Classification Exercise

158 Rhetorical Strategies

Types of Process Writing

Aprocessisaseriesofactions,changes,orfunctionsthatbringsaboutanendoraresult.Therearethreemajortypesofprocesswriting.

Instructions:

<> Aninstructionsetexplainshowtodoormakesomething. <> Aninstructionsetistypicallywritteninthesecondperson. <> Aninstructionsetistypicallywrittenintheimperativemood. <> Aninstructionsetemphasizesthereader'sortheoperator'srole. <> How To Mount a Deer's Head

Process Analysis

<> Aprocessanalysisexplainshowsomethingworksorhappens. <> Aprocessanalysisiswritteninthethirdperson. <> Aprocessanalysisiswrittenintheindicativemood and presenttense. <> Aprocessanalysisemphasizestheprocessandrelevanttheoretical

background. <> How Deer Heads Are Mounted

Process Narrative <> Aprocessnarrativedescribeshowsomethingworkedorhappenedinone

particularinstance. <> Aprocessnarrativeiswritteninthethird or firstperson. <> Aprocessnarrativeiswrittenintheindicativemood and pasttense. <> Aprocessnarrativeemphasizesthespecificdetailsofoneoccurrenceofthe

process. <> How I Mounted My First Deer Head

159Rhetorical Strategies

Writing Persuasive Application Letters

ThefollowingtipsarequotedfromJohnLannon'sTechnical Communication, Ninth Edition.

• Don't come across as a jack-of-all-trades.Relateyourqualificationsspe-cificallytothejobforwhichyouareapplying.

• Avoid flattery."Iamgreatlyimpressedbyyourremarkablecompany."• Be specific.Replace"muchexperience,""manycourses,"of"increased

sales"with"threeyearsofexperience,""fivecourses,"or"a35percentincrease in sales between June and October 2002

• Support all claims with evidence, to show how your qualifications will benefit this employer.Insteadofsaying,"Ihaveleadershipskills,"say,"Iwasstudentsenatepresidentduringandcaptainofthelacrosseteam."

• Create a dynamic tone by using active voice and action verbs.

What Employers Ask When Reading Application Letters

Paul Anderson 1suggeststhatemployersaskthreequestionswhenreviewingapplicationlet-ters.Aneffectiveapplicationlettershouldtrytorespondtotheseconcerns:

• Why do you want to work for me instead of someone else? • How will you contribute to my organization's success?• Will you work well with my other employees and the persons with whom

we do business?

ID: Information DesignSaulCarliner2suggeststhatgooddocumentdesignisactuallyinformationdesign(ID)andthatit works on three levels:

• Physical: IDhelps readersfind and use informationby giving them ameaningfulvisualandphysicaldesign.

• Cognitive: IDhelpsreadersunderstand informationby logicalstructureandpresentationthattakeintoconsiderationthereaders'intellectualandcultural backgrounds.

• Affective:IDmotivatesreadersbygettingtheirattention,maintainingtheirinterest,andpersuadingthemtoact.

1 PaulAnderson.TechnicalCommunication:AReader-CenteredApproach,7thEdition.Wadsworth,2011.p.50.2 SaulCarliner""Physical,Cognitive,andAffective:AThree-PartFrameworkforInformationDesign."Content

and Complexity: Information Design in Technical Communication. Ed. Michael J. Albers and Beth Mazur. Mah-wah, NJ: Lawrence Erbaum, 2003, 39-58.

160 Document Format

General Guidelines for Good Document Design

1. Useconsistentpagenumbers,headersandfooters.Usesectionbreakstocreatedifferentpagenumberingsystems,headers,orfooterswithinadocument.

2. Useadequatewhitespaceinordertokeeprelatedelementstogether,toemphasizeimportantinformation,andtogiveyourreadervisualrestbetweenblocksofinformation.

3. Useample,consistent,andappropriatemargins.Asageneral rule,marginsshouldbe1to1.5inches.Ifthedocumentisgoingtobe

bound,theleftmarginshouldbe2inches.

4. Useconsistentlinespacingthroughoutyourdocument. Academicpapersoftenrequiredouble-spacing,butworkplace

documentsmoretypicallyusesingle-spacingwithdouble-spacingbetweenparagraphs.

5. Uselistswhenappropriate.Bulletedlistsareeffectiveinmost instances,butnumberedlistsarebetterifthesequenceof listeditemsisimportantorifitimportanttobeabletoreferencea

particularpointinthelist.Makeitemsinalistsyntacticallyparallel.Seefurtherinformationonformattingorderedandunorderedlistsonpage173.

6. Usestandard10-to12-pointtype.

7. Useanappropriatefont.Trytousenomorethantwotypefacesinadocument.Wordprocessingprogramsoffermanypossiblefonts,butallfontscanbeclassifiedasseriforsansserif.Serifsarethefinehorizontalextensionstotheverticallinesofaletter.

serif [Times] sans serif [Arial] IntheUnitedStatesmostpublicationsuseseriffontssuchasTimesforbodytextandsansserif

fontssuchasArialforheadings.Sansseriffontsarealsooftenusedbydesignersofwebpagesbecause they are easier to read on screen. as a general rule avoid decorative fonts.

8. UseFULLCAPSinfrequentlyornever.Theabsenceofascendersanddescendersmakesallcapsmoretiringtoread.Inaddition,somepeoplereadallcapsasakindofannoyingvisually"shouting."

9. Useboldfacing,ruledlines,andtextboxestosetoffimportantterms,toseparatesectionsofinformation,ortohighlightwarningsorspecialinstructions.

© Allison Brucker

161Document Format

Headings

Technicaldocumentsarerarelyreadfromstarttofinishinalinearfashion;instead,readerstendtoskiparoundinadocument,lookingforspecificpiecesofinformation.Atechnicalwritershouldfacilitatethissearchingprocessbymakingdocumentsaccessible.Alogicalandvisuallyclearsystemofheadingsisonewaytoincreaseaccessibility.Awell-constructedsystemofheadingsalsoprovidesreaderswithvisualcluestothe organizationofinformationwithinadocument.Headingsaremuchmoreusefultoyourreaderifyouarecarefultomaketheminformative so that they accu-ratelycommunicatethecontentsofthesectionstheyprecede.Inordertoemphasizetheorganizationofyourwork,makeallheadingsatthesamelevelsyntactically parallel.

Insertoneadditionallineofspaceaboveeachfree-standingheading.Avoid"orphaned"or"float-ing"headingsthatstandaloneatthebottomofapage.Unlessatleasttwolinesoftextwillfitonapagebelowaheading,useapagebreaktoforcetheheadingtothenextpage.Themeaningofthetextbelowaheadingshouldbeindependentoftheheading,sodonotbeginthetextunderahead-ingwithapronounreferringtotheheading.Inlongdocumentsuserunningheadersorfootersthatincludethechapterorsectionname.

Thereisnoprescribedmethodofshowinghierarchy,butsomegeneralguidelinescanbestated.Ingeneral,boldfaced texttakespriorityoverplaintext;ALLCAPITALStakepriorityoverTitleCapitalsorFirst-lettercapitals;centeredtexttakespriorityoverleft-justifiedtext;largerfontstakepriorityoversmallerfonts,andunderlined titlestakespriorityovertitlesthatarenotunderlined.

Theexamplesthatfollowshowsomepossibilities.Oftenthemethodsareusedincombination.Themostimportantruleistobeconsistentinyouruseofheadings.

Using Capitalization PRIMARY HEADING τηισισασαµπλεδιγνβατστουσεασφιλλεριντηεπαραγραπΙλικετηισβεχαυσειτλοοκσσοµψστεριουσ.η.

Secondary Heading τηισισασαµπλεδιγνβατστουσεασφιλλεριντηεπαραγραπΙλικετηισβεχαυσειτλοοκσσοµψστεριουσ.η.

Tertiary heading τηισισασαµπλεδιγνβατστουσεασφιλλεριντηεπαραγραπΙλικετηισβεχαυσειτλοοκσσοµψστεριουσ.η.

162 Document Format

Using Location

Using Font Size

Using Font Style

Primary Heading τηισισασαµπλεδιγνβατστουσεασφιλλεριντηεπαραγραπΙλικετηισβεχαυσειτλοοκσσοµψστεριουσ.η.

Secondary Heading τηισισασαµπλεδιγνβατστουσεασφιλλεριντηεπαραγραπΙλικετηισβεχαυσειτλοοκσσοµψστεριουσ.η.

Tertiary Heading. τηισισασαµπλεδιγνβατστουσεασφιλλεριντηεπαραγραπΙλικετηισβεχαυσειτλοοκσσοµψστεριουσ.η.

Primary Heading τηισισασαµπλεδιγνβατστουσεασφιλλεριντηεπαραγραπΙλικετηισβεχαυσειτλοοκσσοµψστεριουσ.η.

Secondary Heading τηισισασαµπλεδιγνβατστουσεασφιλλεριντηεπαραγραπΙλικετηισβεχαυσειτλοοκσσοµψστεριουσ.η.

Tertiary Heading. τηισισασαµπλεδιγνβατστουσεασφιλλεριντηεπαραγραπΙλικετηισβεχαυσειτλοοκσσοµψστεριουσ.η

Primary Heading τηισισασαµπλεδιγνβατστουσεασφιλλεριντηεπαραγραπΙλικετηισβεχαυσειτλοοκσσοµψστεριουσ.η.

Secondary Heading τηισισασαµπλεδιγνβατστουσεασφιλλεριντηεπαραγραπΙλικετηισβεχαυσειτλοοκσσοµψστεριουσ.η.

Tertiary Heading τηισισασαµπλεδιγνβατστουσεασφιλλεριντηεπαραγραπΙλικετηισβεχαυσειτλοοκσσοµψστεριουσ.η..

163Document Format

Letter Format

Letterscanbeformattedinseveralways,butallformatscontainthesamepartsandshouldfollowthesamebasicformatrules.

General Format Rules for Letters

1. Lettersshouldnotappearcrampedorcrowdedonthepage.Leavesufficientwhitespace.

2. Lettersshouldbeappropriatelycenteredonthepage.Avoidgrosslyuneventopandbottommargins.

Primary Parts of a Letter

1. Heading: Theheadingincludesyouraddressandthedate.Theaddressisomittedifyouareusing letterhead.

12247 Excelsior Boulevard Russellville,AR72801 June 5, 1991

2. Inside Address: Theinsideaddressincludesthetitle,name,andaddressofthepersontowhomyouarewriting.

Mr.FredStanley DirectorofComputerServices AcmeDataServices 888Highway28 Ramapo,NJ01873

3. Salutation: Thesalutationtraditionallyincludestheword“Dear,”therecipient’stitle,lastname,andacolon.

DearMr.Stanley:

4. Body Text: Traditionallybodytextissingle-spacedwithdouble-spacingbetweenpara-graphs.

164

5. Complimentary Close: Thefirstwordofthecomplimentarycloseiscapitalizedandfol-lowedwithacomma.

Sincerely,

6. Signature Line: Typeyournamefourlinesbelowthecomplimentaryclose, providingspaceaboveitforyoursignature.

Carl Brucker

Optional Parts of a Letter

7. Attention Line: Ifyourletterisnotaddressedtoanindividual,youmayuseanattentionlineaboveorinplaceofthesalutation.

Attention:CustomerServiceDepartment

8. Subject or Reference Line: Althoughitisnottypicalofletters,asubjectlinemaybeaddedbelow the attention line if you are using one.

Subject:RequestforReturnAuthorization

9. Typist’s Initials: Ifsomeoneelsetypesyourletter,yourcapitalizedinitialsfollowedbythetypist’slower-caseinitialsshouldappearattheleftmargintwolinesbelowthesignatureline.

CB/wc

10. Enclosure Notation: Ifyouareincludingotherdocumentswithyourletter,indicatetheirpresencewithanenclosurenotation.

Enclosure:DataTalkmanual,demoprogramdisk

11. Distribution Notation: Ifcopiesofyourlettersaregoingtobesenttoreaders otherthantheaddressee,listtheirnamesnexttothenotation"c:"or"Copy:"onelinebelowthe enclosure notice.

Copy:B.Brown F.Smith

Document Format

165Document Format

12. Postscript:Apostscriptisafinal,personalremarktothereaderthatisprecededbythenota-tion“P.S.”Don’toverusepostscripts.

P.S.Youwilllovethespeedofthesenewdrives.

