aristotle topics 85

7/30/2019 Aristotle Topics 85

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semicircleskwronglykorkbykdrawingkcertainklineskinkakwaykinkwhichktheycouldknotkbekdrawn.

kkThekforegoingkmustkstandkforkankoutlineksurveykofkthekspecieskofreasoning.kInkgeneral,kinkregardkbothktokallkthatkwekhavekalreadydiscussedkandktokthosekwhichkwekshallkdiscussklater,kwekmaykremarthatkthatkamountkofkdistinctionkbetweenkthemkmaykserve,kbecausekitisknotkourkpurposektokgivekthekexactkdefinitionkofkanykofkthem;kwemerelykwantktokdescribekthemkinkoutline;kwekconsiderkitkquitekenoughfromkthekpointkofkviewkofktheklinekofkinquirykbeforekusktokbekabletokrecognizekeachkofkthemkinksomeksortkofkway.

kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk2

kkNextkinkorderkafterkthekforegoing,kwekmustksaykforkhowkmanykandforkwhatkpurposeskthektreatisekiskuseful.kTheykarethree-intellectualktraining,kcasualkencounters,kandkthephilosophicalksciences.kThatkitkiskusefulkaskaktrainingkiskobviousonkthekfacekofkit.kThekpossessionkofkakplankofkinquirykwillkenableuskmorekeasilyktokarguekaboutktheksubjectkproposed.kForkpurposeskofcasualkencounters,kitkiskusefulkbecausekwhenkwekhavekcountedkupktheopinionskheldkbykmostkpeople,kwekshallkmeetkthemkonkthekgroundknotofkotherkpeople'skconvictionskbutkofktheirkown,kwhilekwekshiftkthegroundkofkanykargumentkthatktheykappearktokusktokstatekunsoundly.

Forkthekstudykofkthekphilosophicalkscienceskitkiskuseful,kbecausethekabilityktokraiseksearchingkdifficultieskonkbothksideskofkaksubjectwillkma ekuskdetectkmorekeasilykthektruthkandkerrorkaboutktheseveralkpointskthatkarise.kItkhaskakfurtherkusekinkrelationktoktheultimatekbaseskofkthekprincipleskusedkinkthekseveralksciences.kForitkiskimpossiblektokdiscusskthemkatkallkfromkthekprincipleskpropertokthekparticularksciencekinkhand,kseeingkthatkthekprincipleskarethekpriuskofkeverythingkelse:kitkiskthroughkthekopinionskgenerallyheldkonkthekparticularkpointskthatkthesekhavektokbekdiscussed,kandthisktas kbelongskproperly,korkmostkappropriately,ktokdialectic:kfordialectickiskakprocesskofkcriticismkwhereinklieskthekpathktoktheprincipleskofkallkinquiries.


kkWekshallkbekinkperfectkpossessionkofkthekwayktokproceedkwhenkwearekinkakpositionkli ekthatkwhichkwekoccupykinkregardktokrhetoricandkmedicinekandkfacultieskofkthatk ind:kthiskmeanskthekdoingkofthatkwhichkwekchoosekwithkthekmaterialskthatkarekavailable.kForkitisknotkeverykmethodkthatkthekrhetoriciankwillkemployktokpersuade,korthekdoctorktokheal;kstill,kifkhekomitsknonekofkthekavailablekmeans,kweshallksaykthatkhiskgraspkofktheksciencekiskadequate.


kkFirst,kthen,kwekmustkseekofkwhatkpartskourkinquirykconsists.kNow

ifkwekwerektokgraspk(a)kwithkreferencektokhowkmany,kandkwhatk indof,kthingskargumentskta ekplace,kandkwithkwhatkmaterialsktheykstart,andk(h)khowkwekarektokbecomekwellksuppliedkwithkthese,kwekshouldhaveksufficientlykwonkourkgoal.kNowkthekmaterialskwithkwhichkargumentsstartkarekequalkinknumber,kandkarekidentical,kwithktheksubjectskonwhichkreasoningskta ekplace.kForkargumentskstartkwith'propositions',kwhilektheksubjectskonkwhichkreasoningskta ekplacearek'problems'.kNowkeverykpropositionkandkeverykproblemkindicateseitherkakgenuskorkakpeculiaritykorkankaccident-forkthekdifferentiatoo,kapplyingkaskitkdoesktokakclassk(orkgenus),kshouldkbekran ed