13. Second-Page Header: Ifyourletterislongerthanonepage,thesecondandallsubsequentpagesshouldstartwithaleft-justifiedheaderthatliststherecipient’sname,thedate,andthepagenumber.

Stanley,June5,1991,page2

Althoughindividualcompaniesororganizationsmayadopttheirownletterformats,thetwoletterformatsthataremostpopularintheworkplacearethemodified block format and the block for-mat. Thenumbersonthefollowingrepresentationsofthesetwoformatscorrelatetothepartsofaletter that are described above.

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Modified Block Format

1 ------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------

2 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3 ------------------------------:

4 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5 ---------------------------------

6 ---------------------------------

Document Format

167Document Format

Block Format

1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3 ------------------------------:

4 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5 ---------------------------------

6 ---------------------------------

168

Simplified Format *

1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3 Subjectlineinsteadofsalutation:

4 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6 ---------------------------------*WilliamPfeiffer.Technical Writing.FifthEdition.UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:Prentice-Hall,2003.p.248.

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Email

Emailisanimportantformoftechnicalcommunicationbecauseitoffersseveralclearadvantages:

•Itcanbetransmittedquickly. •Itstransmissioncanbeverified •Itcanberepliedtoreadily. •Itisinexpensive. •Itfacilitatesthesendingofmultiplecopies.

Emailisconsideredinformal,butasitbecomesmoreimportantintechnicalcommunication,writersshouldconsiderconstructingemailmessagesascarefullyastheywriteanyotherletterormemorandum.

Some Email Suggestions

1. Don’t treat an email like a text message Writeemailsincompletesentencesusingstandardcapitalizationandpunctuation.Becauseprofessional

emailsmorecloselyresemblelettersormemosintermsoftoneandformality,avoidusingtextingabbreviationsorslangaswellasemojis.

2. Use standard memorandum format Besurethatyouremailclearlydisplaysthesender,recipient,anddatesent.Asinastandardmemorandum,

trytomakeyoursubjectlineasspecificandinformativeaspossible.

3. Make the context of your message clear. Tellyourreaderwhyyouarewriting.Ifyouarereplyingtoamessage,besuretoquotetheprevious

messageorsummarizeitinyourreply.

4. Format your message for readability and accessability. Considerusingheadings,sufficientwhitespacebetweenparagraphs,andbulletedorenumeratedlists.

Activiatinghtmlinthecomposingpreferencesofyouremailprogramwillpermityoutouseboldfacing,underlining, and italics.

5. Don't share recipients email addresses. Whensendingmessagestogroups,suppresstheemailaddressesofrecipientsunlessthemembersofthe

grouphavespecificallyrequestedthattheybeshared.

6. Use a word processing program for important messages. Utilizethefullformattingandspellcheckingcapabilitiesofawordprocessingprogramforimportant

messages.Thencutandpastethedocumentintoanemailmessageorsenditasanattachment.

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Memorandum Format

Memorandaaretypicallywrittentopersonswithinyourcompanyororganization.Letterformatisusedforoutsidereaders.Althoughmemorandaareusuallyshort,reportsofmanypagescanbewritteninmemorandumformat.Memoranda,whichareoftentypedonprintedforms,areformattedtoprovideyourreaderwithquickaccesstofourimportantpiecesofinformation:

1. the recipient's name:Therecipient’snameisusuallyplacedatthetoporinsomeotherprominentplacetofacilitatedelivery.

2. the date

3. the sender's name

4. the subject of the memorandum. Amemorandum'ssubjectlineshouldgiveagriefbutcleardescriptionofthememorandum’ssubject.Oftenthesubjectlineishighlightedbybold-facing or underlining.

Eachpieceofinformationistypicallyprecededbyalabel.Sometimesthelabelforthedateisomitted.Memorandausuallydonothaveacomplimentarycloseorasignatureline;instead,thesenderinitialshisorhername.

Note.Ifamemorandumismorethanonepage,apageheaderthatincludestherecipient'sname,thedate,andthepagenumbershouldappearatthetopleftofthesecondpageandallsubsequentpages.

Document Format

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Memorandum

To: Ms.ShirleyGoines DirectorofStudentFinancialAid

From: Carl Brucker, Head DepartmentofEnglish

Date: July22,1998

Subject: Recommendation to offer Ms. Janet Pfeiffer a performance scholarship

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Memorandum

To: Ms.ShirleyGoines June22,1998 DirectorofStudentFinancialAid

From: Carl Brucker, Head DepartmentofEnglish

Subject: Recommendation to offer Ms. Janet Pfeiffer a performance scholarship

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Document Format

CB

CB

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Lists in Technical Writing

Listscanreinforcemeaingintechnicalducumentsbybreakingupdenseinformationinto"digestible"piecesandbyfocusingreaders'attentiononeachindividualitem.Technicalwriters,however,shouldavoidusingtoomanylists,asthiscanmakeadocumentbusyandfragmented.Listareeitherorderedorunor-dered,butwhencreatingeithertypetechnicalwritersshouldadheretocertaindesignguidelines:

• Effective lists are left aligned and overhung. This creates two vertical lines that visually align the elementsinthelist.Hangingindentationcanbesetintheparagraphformatpanelofwordprocessingprograms.

• Theseentriesareleftaligned,whichcreatesoneverticalelementforthereader.• Theyarealsooverhung,whichcreatesasecond,parallelverticalelementforthe

reader.

• Asageneralruletheglyphornumberatthebeginningofeachentryshouldbeinthesamefontandsizeasthetextintheentry.

• Entriesshouldbesyntacticallyparallel.

Nonparallel Parallel 1. formulatinghypothesis 1. formulatehypothesis 2. do library research 2. do library research 3. interviewProfessorEmily 3. interviewProfessorEmily 4. firstdraft 4. writefirstdraft 5. revisionofthefirstdraft 5. revisethefirstdraft 6. afterwegetapproval,preparingthe 6. preparethefinaldraft,afterweget finaldraft approval

• Punctuationdependsonthesyntaxoftheentriesbutshouldbeconsistent.Useanuppercaseletteratthestartandendpunctuationattheendforentriesthataresentences.

• Capitalizeasentencewhenentriesarecompletesentences.

Usealowercaseletteratthestartandnoendpunctuationforentriesthatarelessthancompletesen-tences.

• whenentriesarenotcompletesentences

Iftheentriesarephrasesfollowedbycompletesentences,useuppercaselettersatthestartandendpunctuationattheendofboththephraseandthesentence(s).

• Anopeningphrase.Followedbyacompletesentence.

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• Themostcommonlead-inforalistconsistsofagrammaticallycompleteclausefollowedbyacolon.Thefinalsentenceoftheintroductoryparagraphontheprecedingpageisanexample.

• Asmostpeoplecanonlyremember5to9itemseasily,subdividelistsofmorethan10items.

Original List RevisedList

American Authors: American Authors:

• EmilyDickinson • American Poets • TennesseeWilliams - EmilyDickinson • AllenGinsberg - RobertFrost • TheodoreDreiser - AllenGinsberg • RobertFrost - JohnWhittier • ToniMorrison • American Playwrights • FlanneryO'Connor - EugeneO'Neill • EugeneO'Neill - TennesseeWilliams • Alice Walker • American Novelists • JohnWhittier - TheodoreDreiser • JohnSteinbeck - ToniMorrison - FlanneryO'Connor - AliceWalkerOrdered Lists

• Orderedlistsusenumerals(Arabic,smallRoman,largeRoman)oruppercaseoflowercaseletterstoindi-catesequenceorpriority.Numberedlistsarecriticalwhendescribingaprocessinwhichoneactionmustfollowthenextinaparticularorder.Enumerationalsohelpsreadersavoidlosingtheirplaceininstruc-tions.Whenveritcalspaceislimited,itemscanbenumberedwithinthesentence.

Werecommendthatmoreworkonthenewprocessbedone(1)withdifferentfuels,(2)withthesamefuelsatalowertemperature,and(3)withthesamefuelsatahighertemperature.

Unordered Lists

• Unorderedlistsuseglyps,typicallybullets,atthestartofeachline.Unorderedlistsareappropriatewhenorderandpriorityarenotimportant;however,technicalwritersshouldconsiderusingsomeorganiz-ingprincipleeveninunorderedlists(chronology,alphabetization).IntheRevisedlistofauthorsabove,alphabetizationisused.

Checklists

• Achecklistusesopenboxesinsteadofbulletsornumbers,encouragingthereadertocarefullyconsidereachstepinaprocessoriteminthelist.

Document Format

174

Graphics in Technical Writing

Graphicsareimportantintechnicaldocumentsbecausetheyarevisuallyappealing,easytounderstandandremember,andindispensabletoshowingsometypesofrelationships.Asithasbe-comeincreasinglyeasytocreategraphics,theirimportanceintechnicaldocumentshasincreased.

Graphicscanbeclassifiedintotwocategories:tablesandfigures.Alleffectivegraphics,however,havesomesimilarqualities.

• Aneffectivegraphicisappropriatetothewritingsituation,matchingthereader’ssophistica-tion,therequirementsofthedata,andthepurposeofthereport.

• Aneffectivegraphicisself-explanatory,exhibitinganautonomousabilitytobeunderstoodonitsown.Itmusthaveaclear,informativetitle;columnsandrowsmustbeclearlylabeled;unitsofmeasurementandthetimeframemustbespecified.

• Allnon-originalgraphicsmusthavecompletesourcenotes.Becausegraphicsshouldbeunderstandablebythemselves,thefullsourcenoteshouldbelocatedwiththegraphic.Ifanoriginalgraphiciscreatedusingdatafromasource,thatsourcemustbefullydocumentedinasourcenote.Toindicatethatagraphicisoriginalusethecopyrightsymbolfollowedbyyournameanddate,i.e.©CarlBrucker,2012.

• Aneffectivegraphicisplacedappropriatelyinthedocument.Usuallythismeansplacingthegraphicafterthediscussionoftheinformationinthetext.Lengthyormerelysupplementalgraphicsareoftenplacedinappendices.

• Aneffectivegraphicisintegratedwiththetext.Thetextofareportshouldintroducethegraphicbeforeitappearsandexplainitssignificance.

Graphics

175Graphics

TablesPrimary uses of tables

• Tohandlelargeamountsofquantitativedata.

• Toshowseveralvariablesforasingleitem.

• Toprovideprecisestatisticalaccuracy.

Parts of a table

1. Label:Tablesarelabeledatthetopandarenumberedconsecutivelyfromthebegin-ningofthereport.Inlongreportsthenumbermayincludethechapterandthecon-secutivelynumberedtablesineachchapter.

Table 1:

2. Substantive Title:Thetitleshouldbeunambiguousandincludethetimeframeofthetable.

Table 1: Sales by Domestic Automobile Manufacturers, 1986-1987

3. Subtitle: Thesubtitleistypicallyenclosedinbracketsandisusedtoindicatetheunitofmeasurement.

Table1:SalesbyDomesticAutomobileManufacturers,1986-1987(in thousands)

4. Stub Heading:Thestubheadingistheupper-leftmostcellofatablewhichindicatesthetypesoflabelsthatareincludedinthestub(theleftmostcolumnofthetable).

Manufacturer vehicle type ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Ford sedans trucks vans

176 Graphics

5. Column Headings:Thecolumnheadingsareplacedinthetoprowofthetable.Iftheunitsofmeasurementdifferincolumnsaparentheticalsubtitleshouldbeusedundereachheading.Columnheadingsmaybestacked(decked)

Manufacturer 1986 1987 vehicletype I II III IV I II III IV ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6. Stub Category Headings:Thestubcategoryheadingsareplacedintheleftmostcolumnofthetable.Theyidentifytherowsinthetableandmaybestacked(decked).

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Ford sedans trucks vans

7. Cells:Cellsaretheintersectionsofrowsandcolumnsintowhichinformationisplaced.Numeralswithincellsshouldberightjustifiedonthedecimalplace.Ifnovalueexistsforacell(notazerovalue)useanellipsis(…),NA,oradash–.Intableswithmanyrows,usespacinglinesatregularintervalstohelpyourreadersightacrossthenum-bers.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Ford sedans 23.7 18.4 a

trucks 14.6 12.8 vans 10.1 11.7

8. Notes:Notescanbeusedtoexplaincellentries.Uselowercaselettersfornotestoavoidconfusionwiththenumeralsinthedata.

sedans 23.7 18.4a ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- a Strike closed assembly plants for two months.

9. Source Notes:Thesourcesoftheinformationincludedinthetableshouldbefullydocumentedinacloncludingsourcenote.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- a Strikeclosedassemblyplantsfortwomonths. Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Directory of Automobile Sales, 1989.

177Graphics

Table 1: Sale by Domestic Automobile manufacturers, 1986-1987 (in thousands)

Manufacturer 1986 1987 vehicletype I II III IV Tot I II III IV Tot ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Ford sedan 23.7 18.4a 24.3 22.6 89.0 25.6 22.9 21.4 20.6 90.5 trucks 14.6 12.8 15.3 15.8 58.5 15.4 16.1 16.6 17.2 65.3 vans 10.1 11.7 10.4 11.5 43.7 11.9 12.8 13.1 13.6 51.4 GM sedans 27.3 29.2 28.1 28.8 113.4 28.3 27.7 27.4 26.9 110.3 trucks 17.2 17.5 17.3 17.5 69.5 17.8 17.6 18.1 17.5 71.0 vans 8.2 8.3 9.7 10.1 36.3 10.4 10.6 11.4 12.3 44.7 Chrysler sedans 13.8 13.7 12.4 12.1 52.0 11.8 11.9 11.2 10.7 45.6 trucks 12.5 12.3 12.1 12.8 49.7 13.1 12.6 12.9 12.7 51.3 vans 10.6 10.9 11.1 12.3 44.9 12.1 13.4 13.1 12.5 51.1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- aStrikeclosedassemblyplantfortwomonths. Source:U.S.DepartmentofCommerce,DirectoryofAutomobileSales,1989.

Calculating Percentages

Table1aboveusesrawnumbers,butifyoudecidethatpercentageswouldbemoreinformative,becarefulhowyoucalculatethem.Forexample,ifyousurveyedtenpeopleabouttheirpreferenceforMcDonaldsorWendysand3of5menpreferredMcDonald'sand4of5womenpreferredWendy's,youmightcreateamisleadingtablesuchasTable2.

Table 2: Burger Preferences (confused)PreferMcDonald's PreferWendy's

Men 30% 20%Women 40% 10%Combined 70% 30%

Indicatingthat40%ofwomenpreferredMacDonaldswouldgiveyourreaderthefalseimpres-sionthatlessthanhalfofthewomenlikeMacDonaldswhenactuallyalargemajoritychoseit.Thefollowingwouldbemoreaccuratebecausethepercentageswouldbecaluclatedonthebasisoftheappropriatesub-group(menorwomen).

Table 3: Burger Prefernces (clearer)PreferMcDonald's PreferWendy's

Men 60% 40%Women 80% 20%Combined 70% 30%

178

Text Tables

Althoughtablesareparticularlyusefulforpresentinglargearraysofstatisticalinformation,re-memberthattablescanalsopresenttextualinformationinanorganized,accessiblemanner.

Table 2: Tenured English Faculty in the Department of English and World Language, 2016

Name Degree Where Earned SpecializationCarlBrucker Ph.D. RutgersUniversity AmericanliteratureUrsulaChandler Ed.D. NorthwesternUniversity GermanErinClair Ph.D. UniversityofMissouri ModernismErnestEnchelmayer Ph.D. SouthernIllinoisU. Composition/RhetoricPaolaGemme Ph.D. PennStateUniversity AmericanstudiesEmilyHoffman Ph.D. OklahomaStateUniversity CreativeWritingStanLombardo Ph.D. IndianaUniversity BritishliteratureSusanPoznar Ph.D. DukeUniversity BritishliteratureNelsonRamírez Ph.D. U.ofCalifornia--Berkeley SpanishCoryShaman Ph.D. UniversityofMississippi EnvironmentalliteratureReginaSt.John Ph.D. BallStateUniversity Composition/RhetoricDanaWard Ph.D. UniversityofArkansas ComparativeliteratureDonnaWhite Ph.D. UniversityofMinnesota Children'sliteratureDeborahWilson Ph.D. LouisianaStateU, AmericanliteratureSamWorley Ph.D. U.ofNorthCarolina Americanliterature

Table 3: Documentation Styles Type Sponsoring Organizations or Style Manuals Academic Fields That Use This Style

Author-Page ModernLanguageAssociation EnglishandforeignlanguagesAuthor-Year AmericanPsychologicalAssociation(APA) anthropology,astronomy,business, CouncilofScienceEditors(CSE) economics,education,linguistics,physical U.S.GeologicalSurvey(USGS) education,politicalscience,psychology, and sociology.Numerical AmericanChemicalSociety(ACS) chemistry,computerscience,mathematics, AmericanInstituteofPhysics(AIP) physics,medicine, AmericanMathematicalSociety(AMS) CouncilofScienceEditors-CitationSequence(CBEC-S) InstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers(IEEE)Footnote/Endnote ChicagoManualofStyle(CMS) art,communication,dance,history, TurabianManualforWriters journalism,music,pholosophy,and religion

Graphics

179

Figures

Figuresincludebarandcolumngraphs,linegraphs,charts,diagrams,photographs,andotherillustrations.

Bar and Column Graphs

Primary uses of bar and column graphs

• Comparisonofquantities • Horizontalbargraphsshowdifferentitemsatthesametime;verticalbargraphs(fre-

quentlycalledcolumngraphs)showthesameitemovertime.

Basic guidelines for creating bar graphs

• Axesshouldbenumberedatregularintervals

• Quantityscaleshouldbeginatzero.Ifitdoesnot,indicatethebreakwithdiagonallines———//———.

• Usetickmarks(hashmarks)orgridlinesatregularintervals.

• Arrangeitemslogically.Horizontalbargraphsarearrangedindescendingsizefromthetop;verticalbargraphsarearrangedchronologicallyfromlefttoright.

• Makeallbarsofequalwidthandspacebetweenbarsofequal,thoughslightlysmallerwidth.

Types of bar graphs

Thefollowingpagesshowexamplesofthefollowingtypesofbargraphs:

• simplebargraph • simplecolumngraph

• multiplecolumngraph • stackedcolumngraph

• deviationgraph • pictogram

Graphics

180 Graphics

Simple Bar Graph

Figure 1. Votes in 1992 Presidential election (in millions)

Simple Column Graph

Figure 2: Democratic Votes in Presidential Elections, 1976-2008 (in millions)

0 

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illions 

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181Graphics

Multiple Column Graph

Figure 3: Votes in Presidential Elections, 1976-2008 (in millions)

Stacked Column Graphs

Figure 4: Votes in Presidential Elections, 1976-2008 (in millions)

0

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182 Graphics

Deviation Graph

0.0%

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20.0%30.0%

40.0%50.0%

60.0%

70.0%80.0%

90.0%100.0%

Figure 5: Percentage of Votes Cast for Winning Candidates in Presidential Elections, 1968-1992

Pictogram

1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-950

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Figure 6: Students Enrolled in Honors Composition Courses, 1990-1995

183Graphics

Line Graphs

Primary use of line graphs

• demonstratechangeinquantitiesovertime

Basic Guidelines for creating line graphs

• Axesshouldbenumberedatregularintervals.

• Quantityscaleshouldbeginatzero.Ifitdoesnot,indicatethebreakwithdiagonallines——//——.

• Usetickmarks(hashmarks)orgridlinesatregularintervals.

• Arrangeitemschronologicallyfromlefttoright.

• Becarefultoadjustproportionssothattheimportanceofthedataisnotdistorted.

• Avoidusingmultiplelinegraphsifthereisaconfusingamountofintersectionoflines.

• Usecolorsorsymbolstodistinguishlinesinamultiplelinegraph.

Types of line graphs

Thefollowingpagesshowexamplesofthelistedtypesoflinegraphs:

• simplelinegraph • multiplelinegraph

• stratum(area)graph • ribbongraph

• high-lowrangegraph • lineoverlaygraph

184 Graphics

Simple Line Graph

Figure 7: Democratic Presidential Votes, 1976-2008 (in millions)

Multiple Line Graph

Figure 8: Presiedential Votes, 1976-2008 (in millions)

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Vortes in M

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Republican 

Third Party 

185Graphics

Area Graph

Figure 9: Presidential Votes, 1976-2008 (in millions)

Ribbon Graph

Figure 10: Enrollment in Foreign Languages, 1990-1994

186 Graphics

High-Low Range Graph

BB

B B

B

B

B BB

B

BB

Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 40

10

2030

4050

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90100

Figure 11: High, Low and Median Test Scores in English 2113, Fall 1995

Line Overlay Column Graph

H

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60000

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H Difference

Figure 12: Democratic and Republican Votes in Presidential Elections, 1976-1992 (in thousands)

187Graphics

B

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July AugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecember

3

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parts per million (arsenic)

Adjusting Increments

Thetwolinegraphsbelowdisplaythesamedata.Whydotheylookdifferent?Whywouldyouse-lectoneovertheother.Whatadditionalinformationwouldyouneedinordertomakethisdecision?

Figure 13: Arsenic in local drinking water July-December (imaginary data)

B

BB

BB

B

July AugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecember

0123456789

101112

parts per million (arsenic)

Figure 14: Arsenic in local drinking water July-December (imaginary data)

188 Graphics

Adjusting Increments

Thetwolinegraphsbelowaccuratelyreflectthegrowthofournationaldebt.Whydothey look so different? Why would you select to use one over the other?

Figure 15: U.S. National Debt, 1900-2000Source:ThePublicDebtOnline.20June2002.http://www.publicdebt.treas.gov/opd/op-dhist03.htm

Figure 16: U.S. National Debt, 1968-2000Source:ThePublicDebtOnline.20June2002.http://www.publicdebt.treas.gov/opd/op-dhist03.htm

B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B BB

B

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189

Charts

Pie Charts

Primary use of pie charts

• showrelationshipofpartstothewhole

Basic guidelines for creating pie charts

• Donotincludemorethaneightsegments.

• Donotattempttoshowverysmallorpreciseamounts.

• Drawthelargestitemfrom12o’clockpositionclockwiseunlessthereisastrongreasonforsomeotherarrangement.

• Labelsectionswithpercentageorabsoluteamount.

• Usepatternorcolortodistinguishsections.

Types of pie charts

Thefollowingpageshowsfourtypesofpiecharts:

• simplepiechart • diskchart • ringchart • spiderchart

Other Charts

Primary uses of other types of charts

• representationofabstractinformationsuchascausalityorhierarchy

Basic guidelines for creating other charts

• clearlylabelallelementsinachart

• chartstendtobelessruleboundandallowformoreoriginalityintheircreation

Graphics

190

Pie Chart

Figure 17: Students Enrolled in Freshman Writing Courses, 1984-1985

Disk Chart

Figure 18: Students Enrolled in Freshman Writing Courses, 1984-1985

Graphics

191

Ring Chart

1984-5

1994-5

Comp I

Comp II

Foundational Comp

Honors Comp

Figure 19: Students Enrolled in Freshman Writing Courses, 1984-1985 and 1994-1995

Spider Chart

80

80

100100

90

Reconstruction

Imperial Expansion

Progressive EraBetween the Wars

Post World War II

J

J

JJ

J

H

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F

FF

F

Section 01 Section 02 Section 03

Figure 20: Student Performance on Life and Letters Test Topics, Fall 1995

Graphics

192

Bubble Chart

Figure 21: Presidents' Home States

Hierarchical Chart

Figure 22: Arkansas Tech University Administrative Organizational Chart, 1993Source: ATU Factbook,Russellville:ArkansasTechUniversity,1993.

Graphics

193Graphics

Flow Charts

Planning•Researchingtheneedsofyouraudience•Preparingaworkingplanofyourproject•Identifyingsourcesandgatheringinformation

Drafting•Writingaworkingdraftofyourdocumentguidedbyyouroriginalplan.

?

Editing•Proofingyourworkinpassestocheckgrammar,mechanics,format,clarity,style,appropriatenessfor the situation and the audience.

?

?