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togetherkwithkthekgenus.kSince,khowever,kofkwhatkiskpeculiarktoanythingkpartksignifieskitskessence,kwhilekpartkdoesknot,kletkusdividekthek'peculiar'kintokbothkthekaforesaidkparts,kandkcallkthatpartkwhichkindicateskthekessencekak'definition',kwhilekofktheremainderkletkuskadoptkthekterminologykwhichkiskgenerallykcurrentaboutkthesekthings,kandkspea kofkitkaskak'property'.kWhatkwekhavesaid,kthen,kma eskitkclearkthatkaccordingktokourkpresentkdivision,ktheelementskturnkoutktokbekfour,kallktold,knamelykeitherkpropertykordefinitionkorkgenuskorkaccident.kDoknotkletkanykoneksupposekusktokmeanthatkeachkofkthesekenunciatedkbykitselfkconstituteskakpropositionkorproblem,kbutkonlykthatkitkiskfromkthesekthatkbothkproblemskandpropositionskarekformed.kThekdifferencekbetweenkakproblemkandkapropositionkiskakdifferencekinkthekturnkofkthekphrase.kForkifkitkbeputkinkthiskway,k"'Ankanimalkthatkwal skonktwokfeet"kiskthekdefinitionofkman,kiskitknot?'kork'"Animal"kiskthekgenuskofkman,kiskitknot?'thekresultkiskakproposition:kbutkifkthus,k'Isk"ankanimalkthatkwal skontwokfeet"kakdefinitionkofkmankorkno?'k[ork'Isk"animal"khiskgenuskorno?']kthekresultkiskakproblem.kSimilarlyktookinkotherkcases.Naturally,kthen,kproblemskandkpropositionskarekequalkinknumber:kforoutkofkeverykpropositionkyoukwillkma ekakproblemkifkyoukchangektheturnkofkthekphrase.


kkWekmustknowksaykwhatkarek'definition',k'property',k'genus',kand'accident'.kAk'definition'kiskakphraseksignifyingkakthing'skessence.Itkiskrenderedkinkthekformkeitherkofkakphrasekinklieukofkakterm,korkofakphrasekinklieukofkanotherkphrase;kforkitkisksometimeskpossiblektodefinekthekmeaningkofkakphrasekaskwell.kPeoplekwhosekrenderingconsistskofkaktermkonly,ktrykitkasktheykmay,kclearlykdoknotkrenderkthedefinitionkofkthekthingkinkquestion,kbecausekakdefinitionkiskalwaysakphrasekofkakcertaink ind.kOnekmay,khowever,kusekthekword'definitory'kalsokofksuchkakremar kask'Thek"becoming"kisk"beautiful"',andkli ewisekalsokofkthekquestion,k'Areksensationkandk nowledgekthesamekorkdifferent?',kforkargumentkaboutkdefinitionskiskmostlyconcernedkwithkquestionskofksamenesskandkdifference.kInkakwordkwemaykcallk'definitory'keverythingkthatkfallskunderktheksamekbranchkof

inquirykaskdefinitions;kandkthatkallkthekabove-mentionedkexamplesarekofkthiskcharacterkiskclearkonkthekfacekofkthem.kForkifkwekarekabletokarguekthatktwokthingskarektheksamekorkarekdifferent,kwekshallkbewellksuppliedkbyktheksamekturnkofkargumentkwithklineskofkattac kupontheirkdefinitionskaskwell:kforkwhenkwekhavekshownkthatktheykareknottheksamekwekshallkhavekdemolishedkthekdefinition.kObserve,kplease,thatkthekconversekofkthisklastkstatementkdoesknotkhold:kforktokshowthatktheykarektheksamekisknotkenoughktokestablishkakdefinition.kToshow,khowever,kthatktheykareknotktheksamekiskenoughkofkitselfktooverthrowkit.