Figure 23: The Recursive Writing Process

Byvisuallyrepresentingthesequenceofevents,flowchartshelpreadersunderstandaprocess.Anopen-system flowchartillustratesaprocessthatbeginsatonepointandendsatanother(Figure23).Aclosed-systemflowchartillustratesaprocessthatbeginsandendsatthesamepoint.Someflowchartsuserectangles,circles,arrows,andothersymbolstorepresentthestepsinaprocess(Figure23);othersusedrawings(Figure24).

194

Figure 25: Simple Amplifier.Source:RobertScharff,ed.ApplianceServicingLibraryNewYork:McGraw-Hill,1976.p.104.

Graphics

Schematic

Figure 24: Mass BurningSource: DianaReep,Technical Writing: Principles Strategies and Readings, Eighth Edition. Boston,Longman,2010.p.138.

195Graphics

Screen Shot

Figure 26: Secure Access Login Page for OneTech at Arkansas Tech University, 2012

Screenshotscapturethegraphicsandtextthatarevisibleonacomputerdisplayataspecificmoment.Thecapturecanincludetheentirescreen,aselectedportionofthescreen,anindividualwindow,oramenu.Thesegraphicsareusedtoillustrateinstructionsforonlineactivities.

196

Gantt (Milestone or Project Evaluation) ChartsGanttcharts,namedafterHenryGantt(1861-1919),areoftenincludedinproposalsorfeasibilitystudies.Alsocalledmilestonechartsorprojectevaluationcharts,Ganttchartsshowthedurationofoccasionallyoverlappingphasesofaproject.ThefirstimportantuseofGanttchartsforprojectmanagementwasduringtheAmericanbuildingofthePanamaCanal.Timelinesvisuallyrepresentpastorfutureeventsagainstachronologicalmeasure(timeline).

Graphics

InitsmostbasicformaGanttchartplotsoverlappingtaskshorizontallyovertimeasinFigure27below.

Figure 27: Basic Gantt Chart Used As A Project Timeline

Source:SmartDraw."HowtoDrawGanttCharts."GanttChart&TimelineCenter.7July2006.<http://www.smartdraw.com/tutorials/gantt/tuytorial1.htm?exp=gan

AsshowninFigure28onthefollowingpage,inadditiontodisplayingtheexactdurationofspecifictasks, Gantt charts can also be used to indicate:

• Therelationshipbetweentasks

• Theplannedandactualcompletiondates

• The cost of each task

• Thepersonorpersonsresponsibleforeachtask

• Themilestonesinaproject’sdevelopment

197

Figure 28: Gantt Chart Showing Milestones and Planned As Well As Actual Durations

Graphics

Source:SmartDraw."HowtoDrawGanttCharts."GanttChart&TimelineCenter.7July2006.<http://www.smartdraw.com/tutorials/gantt/tuytorial1.htm?exp=gan

Ganttchartsarealsousedbysupervisorsandteamleaderstoscheduleteammembersforvarioustimedependenttaskssuchasvisitingclients,makingsalescalls,beingonmedicalcall,beingonguardduty,andmore.

TheycanalsoshowtheactivityloadofdepartmentsormachinesasinFigure29onthefollowingpage.

198

Figure 29: Timeline for Yucca Mountain Nuclear Waste Disposal ProjectSource: Timeline/Milestones.(n.d.)RetrievedfromU.S.DepartmentofEnergyWebsitehttp://www.ymp.gov/timeline

Graphics

Timelines

Timelines,suchastheonedisplayedinFigure29below,aresimilartoGanntchartsinthattheyvisuyallydisplaythechronologyofaprocess,buttimelinesaregenerallyusedforprocessesinwhichstagesoftheprocessdonotoverlap.

Diagrams and Photographs Diagramsandphotographsaddvaluablevisualinformationtotechnicaldoucments.Photographscanprovidevisualsthatmostcloselyrepresenthumanvision.Theyareparticularlyusefulforshowingtheappearanceofsomethingorshowinghowsomethingisdone.

Figure 30: How to Change a TireSource: To Change a Tire. Technology and Cars. Web. 29 June 2012.

199

Diagramsoftendelineateobjectsmoreclearlythanphotographsbyeliminatingextraneousdetail.Inaddition,specialtypesofdiagramssuchasthosedisplayedonthispageofferviewsthatwouldbedifficulttoapproximatewithaphotograph.

Figure 31: Typical Water Valve Used on Portable Dishwashers

Source: RobertScharff,ed.ApplianceServicingLibrary.NewYork:Mc-Graw-Hill,1976.p.187.

Figure 32: Ethernet Port on PowerMac 6500Source: PowerMacintoshUser'sManual.AppleComputer,

1997.p.101

Figure 33: Cutaway Diagram of a Ball-Point PenSource: How Things Work.EncyclopediaBritannica,1982.p.832.

Graphics

200 Collaboration

Muchworkplacewritinginconductedcollaborativelyanditisimportanttobeawareoftheadvantages and disadvantages of collaborative writing situations.

Collaborativewritingcanbringabroaderknowledgeandskillsbasetobearonawritingproject.Itcanalsoprovideabetterideaofhowdifferentreadersmayrespondtothedocument.Finally,collaborationcanimprovecommunicationbetweenemployeesandhelpintegratenewemployeesintotheworkplacebycreatingworkingrelationshipswiththeirnewco-workers.

Collaborativewritingtakeslongerthanindividualwritingandmayreflectconformistthinkinginsteadofinnovation.Documentscreatedcollaborativemaybedisjointed.Employeesmaybelessmotivatedtoputtheirfulleffortintocollaborativeproejctsandunequalworkloadsand/orinterpersonalconflictsmayresult.

Collaborative Writing and the Workplace

Effective Face-To-Face Collaboration

Collaborationintheworkplaceisfrequentlyconductedinformalandorinformalworkingmeetings.Thefollowingcommonsenserulesforcommunicatingdiplomaticallyinworkplacemeetings,adaptedfromtheNinthEditionofMikeMarkel'sTechnical Communication, are worth considering.

1. Listenrespectfullyandwithoutinterruptingothers.

2. Donotmakethemeetingaboutyoubydominatingthediscussionorassertingyourcentralityintheprocess.Referringto"theproposal"insteadof"myproposal"isanexampleofawaytolinguisticallyencourageasenseofcooperationinsteadofcompetition.

3. Avoidcommentsthatcouldbeviewedaspersonalorinsulting.

4. Donotoverstateyourposition.Sometimesaqualifiersuchas"itseemstome"cansignalthatyouare not closed to alternative ideas.

5. Donotgetemotionallyinvolvedinyourownideas.Trytounderstandalternativeideasratherthanimmediatelydefendingyourpositionagainstthem.

6. Askpertinentquestionsinordertoclarifyyourunderstanding,showinterestinothers'thoughts,andencouragegroupmemberstoexaminewhattheyhear.

7. Payattentiontonon-verbalcommunicationthatmayhelpyoujudgeothers'understandingorattitude.

201Collaboration

Electronic Collaboration Tools

Electronicmediaareincreasinglyusedforcollaborationintheworkplacebecauseface-to-facemeetingsarenotalwayspossibleandbecauseelectroniccommunicationisdigitalandthereforeeasilyeditedandincorporatedintodocuments. 1. Revision,commentings,andhighlightingfeaturesinWordandotherwordprocessingprograms

permitwriterstotrackrevisionsandcommentsfrommultipleco-workers.

2. Virtualmeetingsoftwarepermitswritersatdifferentlocationstoworksynchronouslyorasynchronoulsyonprojects.

3. VideoconferencingthroughSkypeorothersoftwarepermitsworkerswhoaredistantfromoneanothertohaveelectronic"face-to-face"meetings.

The Impact of Gender and Culture in Collaboration

Generalizationsaboutgenderbehaviorincollaborativesituationsareunderstandablysuspect,donotapplyconsistentlytoindividualmenandwomen,andareundoubtedlychangingaswomen'srolesintheworkplaceevolve;however,itisusefultobeawareoftraditionalgendercharacteristicsthatmayimpactcollaborativesituations.

Manystudieshavesuggestedthatwomenappeartovalueconsensusandrelationshipsmorethanmen,demonstratinggreaterempathyandsuperiorlisteningskills.Mentendtobemorecompetitiveandeagertoassumeleadershiproles.Aneffectiveprofessionalwillevidenceabalanceoftraditionalfeminineandmasculineabilities.

Theworkplaceisdiverseandmanycollaborativeworkgroupswillincludeindividualsfromdifferingculturalbackgrounds.Itisimportanttoavoidjumpingtoconclusionsaboutwhatco-workers'behaviorindicates.Asexamples,somepeoplefromotherculturesmightbeunwillingtorespondwithadefinite"no,"mightfinditdifficulttoassertthemselvesincollaborativegroups,ormightbereluctanttoadmitthattheyareconfused.

202

Plagiarism

Plagiarism,passingoffsomeoneelse’sworkasyourown,isaseriouserrorthatmustbeavoided.Manypeopledonotrealizethatcopyingevenafewwordsoradistinctivephrasefromasourceisconsideredplagiarism.Developinggoodresearchmethodsandcarefullydocumentingyourinformationcanpreventyoufromunintentionallyplagiarizingyoursources.Examinetheexampleofsuch"unconsciousplagiarismbelow.

An Example of "Unconscious Plagiarism"

TheWorldWideWebmakesplagiarismmuchtooeasyforsomestudentstoresist.Studentswhocheatinthismannerknowwhattheyaredoingandarehopingthattheywillnotbecaught.Iftheyarecaught,thepenaltycanbesevere.Althoughinstructor'spolicieswillvary,itisreasonabletoexpectthatasaminimumpenaltyaplagiarizedpaperwillreceiveazero,agradethatwillseriouslyaffectastudent'ssemestergrade.Somestudents,however,plagiarizewithoutfullyrealizingthattheyaredoingso.ThefollowingisapassagefromapaperonMarcusGarveysubmittedtoanonlinesectionofIntroductiontoAmericanLiteraturehereat Tech. Garveyarrivedduringthedawnofthe"NewNegro"era.Hestayedwitha JamaicanfamilyinHarlem.Hesoonfoundworkasaprinterandsavedenough moneytobeginafundraisingtourthroughouttheUnitedStates.(MarcusGarvey)Garvey's whirlwindtourbeganinHarlemandwentthroughthirty-eightotherstates. Garvey'sfirsttwoattemptstoestablishaNewYorkchapteroftheUniversalNegro ImprovementAssociationwithheadquartersinJamaicaweresabotagedbysocialists andRepublicanswhowantedtoturnitintoapoliticalclub.Inhisthirdattempthe hadformedacadreofthirteenlike-mindedpeople.Thisonetoohaditsopposition butGarveywasabletopullthrough.WhenGarveydecidedtostayintheUnited StatestheUNIAwasincorporatedinthestateofNewYorkonJuly2,1918 (MarcusGarvey). Thestudent'sparentheticalreferences(MarcusGarvey)directhisreadertothesourceofthisinforma-tion,anonlinebiographyofMarcusGarveyonawebsitetitledShadesofBlack.Identifyinghissourceinthismannerindicatesthatheisnottryingtohidehissourceandthatheprobablydoesn'tthinkhehasdoneanythingwrong.Butasanexaminationof theoriginalsourcebelowshows,hehasdirectlyquotedtheorigi-nalmaterialwithoutusingquotationmarkstoshowthatthesearenothiswords.Thisisplagiarismanditwouldbeplagiarismevenifthecopiedportionswerelessextensive. When Garvey arrivedintheU.S.hestayedwithaJamaicanfamilyinHarlem. He foundworkasaprinterandsavedenoughmoneytobeginafundraising tourthroughouttheUnitedStates.Garvey'swhirlwindtourbeganinHarlem andproceededthroughthirty-eightstates.Harlemhadrecentlybecome convertedintotheBlacksectionofNewYorkCityandthevirtualcapitalof theBlackworld.SowhenhereturnedtoNewYorkhechosetosetuphis headquartersthere.GarveymovedintothecenteronHarlemstagewithall

Research Methods

203Research Methods

theeaseandself-confidenceofamanwithamission.Hetooktothestreets, joiningthesoapboxandstepladderoratorsandformpoliticalallianceswith someofHarlem'smostprominentradicals. Garvey'sfirsttwoattemptstoestablishaNewYorkchapteroftheU.N.I.A. withheadquartersinJamaicaweresabotagedbysocialistsandRepublicans whowantedtoturnitintoapoliticalclub.Inhisthirdattempthehadformed acadreofthirteenlike-mindedsouls.Thisonetoohaditsdivisions but Garvey was able to weatherthestorm.Andwhen Garvey decided to stay in theUnitedStatestheU.N.I.A.wasincorporatedinthestateofNewYorkon July2,1918.

Becarefultodistinguishyourwordsfromothers'words.Changingacoupleofwordsintheoriginaltextdoesnot"makeityours."

Working Efficiently

Locatingappropriateinformationforyourresearchistimeconsuming,butyoucanlearntoworkmoreefficiently,spendingyourtimewithsourcesthatwillhelpyouratherthanwastingitonsourcesthatwillnot.LearntousetheresearchaidsthatareavailableinPendergraftLibrary:on-linecatalogs,indices,andbibli-ographies.Don’tforgetthehumanresourcesoflibrarians,professors,andlocalexpertsinthefieldyouareresearching.Theycanfrequentlydirectyouthemostproductivesourcematerial.

Generalworksandevenencyclopediasarenotbadsourceswithwhichtostartaresearchproject.Theycanprovideyouwithanoverviewthatwillhelpyoulimitandfocusyourtopic.Theyalsooftencontainbibliographiesthatcanleadyoutomorespecializedsources.

Whenyoulocateprintsourcesinthelibraryexaminetheadjacentshelves.Youmaydiscoveranothersourcethatyoumissedinthecatalog.Beforeyoucheckbooksoutofthelibrary,examinetheirtableofcon-tents,indices,andpublicationdatetoeliminatethosethatdonotaddressyourtopicorareoutofdate.Youshouldreadsourcematerialefficiently.Usethetableofcontentsortheindextolocatethepartsofthetextthatarerelevant;then,useheadingstoskimtothepassagesthataremosthelpful.

Internet Sources

TheInternetisagreattoolforconductingresearch,butyouneedtobecarefulaboutthethecredibilityofInternetsources.Trytorelyonsitesmaintainedbyreliable,wellknownorganizationsorinstitutions.Trytocheckinformationagainstothersites.

InstructorsinthiscoursearemakingincreasinguseofservicessuchasTurnitin.comtocheckforplagiarism.Theseservicescomparestudent'stoworktodatabasesofInternetmaterialaswellasdatabasescreatedfrompreviouslysubmittedpapersinthesamecourse.

204

Taking Notes

Whenyouhavelocatedapassageinatextthatisrelevanttoyourresearch,takenotesthatwillstillbeusefultoyoudaysorweekslaterwhenyoufinallyneedtousethem.Mostimportant,youshouldnotmerelycopylargeportionsofthetextmaterialintoyournotes.Doingsowastesyourtimeandpostponestheinevitabletaskofdigestingtheinformationyouarereading;moreover,suchmindlesscopyingincreasesthedangerofunintentionalplagiarism.Thisisaparticularlysevereproblemforpeoplewho"cutandpaste"sectionsoftextfromsourcesontheInternet.Trytotrans-lateinformationintoyourownwordsasyoutakenotes.Whenaparticularwordingissufficientlysignificanttowarrantdirectquotation,besurethatyouclearlydistinguishthedirectquotationfromyourparaphrase.Usingdoublechevrons<<quote>>aroundaquotationcanmakethisdifferenceclearlater.Everycardorpageofnotesshouldincludesomethingtoidentifythesourceandthepageonwhichtheinformationappears.

Remembertowritedownthecompletepublicationinformationforeachsourcebeforeyoubegintakingnotes. This should include the author, editor, edition, publisher,placeofpublication,dateofpublication,andtheinclusivepagesforanarticlethatispartofalargervolume.WithInternetsourcesbesuretonotethedateonwhichitwasposted,thedateonwhichyouaccessedit,andthefullInternetaddress(URL).

Databasesoftwarecanbeagreatassistanceinlargeresearchprojects.Notescanbestoredwithkeyphrasesthatwillallowyoutoeasilyfindandorganizeinformationasyouworkwithit.Outlineprogramscanalsohelpyouorganizeyourapproachtoresearchproject,providingaquickwaytotestalternativeorganizationalpatternsasyourinformationincreases.

© Allison Brucker

Research Methods

205

Documenting Sources

When to document information

Therearethreetypesofinformationthatshouldalwaysbedocumented:

1. direct quotations. Aword,phrase,orpassagethatisquoteddirectlyfromasourceshouldbeenclosedbyquotationmarksandcited.

ThepoetClaudeMcKayhasbeencalled“afascinatinglyparadoxicalfigure”(Barksdale489)and“aprophetaswellasapoet”(Kinnamon213).

2. information that is not commonly available. Factsorinformationthat,althoughnotuniquetoyoursource,isnotreadilyavailableshouldbecited.YoumighthavetolookupthecapitalofSouthDakota,butyoushouldnotdocumentthesourceofsuchcommonlyavailableinformation.

Atthetimeofhisbirth,McKay’shometownofSunnyVille,Jamaicahada

populationofunder1,000(Barret243).

3. opinions or ideas that seem particular or original with the author.

Whenyourefertotheopinionexpressedbyanauthorratherthanfactualinformation,youshouldcite your source.

JamesBrentanobelievesthatMcKay'spoetryneverliveduptothepromiseexhibitedin“IfWeMustDie”(251).

© Allison Brucker

Research Methods

206

Documentation Styles

Manydifferentdocumentationstylesareusedbytechnicalwriters.Oftenparticulardisciplinesororganizationsfollowtheirowndocumentationmanuals.Yourdecisionofwhichdocumentationstyletouseshouldalwaysbedeterminedbyrequirementsofyourreaders.ExamplesofspecializedstylemanualsareStyle Guide for Chemists, Geographical Research and Writings, Guide for Preparation of Air Force Publications, IBM Style Manual, Style Manual for Engineering Authors and Editors and AMA Style Manual.

Author-Page: Modern Language Association Style (MLA)

TheMLAdocumentationstyleusestheauthor’snameandthepagereferenceintheparentheticalcitation.TheWorksCitedlistattheendofthedocumentisanalphabeticallistingofallsourcesthathave been cited. This style is used in English and foreign languages.

Author-Year: American Psychological Association Style (APA), Council of Science Editors (CSE), U.S. Geological Survey Style (USGS).

TheAPA,CSE,andUSGSauthor-yeardocumentationstylesusetheauthor’snameandtheyearofpublicationintheparentheticalcitation.Whenthecitationreferstoaquotation,thecitationincludesthepagenumberaswell.TheReferenceslistattheendofthedocumentisanalphabeticallistingofallsourcesthathavebeencited.APAdocumentationstyleisusedinanthropology,archeology,astronomy,business,economics,education,linguistics,physicaleducation,politicalscience,psychology,andsociology.Theauthor-dateformofCSEauthor-yeardocumentationstyleisusedinbiology,botany,physiology,andzoology.USGSdocumentationstyleisusedingeology.

Citation Sequence Style: American Chemical Society Style (ACS), American Institute of Physics Style (AIP), American Mathematical Society Style (AMS), Council of Science Editors Citation-Sequence Style (CSE C-S), American Medical Association (AMA), and the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Style (IEEE).

TheACS,AIP,AMS,CSEC-SandIEEEnumericaldocumentationstylesassignauniquenumbertoeachsource.Citationreferenceswithinthetextarebracketed,parentheticalorsuperscripted,dependingontheparticularstyle,andincludethesource’suniquenumber.Somenumericalstylesalsoincludethepagereferenceinthecitation.TheReferenceslistattheendofthedocumentlistsallofthesourcesthathavebeencitedinnumericalorder.ACSdocumentationstyleisusedinchemistry.AIPdocumentationstyleisusedinphysics.AMSdocumentationstyleisusedinmathematics.AMAstyleisusedinmedicine.IEEEisusedincomputerscience.Theformattingofcitationandentriesvarieswidelybetweendifferentcitationsequencestyles.ThistextfocusesontheCSEcitation-sequencestyleoftenusedinthenaturalsciences.

Research Methods

207

Footnote/Endnote Style: Chicago Manual of Style (CMS)

TheCMSfootnote/endnotestyleusessuperscriptednumbersinthetexttoreferreaderstofootnotecitationsplacedatthebottomofthepageorendnotecitationsplacedattheendofadocument.Theinitialfootnoteorendnotecitationforasourceincludescompleteinformationregardingauthor,titleandpublication.CMSstyledocumentsoftenincludeaBibliographyonwhichthesourcesusedarealphabetized.CMSstyleisoftenusedinart,communications,dance,history,journalism,literature,music,philosophy,andreligion.

Informational Footnotes and Endnotes

Althoughtheauthor-page,author-date,andnumericaldocumentationstylesdescribedonthepreviouspagedonotusefootnotesorendnotesforcitations,footnotesandendnotesmaybeusedinthosestylesforinformationandexplanationsthataresupplementaltothemaintext.

Atthetimeofhisbirth,ClaudeMcKay'shometownofSunnyVille,Jamaica1hadapopulationofunder1,000(Barret243).

--------

1JamesMeridianhascatalogueddirectreferencestothetopographyofSunnyVilleinClaudeMcKay’sJamaican Roots.

Documentation Examples

Onthefollowingpages,thesamesampleparagraphisdocumentedineachofthefourdocumentationstylesdescribedinthistext.Thedocumentedparagraphsarefollowedbyaseriesofsamplereferenceentriesforeachofthefourstyles.

Remember: Theinformationforeachstyleisselective,designedtohelpyouwiththemostcommontypesofsources.Formorecompleteinformation,youshouldrefertotheappropriatestylemanual.

Research Methods

208 Research Methods

Documentation Style

Content and format of in-text cita-tions

Arrangement and title of references list at the end of the document

Author-PageMLA

LastnameortitlebywhichthesourceisalphabetizedontheWorksCitedlistandthepagenumber(s)fromwhichtheinformationistaken:

CitedText(Jones87).CitedText("Running"44-46).

The Works Citedlistisalphabetizedbythetheauthors'lastnamesorbythefirstwordof the titles of works for which no author is known.

Author-YearAPA

LastnameortitlebywhichthesourceisalphabetizedontheReferenceslist,thedateonwhichtheworkwaspub-lished,andthepagenumber(s)ifthecitationreferstoadirectquotation:

CitedText(Jones,2003)."Quotation"(Jones,2003,p.87).

The Referenceslistisalphabetizedbytheauthors'lastnameorbythefirstwordoftitleof works for which no author is known.

Citation SequenceCSE C-S

Asuperscriptedarabicnumeralservesastheuniqueidentifierforthesourceand is assigned in the order in which sourcesarefirstcitedinthedocument.Ifmorethanonesourceisbeingcited,theyareseparatelybracketed:

Cited Text 12.Cited Text 12,24,48.

The End References are arranged in numericalorderbytheuniqueidentifyingnumberofeachsource.Thislistingmayalso be called References, Reference List, Literature Cited, or Bibliography.

Endnote/FootnoteCMS

Asuperscriptedarabicnumeralnum-beredsequentiallyfromthestartofthedocument.Eachcitationisauniquenumber.

Cited Text. 4

The footnotes or endnotes are arranged in numericalorderintheorderinwhichtheyappearinthetext.

The Bibliographyisalphabetizedbytheauthors'lastnamesorbythefirstwordsoftitles of works for which no author is known.

Table 4: Charactersitics of Four Basic Documentation Styles

209Research Methods

Documentation Style

Format of authors' names in reference list.

Capitalization and formatting of titles

Author-PageMLA

Lastname,fullfirstname:

Jones,Sharon.

Thefirstletterofthefirstwordandallother(im-portant)wordsarecapitalizedforbothbooksandarticles.Book titles are italicized.Articletitlesareplacedin"quotationmarks."

To Kill a Mockingbird"RunningatNight"

Author-YearAPA

Lastname,initialsoffirstandmiddlename:

Jones,S.K.

Onlythefirstletterofthefirstwordofbookandarticletitlesiscapitalized.Exception:Thefirstletterofthefirstwordandallother(important)wordsofajournalormagazinetitlearecapital-ized.Book and journal titles are italicized.Articletitlesareleftinplaintext.