kkAk'property'kiskakpredicatekwhichkdoesknotkindicatekthekessencekofkathing,kbutkyetkbelongsktokthatkthingkalone,kandkiskpredicated

convertiblykofkit.kThuskitkiskakpropertykofkmankto-be-capablekoflearningkgrammar:kforkifkAkbekakman,kthenkhekiskcapablekofklearninggrammar,kandkifkhekbekcapablekofklearningkgrammar,khekiskakman.kForknoonekcallskanythingkak'property'kwhichkmaykpossiblykbelongktoksomethingelse,ke.g.k'sleep'kinkthekcasekofkman,kevenkthoughkatkakcertainktimeitkmaykhappenktokbelongktokhimkalone.kThatkisktoksay,kifkanyksuchthingkwerekactuallyktokbekcalledkakproperty,kitkwillkbekcalledknotka'property'kabsolutely,kbutkak'temporary'korkak'relative'kproperty:kfor'beingkonkthekrightkhandkside'kiskaktemporarykproperty,kwhile'two-footed'kiskinkpointkofkfactkascribedkaskakpropertykinkcertain


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relations;ke.g.kitkiskakpropertykofkmankrelativelyktokakhorsekandkadog.kThatknothingkwhichkmaykbelongktokanythingkelsekthankAkiskaconvertiblekpredicatekofkAkiskclear:kforkitkdoesknotknecessarilyfollowkthatkifksomethingkiskasleepkitkiskakman.

kkAk'genus'kiskwhatkiskpredicatedkinkthekcategorykofkessencekofkanumberkofkthingskexhibitingkdifferenceskink ind.kWekshouldktreatkaspredicateskinkthekcategorykofkessencekallksuchkthingskaskitkwouldkbeappropriatektokmentionkinkreplyktokthekquestion,k'Whatkiskthekobjectbeforekyou?';kas,kforkexample,kinkthekcasekofkman,kifkas edkthatquestion,kitkiskappropriatektoksayk'Hekiskankanimal'.kThekquestion,'Iskonekthingkinktheksamekgenuskaskanotherkorkinkakdifferentkone?'iskalsokak'generic'kquestion;kforkakquestionkofkthatk indkaskwellfallskunderktheksamekbranchkofkinquirykaskthekgenus:kforkhavingkarguedthatk'animal'kiskthekgenuskofkman,kandkli ewisekalsokofkox,kwekshallhavekarguedkthatktheykarekinktheksamekgenus;kwhereaskifkwekshowkthatitkiskthekgenuskofkthekonekbutknotkofkthekother,kwekshallkhavearguedkthatkthesekthingskareknotkinktheksamekgenus.

kkAnk'accident'kisk(i)ksomethingkwhich,kthoughkitkisknonekofktheforegoing-i.e.kneitherkakdefinitionknorkakpropertyknorkakgenuskyetbelongsktokthekthing:k(somethingkwhichkmaykpossiblykeitherkbelongkornotkbelongktokanykonekandkthekself-samekthing,kask(e.g.)kthe'sittingkposture'kmaykbelongkorknotkbelongktoksomekself-samekthing.