Book: To kill a mockingbirdArticle:Runningatnight

Journal: The Journal of Obscure Analogies

Citation SequenceCSE C-S

Lastnamefollowedbyinitialsoffirstandmiddlenameswithnoperiodsorspaceafterinitials.

JonesSK

Onlythefirstletterofthefirstwordofbookandarticletitlesiscapitalized.Exception:Thefirstletterofthefirstwordandallother(important)wordsofajournalormagazinetitlearecapital-ized.Bookandarticletitlesareleftinplaintext.

TokillamockingbirdRunningatnight

Journal: The Journal of Obscure AnalogiesEndnote/Footnote

CMSLastname,fullfirstname

Jones,Sharon

Thefirstletterofthefirstwordandallother(im-portant)wordsarecapitalizedforbothbookandarticles.Book and journal titles are italicized.Articletitlesareplacedin"quotationmarks."

To Kill a Mockingbird"RunningatNight"

210

MLA Author-Page Style

Theprimarysourceforgreaterdetailregardingtheauthor-pagedocumentationstyleistheMLA Handbook, EighthEdition,2016.TheModernLanguageAssociationmaintainsawebpagethatanswersfrequentlyaskedquestionsaboutMLAstyleathttps://www.mla.org/MLA-Style.

Ingeneral,advertisingis"usedtobringproducts,services,opinions,orcausestopublicnoticeforthepurposeofpersuadingthepublictorespondinacertainwaytowardwhatisadvertised"("Advertising").Morespecifically,CatherineCaplesarguesthatadvertisingis"thematterofgettingtheprospecttopayattentiontothemessageyouareattemptingtopresent”(78).Onewaymanufacturersadvertisesuccessfullyisbysegmentingproductstoofferdifferentingredients and features.

Althoughallmodernlaundrydetergentsdoprettymuchthesamething,removedirtandodorfrompeople’sclothing,eachdetergentbrandisdevelopedtofillanindividualconsumerneedorwant.(Hafer,“Strategic”34)

Oxydol—bleachesasitwashes,Dreft—thedetergentforbaby’slaundry,Tide—America’sfavorite,Dash—lowsudsconcentrate,andCheer—alltemperatureCheerareallsegmentproductexamples.Productendorsementbycelebritiesisalsoanextremelypopularmethodofadvertising.Companiesspendlargeamountsofmoneytohavepublicfigurespromotetheirproducts.MarketingsupportforAlpoCatfoodthatusedGarfieldthecartooncattotaled$70million(Bernstein22).Two years later acampaignforunderwearfeaturingMichaelJordanwasbudgetedatmorethantwicethatamountBernstein25).Thecombinationofavailabledata,big-timeprocessingpower,assetmanagementandmarketingautomationtechnologymeansadvertiserscantargetindividualatscale("Why").Changesinmarketingideasalsohelpagenciespromoteproducts.Forexample,inaninterviewonOctober4,2004,JackLowry,ownerofPicwoodCinemainRussellville,ArkansasstatedthattheMotionPictureAssociation’sNC-17-ratedfilms,towhichnochildrenunder17canbeadmitted,aremorelikelytobeadvertisedonTVstationsandnewspapersthanX-ratedfilms.Inanyeffectiveadvertisement,creativewritingisanecessity(Caple125).The1972advertisingmessageofKellogg'sRaisinBrancerealheraldedthe“TwoScoops”storyinasong.“Forraisinloversthethemeprovidedadramaticmemorydeviceforcommunicatingagoodcerealcontent”(Hafer,Advertising113).

Research Methods–MLA

211

Works Cited

"Advertising."Encyclopedia Britannica Online,3Feb.2015,www.britannica.com/topic/advertising.

Accessed 23 June 2016.

Bernstein,RudolfX.“TheIncreasingCostofAdvertising.”Modern Management,vol.2,no.8,Aug.

2013,pp.18-26.

Caples,Catherine.“ImaginativeAdvertising.”Approaches to the Marketplace,editedbyJoseph

Jukester.FordycePress,2009,pp.62-81.

Hafer,Albert.“StrategicMarketing.” Advertising World,8Oct.2006,pp.31-38.

---.Advertising Today.SimonandSchuster,2002.

Lowry,Jack.Personalinterview.4Oct.2008,PicwoodTheater.Russellville,Arkansas.

"WhyAudienceSegmentationIsn'tAllIt'sCrackedUptoBe."Advertising Age, 13May2014,

http://adage.com/article/datadriven-marketing/audience-segmentation-cracked/292974/.

Accessed 17 June 2016.

Research Methods–MLA

Some Basics of MLA Style

*ArrangeentriesontheWorksCitedlistalphabeticallybytheauthor'slastnameorthetitleofthe article if the author is unknown.

*Forin-textcitationsusethenameortitlebywhichthefulllistingisalphabetized.Thisallowsyourreadertoconnectthein-textcitationtothefulllistingontheWorkCitedlist.

212

Example of Works Cited Entries(MLAAuthor-PageStyle)

A book with a single authorSnark,Fred.Field Guide to North American Snails.ASAPress,2005.

A book with two or more authorsBiggles,Robert,andBarryCazlow.Egg Production in Iowa.Jacobs,2008.

A book with three or more authorsLawrence,David,etal.Mastering Advanced HTML. Chicago: Wheatland, 2000.

A book with unknown author(s)Repairing Your Automobile. Carruth, 2006.

Two books with the same author[Arrangealphabeticallybytitles.]Nixon,Emily. Emerging Technologies. Chiggers, 2013.

---.Laser Technology. Chiggers, 2011.

A book with an editorMerryville,Mary,editor.Analyzing Nursery Rhymes.Sunset,2003.

A book with an author and an editorSwift,Jonathan.Gulliver's Travels,editedbyGeoffreyYahoo.Lilliput,2005.

A source from anthologyAble,Fred.“Shiloh.”The Civil War,editedbyShelbyFoote.MemphisState,2008.pp.153-191.

An introduction, foreword, or afterword Dixon,Bunny.Foreword.My Big Squeeze,byLenaNoxious.Outofsight,2012,pp.v-xvi.

An in a journal or magazine without volume numbersMarney,Everett.“NineWaystoSkinaCat.”Taxidermy,18May2012,pp.14-23.

An article in a journal or magazine with volume numbers.Threader,Betty.“OfficeManagement.”Journal of Management, vol. 21,no.2,Jan.2008,pp.6-9.

A newspaper articleNewman,Norman.“ComputerUseatTechIncreases.”Courier-Democrat,15July2001,sec.B,p.6.

An article from a reference work“Lasers.” Dictionary of Science. 2001 ed.

Research Methods–MLA

213

An article from an online encylopedia"Iron."Encyclopedia Britannica Online,3Feb.2008,www.britannica.com/topics/iron.Accessed6Mar.2009.

A brochure or pamphletArkansasGameandFishCommission.Hunting Education Requirements.ArkansasGameandFishCommis-

sion, n.d.

A personal interviewHuckabee,Mike.Personalinterview.14May2005,ClarionHotel,LittleRock.

A lecture or presentationLake,Paul“NewFormalism.”ArkansasTechUniversity.Russellville.15April2006.

A motion picture or video recordingCapra,Frank,director.It's a Wonderful Life.RKO,1946.

Personal E-MailMitchner,Stuart."Re:RayDavies."ReceivedbyCarlBrucker,21June2006.

An article from an online journalMitchner,Stuart."WhenShakespeareSpeakstoYou".Town Topics.PrincetonNewsBureau,25April2007.

Accessed20May2008.

An Article from an online databaseBossong,Greta."ErgativityinBasque."Linguistics22.3(2009):341-392.JSTOR.Accessed9June2009.

An article or page from a Web site with a named author or authors.Brain,Marshall,andTomHarris."HowGPSReceiversWork."HowStuffWorks.25Sept.2006.http://electron-

ics.howstuffworks.com/gadgets/travel/gps.htm.Accessed3June2009.

An article or page from a Web site with no known author"KingArthur."Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.2June2009.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Arthur.

Accessed 3 June 2009.

An article from a Web site with no named author, date, or sponsoring organization."RosieandtheOriginals."http://www.destinationdoowop.com/rosieandtheoriginals.htm.Accessed8June

2009.

General instructions for an article or page from a Web siteAsageneralguidelineincludeallofthefollowinginformationthatisavailableintheordershown.

[Author'slastname,Author'sfirstname].["TitleoftheArticle",Site, or Page].[Editor].[Sponsoringorgani-zation].[dateofpublicationorlastupdate].[<completeURL>].[dateaccessedisoptionalifpublicationdateisknown].

Research Methods–MLA

214

APA Author-Date Style

Tworesourcesfordetailedinformationregardingtheauthor-yeardocumentationstylearethe Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6thEdition(2010)andScien-tific Style and Format: The CSE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers,8thEdition(2014). TheAPA's"APAStyleHelper"canbeaccessedathttp://www.apastyle.org.TheUniversityofNorthCarolinaprovidesanexcellentexplanationofbothformsCSE/CBEdocumentationathttp://www.lib.unc.edu/instruct/citations/cse/.

Ingeneral,advertisingis"usedtobringproducts,services,opinions,orcausestopublicnoticeforthepurposeofpersuadingthepublictorespondinacertainwaytowardwhatisadvertised"(Advertising,2015).Morespecifically,CatherineCaples(2009)arguedthatadvertisingis"thematterofgettingtheprospecttopayattentiontothemessageyouareattemptingtopresent”(p.78).Onewaymanufacturersadvertisesuccessfullyisbysegmentingproductstoofferdifferentingredients and features.

Althoughallmodernlaundrydetergentsdoprettymuchthesamething,removedirtandodorfrompeople’sclothing,eachdetergentbrandisdevelopedtofillanindividualconsumerneedorwant.(Hafer,2006,p.34)

Oxydol—bleachesasitwashes,Dreft—thedetergentforbaby’slaundry,Tide—America’sfavorite,Dash—lowsudsconcentrate,andCheer—alltemperatureCheerareallsegmentproductexamples.Productendorsementbycelebritiesisalsoanextremelypopularmethodofadvertising.Companiesspendlargeamountsofmoneytohavepublicfigurespromotetheirproducts.MarketingsupportforAlpoCatfoodthatusedGarfieldthecartooncattotaled$70million(Bernstein,2013).Two yearslateracampaignforunderwearfeaturingMichaelJordanwasbudgetedatmorethantwicethatamount(Bernstein,2013).Thecombinationofavailabledata,big-timeprocessingpower,assetmanagementandmarketingautomationtechnologymeansadvertiserscantargetindividualatscale(Why,2014).Changesinmarketingideasalsohelpagenciespromoteproducts.Forexample,inaninterviewonOctober4,2004,JackLowry,ownerofPicwoodCinemainRussellville,ArkansasstatedthattheMotionPictureAssociation’sNC-17-ratedfilms,towhichnochildrenunder17canbeadmitted,aremorelikelytobeadvertisedonTVstationsandnewspapersthanX-ratedfilms.Inanyeffectiveadvertisement,creativewritingisanecessity(Caples,2009).The1972advertisingmessageofKellogg’sRaisinBrancerealheraldedthe“TwoScoops”storyinasong.“Forraisinloversthethemeprovidedadramaticmemorydeviceforcommunicatingagoodcerealcontent”(Hafer,2002,p.113).

Research Methods–APA

215

References

Advertising.(2015).Encylcopedia britannica online.RetrievedJune23,2016fromwww.britan-

nica.com/topic/advertising.

Bernstein,R.X.(2013).Theincreasingcostofadvertising.Modern Management,2(8),18-26.

Caples,C.(2009).Imaginativeadvertising.InJ.Jukester(Ed.),Approaches to the Marketplace

(pp.62-81).Cleveland:FordycePress.

Hafer,A.(2002).Advertising today.NewYork:SimonandSchuster.

Hafer,A.(2006,October8).Strategicmarketing.Advertising World,31-38.

Whyaudiencesegmentationisn'tallit'scrackeduptobe.(2014,May13).Advertising Age.

Retrievedfromhttp://adage.com/article/datadriven-marketing/audience-segmentation-

cracked/292974/.

Research Methods–APA

Some Basics of APA Style

*ArrangeentriesontheReferenceslistalphabeticallybytheauthor'slastnameorthetitleofthearticleiftheauthorisunknown.Useinitialsforfirstnames.

*Forin-textcitationsusethenameortitlebywhichthefulllistingisalphabetized.Thisal-lowsyourreadertoconnectthein-textcitationtothefulllistingontheReferenceslist.

* InAPAstyleciteonlyworksavailabletoscholarsinalibrary,adepository,anarchive,orontheInternet.Explainsourcessuchastheinterviewinthetext.

216 Research Methods–APA

Example of References Entries(APAAuthor-YearStyle)

A book with a single authorSnark,F.(2005).Field guide to North American snails.NewYork:ASAPress.

A book with two or more authors Biggles,R.&Cazlow,B.(2008).Egg production in Iowa.IowaCity:Jacobs.

A book with seven or more authorsLawrence,D.,Morris,J.,McKown,K.,Norris,F.,Townsend,B.,Saberhagen,B.,etal.(2000).Mastering

advanced HTML. Chicago: Wheatland.

A book with unknown author(s)Repairing your automobile.(2006).Boston:Carruth.

Two books with the same author [Arrangethetitlesbypublicationdate,oldestfirst.]Nixon,E.(2011).Emerging technologies. Atlanta: Chiggers.

Nixon,E.(2013).Laser technology. Atlanta: Chiggers.

A book with an editorMerryville,M.(Ed.).(2003).Analyzing nursery rhymes.Louisville:Sunset.

A book with an author and an editorSwift,J.(2005).Gulliver's travels.G.Yahoo(Ed.).Cloudland,OH:Lilliput.

A source from an anthologyAble,F.(2008).Shiloh.InS.Foote(Ed.),The Civil War(pp.153-191).Memphis:MemphisState.

An introduction, foreword, or afterword.Dixon,B.(2012).Foreword.InL.Noxious.My big squeeze. Cleveland: Outofsight.

A magazine articleMarney,E.(2008,May18).Ninewaystoskinacat.Taxidermy,14-23.

An article in a journal with new pagination each issueThreader,B.(1998).Officemanagement.Journal of Management,21(2),6-9.

A newspaper articleNewman,N.(2001,July15).ComputeruseatArkansasTechincreases.Courier Democrat,sec.B,p.6.

217Research Methods–APA

An article from a reference workLasers.(2001).InDictionary of science(Vol.12,pp.1024-1029).NewYork:Macmillan.

An article from an online encyclopediaIron.(2003).InEncyclopedia britannica online.Retrievedfromhttp://search.eb.com/.

A brochure or pamphletArkansasGameandFishCommission.(n.d.).Huntingeducationrequirements.[Brochure].LittleRock,AR:

Author.

A motion picture or video recordingCapra,F.(Director).(1946).It's a wonderful life[Motionpicture].UnitedStates:RKO.

An article from an online journalMitchner,S.(2007,April25).WhenShakespearespeakstoyou.Town Topics, Princeton News Bureau.

RetrievedMay20,2008,fromhttp://www.towntopics.com/apr2507/index2.html.

An article from an online databaseBossong,G.ErgativityinBasque.Linguistics, 22 (3).RetrievedJune9,2009,fromJSTORdatabase.

An article or page from a Web site with a named author or authors.Brain,MandHarris,T.(2006,September25).HowGPSreceiverswork.Retrievedfromhttp://electronics.

howstuffworks.com/gadgets/travel/gps.htm.

An article or page from a Web site with no known authorKingArthur.(2009,June2).InWikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.Retrievedfromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/

index.php?title=King_Arthur&oldid-295100871.

An article or page from a Web site with no named author, date, or sponsoring organization.RosieandtheOriginals.Retrievedfromhttp://www.destinationdoowop.com/rosieandtheoriginals.htm.

General instructions for an article or page from a Web site.Asageneralguidelineincludeallofthefollowinginformationthatisavailableintheordershown.

Author'slastname,Author'sfirstinitial.(Dateofpublicationorlastupdateifauthorisknown)Titleofthearticle,site,orpage.(dateofpublicationorlastupdateifauthorisnotknown).Sponsoringorganization.Retrievedondateaccessed,fromcompleteURL.

218

CSE Citation-Sequence Numerical Style

CSECitation-SequencestyleisdescribedinScientific Style and Format: the CSE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers,8thEdition(2014)). Therearemanyothernumericaldocumentationstyles.TheInstituteofElectricalandElectronicEngineers'numericaldocumentationstyle is described in Information for IEEE Transactions, Journals, and Letters Authors (2007). TheAmericanChemicalSociety'sACSnumericalstyleisdescribedinThe ACS Style Guide: Effective Communication of Scientific Information(3rdEdition,2006).AmericanInstituteofPhysicsnumericalstyleisdescribedinAIP Author Resource Guide available at https://publishing.aip.org/authors.AmericanMathematicalSocietynumericalstyleisdescribedintheAMS Author Handbook Availableathttp://www.ams.org/publications/authors/tex/author-handbook.AmericanMedicalAssociationnumericalstylestyleisdescribedinAMA Manual of Style(10thedition,2007)availableathttp://www.amamanualofstyle.com.

Ingeneral,advertisingis"usedtobringproducts,services,opinions,orcausestopublicnoticeforthepurposeofpersuadingthepublictorespondinacertainwaytowardwhatisadvertised." 1Morespecifically,2arguedthatadvertisingis"thematterofgettingtheprospecttopayattentiontothemessageyouareattemptingtopresent.”Onewaymanufacturersadvertisesuccessfullyisbysegmentingproductstoofferdifferentingredientsandfeatures.

Althoughallmodernlaundrydetergentsdoprettymuchthesamething,removedirtandodorfrompeople’sclothing,eachdetergentbrandisdevelopedtofillanindividualconsumerneedorwant.3

Oxydol—bleachesasitwashes,Dreft—thedetergentforbaby’slaundry,Tide—America’sfavorite,Dash—lowsudsconcentrate,andCheer—alltemperatureCheerareallsegmentproductexamples.Productendorsementbycelebritiesisalsoanextremelypopularmethodofadvertising.Companiesspendlargeamountsofmoneytohavepublicfigurespromotetheirproducts.MarketingsupportforAlpoCatfoodthatusedGarifieldthecartooncattotaled$70million. 4 Two years later a campaignforunderwearfeaturingMichaelJordanwasbudgetedatmorethantwicethatamount.4 Thecombinationofavailabledata,big-timeprocessingpower,assetmanagementandmarketingautomationtechnologymeansadvertiserscantargetindividualatscale. 5 Changesinmarketingideasalsohelpagenciespromoteproducts.Forexample,inaninterviewonOctober4,2004,JackLowry,ownerofPicwoodCinemainRussellville,ArkansasstatedthattheMotionPictureAssociation’sNC-17-ratedfilms,towhichnochildrenunder17canbeadmitted,aremorelikelytobeadvertisedonTVstationsandnewspapersthanX-ratedfilms.Inanyeffectiveadvertisement,creative writing is a necessity. 2 The 1972 advertisingmessageofKellogg'sRaisinBrancerealheraldedthe“TwoScoops”storyinsong.“Forraisinloversthethemeprovidedadramaticmemorydeviceforcommunicatinggoodcerealcontent.”6

Research Methods–CSE C-S

219

End References

1.Advertising.EncyclopediaBritannicaOnline;2015[accessed2016June23].www.britannica.com/topics/advertising/.

2.CaplesC.Imaginativeadvertising.In:JukesterJ,editor.Approachestothemarketplace.Cleveland(OH):FordycePress,2009,p.62-81.

3.HaferA.Strategicmarketing,AdvertisingWorld.2006October8:31-38.

4.BernsteinRX.Theincreasingcostofadvertising.ModernManagement.2013;2(8):18-26.

5.Whyaudiencesegmentationisn'tallit'scrackeduptobe.AdvertisingAge;2014May13[accessed2016June17].http://adage.com/article/datadriven-marketing/audience-segmentation-cracked/292974/.

6.HaferA.AdvertisingToday.NewYork(NY):SimonandSchuster;2002.

Research Methods–CSE C-S

Some Basics of CSE Citation-Sequence Style

*Listandnumbersourcesintheorderinwhichtheyfirstarecitedinthetext.Superscriptthecitationnumbersandplacethemoutsidetheendpunctuation.

*NotethatCSEC-Sstyleencouragessubstitutingreferencenumbersforthenameoftheauthorwheneverappropriate,asinthesecondsentenceofthesampleparagraphontheprecedingpage.

* Forin-textcitationsusethesource'sidentfyingnumber;therefore,aswithsource2 in the passageontheleft,asource'snumbermayappearmultipletimesinthetext.

*Citeonlyworksavailabletoscholarsinalibrary,adepository,anarchive,orontheInternet.Sourcessuchastheinterviewshouldbeexplainedinthetext.

220 Research Methods–CSE/CBE

Example of References Entries(CSECitationSequenceNumericalStyle)

A book with a single author1.SnarkF.Fieldguidetonorthamericansnails.NewYork(NY):ASAPress,2005.

A book with two to ten authors2.BigglesR,CazlowB.EggproductioninIowa.IowaCity(IA):Jacobs,2008.

A book with eleven or more authors3.LawrenceD,MorrisJ,McKownK,NorrisF,TownsendB,SaberhagenB,PashtawX,RumfieldT,

BarnagleB,FreedC,etal.MasteringadvancedHTML.Chicago(IL):Wheatland,2000.

A book with unknown author(s)4.Repairingyourownautomobile,Boston(MA):Carruth,2006.

Two books with the same author[Arrangenumerically.]5.NixonE.Emergingtechnologies.Atlanta(GA):Chiggers,2013.

6.NixonE.Lasertechnology.Atlanta(GA):Chiggers,2011.

A book with an editor7.MerryvilleM,editor.Analyzingnurseryrhymes.Louisville(KY):Sunset,2003.

A book with an author and an editor8.SwiftJ.Gulliver'stravels.YahooG,editor.Cloudland(OH):Lilliput,2005.

A source from an anthology9.AbleF.Shiloh.In:FooteS,editor.Thecivilwar.Memphis(TN):MemphisState,2008,p.153-191.

An introduction, foreword, or afterword10.DixonB.Foreword.In:NoviousL.MyBigSqueeze.Cleveland(OH):Outofsight,2012,p.v-xvi.

An article in a magazine11.MarneyE.Ninewaystoskinacat.Taxidermy.2008May;18:14-23.

An article in a journal12.ThreaderB.Officemanagement.JournalofManagement.21(2):6-9.

A newspaper article13.NewmanN.ComputeruseatArkansasTechincreases.Courier-Democrat.2001July15;Sect.B:6.

221Research Methods–CSE/CBE

An article from a reference work14.Lasers.In:DictionaryofScience.Vol.12.NewYork(NY):Macmillan,2001,p.1024-1029.

An article from an online encyclopedia15.Iron.EncyclopediaBritannicaOnline. EncyclopediaBritannica;2008[accessed2009June8].http://

www.britannica.com.

A brochure or pamphlet16.ArkansasGameandFishCommission.Huntingeducationrequirements. ArkansasGameandFish

commission[dateunknown].

A motion picture or video recording17.CapraF,director.It'sawonderfullife.[DVD].LosAngeles(CA):RKO;1946.

An article from an online journal18.Mitchner,S.2007March25.WhenShakespearespeakstoyou.TownTopics.[accesseed2008May

20].http://www.towntopics.com/apr2507/index2.html.

An article from an online database19.BossongE.Ergativityinbasque.Linguistics.[accessed2009June8];22(3):341-399.http://www.jstor.

org.

An article or page from a Web site with a named author or authors.20.BrainM,HarrisT.2006Sept25.HowGPSreceiverswork.Sept.25,2006.[accessed2009June2].

http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/gps.htm.

An article or page from a Web site with no known author21.Wikipedia,TheFreeEncyclopedia.2009June2.KingArthur.[accessed2009June3].http://

en.wikipedia.org.

An article or page from a Web site with no named author, date, or sponsoring organization..22.RosieandtheOriginals.[accessed2009June8].http://www.destinationdoowop.com/

rosieandtheoriginals.htm.

General instructions for an article or page from a Web siteIncludeallofthefollowinginformationthatisavailableintheordershown.