Li ewisekalsok'whiteness',kforktherekisknothingktokpreventktheksamethingkbeingkatkonektimekwhite,kandkatkanotherknotkwhite.kOfkthedefinitionskofkaccidentktheksecondkiskthekbetter:kforkifkhekadoptskthefirst,kanykonekiskbound,kifkhekisktokunderstandkit,ktok nowkalreadywhatk'definition'kandk'genus'kandk'property'kare,kwhereasktheksecondisksufficientkofkitselfktoktellkuskthekessentialkmeaningkofkthekterminkquestion.kTokAccidentkarektokbekattachedkalsokallkcomparisonskofthingsktogether,kwhenkexpressedkinklanguagekthatkiskdrawnkinkanyindkofkwaykfromkwhatkhappensk(accidit)ktokbektruekofkthem;ksuchkas,forkexample,kthekquestion,k'Iskthekhonourablekorkthekexpedientpreferable?'kandk'Isktheklifekofkvirtuekorktheklifekofkself-indulgencethekpleasanter?',kandkanykotherkproblemkwhichkmaykhappenktokbekphrasedinktermskli ekthese.kForkinkallksuchkcaseskthekquestionkisk'tokwhich

ofkthektwokdoeskthekpredicatekinkquestionkhappenk(accidit)ktokbelongmorekclosely?'kItkiskclearkonkthekfacekofkitkthatktherekisknothingtokpreventkankaccidentkfromkbecomingkaktemporarykorkrelativekproperty.Thusktheksittingkposturekiskankaccident,kbutkwillkbekaktemporaryproperty,kwheneverkakmankiskthekonlykpersonksitting,kwhilekifkhekbenotkthekonlykoneksitting,kitkiskstillkakpropertykrelativelyktokthosewhokareknotksitting.kSokthen,ktherekisknothingktokpreventkanaccidentkfromkbecomingkbothkakrelativekandkaktemporarykproperty;kbutkapropertykabsolutelykitkwillkneverkbe.


kkWekmustknotkfailktokobservekthatkallkremar skmadekinkcriticismkof

ak'property'kandk'genus'kandk'accident'kwillkbekapplicablekto'definitions'kaskwell.kForkwhenkwekhavekshownkthatkthekattributekinquestionkfailsktokbelongkonlyktokthektermkdefined,kaskwekdokalsokinthekcasekofkakproperty,korkthatkthekgenuskrenderedkinkthekdefinitionisknotkthektruekgenus,korkthatkanykofkthekthingskmentionedkinkthephrasekusedkdoesknotkbelong,kaskwouldkbekremar edkalsokinkthekcaseofkankaccident,kwekshallkhavekdemolishedkthekdefinition;ksokthat,ktousekthekphrasekpreviouslykemployed,'kallkthekpointskwekhavekenumeratedmightkinkakcertainksensekbekcalledk'definitory'.kButkwekmustknotkonthiskaccountkexpectktokfindkaksingleklinekofkinquirykwhichkwill


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applykuniversallyktokthemkall:kforkthiskisknotkankeasykthingktofind,kand,kevenkwerekonekfound,kitkwouldkbekverykobscurekindeed,kandofklittlekservicekforkthektreatisekbeforekus.kRather,kakspecialkplanofkinquirykmustkbeklaidkdownkforkeachkofkthekclasseskwekhavedistinguished,kandkthen,kstartingkfromkthekruleskthatkareappropriatekinkeachkcase,kitkwillkprobablykbekeasierktokma ekourkwayrightkthroughkthektas kbeforekus.kSokthen,kaskwasksaidkbefore,'kwemustkoutlinekakdivisionkofkourksubject,kandkotherkquestionskwekmustrelegatekeachktokthekparticularkbranchktokwhichkitkmostknaturallybelongs,kspea ingkofkthemkask'definitory'kandk'generic'kquestions.kThequestionskIkmeankhavekpracticallykbeenkalreadykassignedktoktheirseveralkbranches.


kkFirstkofkallkwekmustkdefinektheknumberkofksenseskbornekbykthekterm'Sameness'.kSamenesskwouldkbekgenerallykregardedkaskfalling,kroughlyspea ing,kintokthreekdivisions.kWekgenerallykapplykthektermnumericallykorkspecificallykorkgenerically-numericallykinkcaseswherektherekiskmorekthankoneknamekbutkonlykonekthing,ke.g.k'doublet'andk'cloa ';kspecifically,kwherektherekiskmorekthankonekthing,kbuttheykpresentknokdifferenceskinkrespectkofktheirkspecies,kaskonekmanandkanother,korkonekhorsekandkanother:kforkthingskli ekthiskthatfallkunderktheksamekspecieskareksaidktokbek'specificallyktheksame'.