Author'sfirstinitialAuthor'slastname.Dateofpublicationorlastupdate.Titleorthearticleofpage.TitleofJournal,Site,orSponsoringOrganization,[accesseddateofaccess].completeURL.

222

CMS Footnote/Endnote Style

ThetraditionalsystemofdocumentationthatusesfootnotesorendnotesisdescribedintheChicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors, and Publishers, 16th edition, and Kate Turabian'sA Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations,8thedition.

Ingeneral,advertisingis"usedtobringproducts,services,opinions,orcausestopublicno-ticeforthepurposeofpersuadingthepublictorespondinacertainwaytowardwhatisadvertised"1 CatherineCaplesarguesthat“Advertisingisthematterofgettingtheprospecttopayattentiontothemessageyouareattemptingtopresent.”2Onewaymanufacturersadvertisesuccessfullyisbyseg-mentingproductstoofferdifferentingredientsandfeatures.

Althoughallmodernlaundrydetergentsdoprettymuchthesamething,removedirtandodorfrompeople’sclothing,eachdetergentbrandisdevelopedtofillanindividualconsumerneedor want. 3

Oxydol—bleachesasitwashes,Dreft—thedetergentforbaby’slaundry,Tide—America’sfavorite,Dash—lowsudsconcentrate,andCheer—alltemperatureCheerareallsegmentproductexamples.Productendorsementbycelebritiesisalsoanextremelypopularmethodofadvertising.Companiesspendlargeamountsofmoneytohavepublicfigurespromotetheirproduct.MarketingsupportforAlpoCatfoodthatusedGarifieldthecartooncattotaled$70million.4TwoyearslateracampaignforunderwearfeaturingMichaelJordanwasbudgetedatmorethantwicethatamount.5 Thecom-binationofavailabledata,big-timeprocessingpower,assetmanagementandmarketingautomationtechnologymeansadvertiserscantargetindividualatscale.6Changesinmarketingideasalsohelpagenciespromoteproducts.Forexample,inaninterviewonOctober4,2004,JackLowry,ownerofPicwoodCinemainRussellville,ArkansasstatedthattheMotionPictureAssociation’sNC-17-ratedfilms,towhichnochildrenunder17canbeadmitted,aremorelikelytobeadvertisedonTVstationsandnewspapersthanX-ratedfilms.7Inanyeffectiveadvertisementcreativewritingisanecessity.8 The1972advertisingmessageofKellogg'sRaisinBrancerealheraldedthe“TwoScoops”storyinsong.“Forraisinloversthethemeprovidedadramaticmemorydeviceforcommunicatinggoodcerealcontent."8

Research Methods–CMS

223

Endnotes

1."Advertising,"inEncyclopedia Britannica Online, lastmodifiedFebruary3,2015,www.britannica.com/topic/advertising/.

2.CatherineCaples,"ImaginativeAdvertising,"inApproaches to the Marketplace,ed.JosephJukester(Cleveland:FordycePress,2009),67.

3.AlbertHafer,"StrategicMarketing,"Advertising World,8October2006,34-35.

4.RudolfX.Bernstein,"TheIncreasingCostofAdvertising,"Modern Management,2,no.8(2013):22.

5.Ibid.,25.

6."WhyAudienceSegmentationIsn'tAllIt'sCrackedUptoBe,"lastmodifiedMay13,2014,www.adage.com/article/datadriven-marketing/audience-segmentation-cracked/292974/.

7. Jack Lowry, Personal interview, 4 October 1990.

8.Caples,"ImaginativeAdvertising,"125.

Research Methods–CMS

In CMS style when references to the same work follow one another with no intervening references, ibid. may take the place of the author's name, the title, and as much of the succeeding material as is identical. In CMS style the second and all subsequent references to a work use a shortened form that typically uses only the author's last name and the page number. CMS style can be used with a Bib-liography that lists only works cited in the text or a Works Consulted page that includes works that were consulted but not cited.

Bibliography

Bernstein,RudolfX.“TheIncreasingCostofAdvertising.”Modern Management2.8(1990):18-26.

Caples,Catherine.“ImaginativeAdvertising.”Approaches to the Marketplace.Ed.JosephJukester.Cleve-land:FordycePress,1989.62-81.

Hafer, Albert. Advertising Today.NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1984.

---.“StrategicMarketing.”Advertising World8Oct.1984:31-38.

Lowry, Jack. Personal interview. 4 Oct. 1990.

TCIMediaServices."TCI-KraftAllianceReflectsNewMarketingWorld."Cable Advertising Today.March1998.18June1998.http://www.tcimediaservices.com/cat.net/tjisix.html.

224

Example of Bibliographic Entries(CMSFootnote/EndnoteStyle

A book with a single authorSnark,Fred.Field Guild to North American Snails.NewYork:ASAPress,2005.

A book with two or more authorsBiggles,Robert,BarryCazlov,andTinaBubbles.Egg Production in Iowa.IowaCity:Jacobs,2008.

A book with unknown author(s)Repairing Your Automobile. Boston: Carruth, 2006.

Two books with the same author [Arrangechronologically]Nixon,Emily.Laser Technology. Atlanta: Chiggers, 2011

–––.Emerging Technologies. Atlanta: Chiggers, 2013.

A book with an editorMerryville,Mary,ed.Analyzing Nursery Rhymes.Louisville:Sunset,2003.

A book with an author and an editorSwift,Jonathan.Gulliver's Travels.EditedbyGeoffreyYahoo.Cloudland,OH:Lilliput,2005.

A source from anthologyAble,Fred.“Shiloh.”InThe Civil War,editedbyShelbyFoote,153-191.Memphis:MemphisState,2008.

An introduction, foreword, or afterword Dixon,Bunny.ForewordtoMy Big Squeeze,byLenaNoxious,v-xvi.Cleveland:Outofsight,2012.

A magazine articleMarney,Everett,“NineWaystoSkinaCat.”Taxidermy18May2012:14-23.

An article in a journalThreader,Betty.“OfficeManagement.”Journal of Management21,no.2(2008):6-9.

A newspaper articleNewman,Norman.“ComputerUseatArkansasTechIncreases.”Russellville Courier-Democrat. July 15,

2001,sec.B,p.6.

Research Methods–CMS

225

An article from a reference work or online encylcopedia [Donotincludeinbibliography.Citationismadeinrunningtextstyle]"ThearticleonLasersintheEncyclopediaBritannicaOnlinestates..."

A personal interviewHuckabee,Mike,interviewedbyCarlBrucker,May14,2005,ClarionHotel,LittleRock,Arkansas.

A lecture or presentationLake,Paul“NewFormalism.”Lecture,ArkansasTechUniversity,April15,2006.

Film or video recordingGoodrich,Frances,AlbertHackett,andFrankCapra.It's a Wonderful Life.DVD.DirectedbyFrankCapra.

LosAngeles:RKO,1946.

An article from an online journalMitchner,Stuart."WhenShakespeareSpeakstoYou."Town Topics(March25,2007).http://www.towntopics.

com/apr2507/index2.html.

An article or page from a Web site with a named author or authors.Brain,MarshallandTomHarris."HowGPSReceiversWork."HowStuffWorks (Sept.25,2006).http://elec-

tronics.howstuffworks.com/gps.htm.

An article or page from a Web site with no known author"KingArthur."Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia(June2,2009).http://en.wikipedia.org.

An article or page from a Web site with no known author, date, or sponsoring orgnaization"RosieandtheOriginals."AccessedJune8,2009.http;//www.destinationdoowop.com/rosieandtheoriginals.

htm.

General instruction for an article or page from a Web site.Asageneralguidelineincludeallofthefollowinginformationthatisavailableinordershown.

Author'slastname,Author'sfirstname."Titleofarticleorpage."Sponsoring Organization,dateofpublica-tion,dateoflastmodification,ordateofaccess,completeURL.InCMSthedateofaccessisoptional.

Research Methods–CMS

226

About the Contributors

Thankstoeachoftheseformerstudentsfortheirwillingnesstosharetheirwork.Manyotherexcellentex-ampleshadtobeomittedbecauseofspacelimitations.

Chanda Adams completedaB.S.inmanagementandmarketingin2004

Ghias Akram completedaB.S.incomputersciencein1999.

Jamie Barker completedaB.A.inEnglishin1999.

Anthony Beck completedaB.S.incomputersciencein1987.

Greg Bobel completedaprograminpre-veterinarymedicinein1986.

Michelle Boren completedaB.A.inEnglishin1997.

Matt Brucker completedcoursesinmanagementandmarketingduring2004-05.

Jan Cartmill completedaB.A.inEnglishin1987.

Juanita Fox completedaB.S.inbiologyin1999.

Rex Garner completedaB.S.inaccountingin1988.

Taylor Garrett conmpletedaB.A.inEnglisheducationin2015

Deanna Gentry completedaB.S.infisheriesandwildlifebiologyinMay1996.

Robert Gunter completedaB.S.inaccountingin1987.

Greg Grady completedaB.S.infisheriesandwildlifebiologyin2001.

Carl Hankins completedaB.S.incomputersciencein1989.

Sarah Hart completedcoursesinbiologyduring2002-05.

Mary Lynne Hawkins completedcoursesatTechin1994.

Clayton Henry iscompletingaB.S.incomputerscience

Charlotte Hipp completedaB.P.S.inprofessionalstudiesin2011.

Brent Hogan completedaB.F.A.increativewritingin1999andanM.A.inEnglishin2003.

Mark Holt iscompletingaB.S.ininformationsystems

Contributors

227

Kimberly Horton completedaB.S.inbiologyandfisheriesandwildlifebiologyin1999.

Mary Keener completedaB.A.inEnglishin1995.

Suzanne Lippard completedaB.A.inEnglishin1986

Tina Sharp McCain completedaB.A.inEnglishin1989andanM.L.A.incommunicationsin1994.

Wendy Gayle Miller completedaB.S.infisheriesandwildlifebiologyin2001.

Brandon Peoples completedaB.S.inFisheriesandWildlifeManagementin2007.

Julia Pope isapursuingaB.A.ingeneralstudies.

Sajeed Poudyal completedaB.S.incomputersciencein2002.

Caitlin Schneider completedaB.A.inprintjournalismin2010.

Vicky Smith completedaB.A.inEnglisheducationwithasecondcertificationinFrenchin1990.

Todd Strawn completedaB.S.incomputersceincein2002.

Robert Tran completedaB.S.incomputersciencein2000.

Karl Vesecky, Jr. completedcoursesincomputersciencein2001-2003.

Ashley Williams ispursuingaB.S.innursing.

Katie Young completedaB.A.inartin2007.

Staci Young completedaB.S.inmedi-calrecordsadministrationin1986.

Contributors

228

Exercise Answers

Subject-Verb Agreement(Page147)

1.is[Chairscan'tbethesubjectbecauseitistheobjectofthepreposition"under."]2.is[Eachmeansthattheacceleratorsaretreatedassingleunits]3.is[Becausethesubjectsarenotcombinedby"or,"thesubjectclosesttotheverbdeterminesthenumber.]4.are["And"combinesthetwosingularsubjectstomakeaplural.]5.are["That"referstobooksandisthereforeplural.]6.is[Thephrase"onlyone"requires"that"toreferto"one"andbesingular.]7.is"Despitethedeceptive"s"ending,wordssuchaseconomicsandthenewsaretreatedassingular.]8.is[Thesubjectbeforetheverbdeterminesthenumber.]

Pronoun Agreement and Reference(Page148)

1.we[Weispartofthesubject."Wearegoing."]2.her[Eachrequiresasingularpronoun."His"couldhaveworkedifithadbeenachoice.]3.whom[Therestatedclausewouldread"Wehiredhim,"theobjectivecase.]4.who[Therestatedclausewouldread"Hegaveusdirections,"subjectivecase.]5.architects,orconsultants,orweorsomeotherreferencethatwasnotambiguousas"they"ishere.]6.him,herjob,herdegreeprogram,orallofthem.[Somethingmorespecificthan"it."]7.she["Recipient=she.""Sheisanobjectivecomplementandtakesthesameformasthesubject.]8.me["Me"istheobjectofthepreposition"to."]9.We[Werenamesthesubjectandisinthesamecase.]10.heorshe["They"wouldnotagreeinnumberwith"astudent.""You"wouldshiftfrom3rdto2ndperson.

Answers