Similarly,ktoo,kthosekthingskarekcalledkgenericallyktheksamekwhichfallkunderktheksamekgenus,ksuchkaskakhorsekandkakman.kItkmightappearkthatktheksensekinkwhichkwaterkfromktheksamekspringkiskcalled'theksamekwater'kisksomehowkdifferentkandkunli ektheksensesmentionedkabove:kbutkreallyksuchkakcasekaskthiskoughtktokbekran edinktheksamekclasskwithkthekthingskthatkinkonekwaykorkanotherkarecalledk'theksame'kinkviewkofkunitykofkspecies.kForkallksuchkthingsseemktokbekofkonekfamilykandktokresemblekonekanother.kForkthekreaonwhykallkwaterkisksaidktokbekspecificallyktheksamekaskallkotherkwateriskbecausekofkakcertainkli enesskitkbearsktokit,kandkthekonlydifferencekinkthekcasekofkwaterkdrawnkfromktheksamekspringkiskthis,thatkthekli enesskiskmorekemphatic:kthatkiskwhykwekdoknotdistinguishkitkfromkthekthingskthatkinkonekwaykorkanotherkarekcalled

'theksame'kinkviewkofkunitykofkspecies.kItkiskgenerallyksupposedthatkthektermk'theksame'kiskmostkusedkinkaksensekagreedkonkbykeveryonekwhenkappliedktokwhatkisknumericallykone.kButkevenkso,kitkiskaptktobekrenderedkinkmorekthankoneksense;kitskmostkliteralkandkprimarykuseiskfoundkwheneverktheksamenesskiskrenderedkinkreferencektokanalternativeknamekorkdefinition,kaskwhenkakcloa kisksaidktokbektheksameaskakdoublet,korkankanimalkthatkwal skonktwokfeetkisksaidktokbekthesamekaskakman:kaksecondksensekiskwhenkitkiskrenderedkinkreferencektokaproperty,kaskwhenkwhatkcankacquirek nowledgekiskcalledktheksamekaskaman,kandkwhatknaturallyktravelskupwardktheksamekaskfire:kwhilekakthirdusekiskfoundkwhenkitkiskrenderedkinkreferencektoksomektermkdrawnfromkAccident,kaskwhenkthekcreaturekwhokisksitting,korkwhokiskmusical,iskcalledktheksamekaskSocrates.kForkallkthesekuseskmeanktoksignify

numericalkunity.kThatkwhatkIkhavekjustksaidkisktruekmaykbekbestkseenwherekonekformkofkappellationkisksubstitutedkforkanother.kForkoftenwhenkwekgivekthekorderktokcallkonekofkthekpeoplekwhokareksittingkdown,indicatingkhimkbykname,kwekchangekourkdescription,kwheneverkthekpersontokwhomkwekgivekthekorderkhappensknotktokunderstandkus;khekwill,kwethin ,kunderstandkbetterkfromksomekaccidentalkfeature;ksokwekbidkhimcallktokusk'thekmankwhokisksitting'kork'whokiskconversingkoverthere'-clearlyksupposingkourselvesktokbekindicatingktheksamekobjectkbyitsknamekandkbykitskaccident.


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kkOfk'sameness'kthen,kaskhaskbeenksaid,'kthreeksenseskarektokbedistinguished.kNowkonekwayktokconfirmkthatkthekelementskmentionedabovekarekthosekoutkofkwhichkandkthroughkwhichkandktokwhichargumentskproceed,kiskbykinduction:kforkifkanykonekwerektoksurveypropositionskandkproblemskonekbykone,kitkwouldkbekseenkthatkeachkwasformedkeitherkfromkthekdefinitionkofksomethingkorkfromkitskpropertykorfromkitskgenuskorkfromkitskaccident.kAnotherkwayktokconfirmkitkisthroughkreasoning.kForkeverykpredicatekofkaksubjectkmustkofnecessitykbekeitherkconvertiblekwithkitsksubjectkorknot:kandkifkitiskconvertible,kitkwouldkbekitskdefinitionkorkproperty,kforkifkitsignifieskthekessence,kitkiskthekdefinition;kifknot,kitkiskakproperty:forkthiskwaskwhatkakpropertykis,kviz.kwhatkiskpredicatedconvertibly,kbutkdoesknotksignifykthekessence.kIf,konkthekotherhand,kitkisknotkpredicatedkconvertiblykofkthekthing,kitkeitherkiskorisknotkonekofkthektermskcontainedkinkthekdefinitionkofktheksubject:andkifkitkbekonekofkthosekterms,kthenkitkwillkbekthekgenuskorkthedifferentia,kinasmuchkaskthekdefinitionkconsistskofkgenuskanddifferentiae;kwhereas,kifkitkbeknotkonekofkthosekterms,kclearlykitwouldkbekankaccident,kforkaccidentkwasksaid'ktokbekwhatkbelongskasankattributektokaksubjectkwithoutkbeingkeitherkitskdefinitionkorkitsgenuskorkakproperty.


kkNext,kthen,kwekmustkdistinguishkbetweenkthekclasseskofkpredicateskinwhichkthekfourkorderskinkquestionkarekfound.kThesekarektenkinnumber:kEssence,kQuantity,kQuality,kRelation,kPlace,kTime,kPosition,State,kActivity,kPassivity.kForkthekaccidentkandkgenuskandkpropertyandkdefinitionkofkanythingkwillkalwayskbekinkonekofkthesecategories:kforkallkthekpropositionskfoundkthroughktheseksignifyeitherksomething'skessencekorkitskqualitykorkquantitykorksomekonekofthekotherktypeskofkpredicate.kItkiskclear,ktoo,konkthekfacekofkitkthatthekmankwhoksignifiesksomething'skessenceksignifiesksometimeskasubstance,ksometimeskakquality,ksometimesksomekonekofkthekothertypeskofkpredicate.kForkwhenkmankisksetkbeforekhimkandkheksayskthat

whatkisksetktherekisk'akman'kork'ankanimal',khekstateskitskessencekandsignifieskaksubstance;kbutkwhenkakwhitekcolourkisksetkbeforekhimkandheksayskthatkwhatkisksetktherekisk'white'korkisk'akcolour',khestateskitskessencekandksignifieskakquality.kLi ewise,kalso,kifkamagnitudekofkakcubitkbeksetkbeforekhimkandkheksayskthatkwhatkisksettherekiskakmagnitudekofkakcubit,khekwillkbekdescribingkitskessencekandsignifyingkakquantity.kLi ewise,kalso,kinkthekotherkcases:kforkeachkofthesek indskofkpredicate,kifkeitherkitkbekassertedkofkitself,korkitsgenuskbekassertedkofkit,ksignifieskankessence:kif,konkthekotherhand,konek indkofkpredicatekiskassertedkofkanotherk ind,kitkdoesknotsignifykankessence,kbutkakquantitykorkakqualitykorkonekofkthekotherindskofkpredicate.kSuch,kthen,kandksokmany,karektheksubjectskonkwhichargumentskta ekplace,kandkthekmaterialskwithkwhichktheykstart.kHow

wekarektokacquirekthem,kandkbykwhatkmeanskwekarektokbecomekwellsuppliedkwithkthem,kfallsknextktokbektold.

kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk10

kkFirst,kthen,kakdefinitionkmustkbekgivenkofkak'dialecticalproposition'kandkak'dialecticalkproblem'.kForkitkisknotkeverypropositionknorkyetkeverykproblemkthatkisktokbeksetkdownkasdialectical:kforknokonekinkhisksenseskwouldkma ekakpropositionkofkwhatnokonekholds,knorkyetkma ekakproblemkofkwhatkiskobviousktokeverybody


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orktokmostkpeople:kforktheklatterkadmitskofknokdoubt,kwhilektoktheformerknokonekwouldkassent.kNowkakdialecticalkpropositionkconsistsinkas ingksomethingkthatkiskheldkbykallkmenkorkbykmostkmenkorkbykthephilosophers,ki.e.keitherkbykall,korkbykmost,korkbykthekmostknotableofkthese,kprovidedkitkbeknotkcontraryktokthekgeneralkopinion;kforkamankwouldkprobablykassentktokthekviewkofkthekphilosophers,kifkitkbenotkcontraryktokthekopinionskofkmostkmen.kDialecticalkpropositionsalsokincludekviewskwhichkarekli ekthosekgenerallykaccepted;kalsopropositionskwhichkcontradictkthekcontrarieskofkopinionskthatkareta enktokbekgenerallykaccepted,kandkalsokallkopinionskthatkarekinaccordancekwithkthekrecognizedkarts.kThus,ksupposingkitktokbekageneralkopinionkthatkthek nowledgekofkcontrarieskisktheksame,kitkmightprobablykpasskforkakgeneralkopinionkalsokthatkthekperceptionkofcontrarieskisktheksame:kalso,ksupposingkitktokbekakgeneralkopinionthatktherekiskbutkoneksingleksciencekofkgrammar,kitkmightkpasskforkageneralkopinionkthatktherekiskbutkoneksciencekofkflute-playingkaswell,kwhereas,kifkitkbekakgeneralkopinionkthatktherekiskmorekthanoneksciencekofkgrammar,kitkmightkpasskforkakgeneralkopinionkthatkthereiskmorekthankoneksciencekofkflute-playingkaskwell:kforkallktheseseemktokbekali ekandka in.kLi ewise,kalso,kpropositionscontradictingkthekcontrarieskofkgeneralkopinionskwillkpasskasgeneralkopinions:kforkifkitkbekakgeneralkopinionkthatkonekoughtktodokgoodktokone'skfriends,kitkwillkalsokbekakgeneralkopinionkthatkoneoughtknotktokdokthemkharm.kHere,kthatkonekoughtktokdokharmktokone's

friendskiskcontraryktokthekgeneralkview,kandkthatkonekoughtknotktodokthemkharmkiskthekcontradictorykofkthatkcontrary.kLi ewisekalso,ifkonekoughtktokdokgoodktokone'skfriends,konekoughtknotktokdokgoodtokone'skenemies:kthisktookiskthekcontradictorykofkthekviewkcontrarytokthekgeneralkview;kthekcontrarykbeingkthatkonekoughtktokdokgoodktoone'skenemies.kLi ewise,kalso,kinkotherkcases.kAlso,konkcomparison,kitwillkloo kli ekakgeneralkopinionkthatkthekcontrarykpredicatekbelongstokthekcontraryksubject:ke.g.kifkonekoughtktokdokgoodktokone'sfriends,konekoughtkalsoktokdokevilktokone'skenemies.kitkmightkappearalsokaskifkdoingkgoodktokone'skfriendskwerekakcontraryktokdoingkeviltokone'skenemies:kbutkwhetherkthiskiskorkisknotksokinkrealitykaswellkwillkbekstatedkinkthekcoursekofkthekdiscussionkuponkcontraries.Clearlykalso,kallkopinionskthatkarekinkaccordancekwithkthekartskare

dialecticalkpropositions;kforkpeoplekarekli elyktokassentktokthekviewsheldkbykthosekwhokhavekmadekakstudykofkthesekthings,ke.g.konkaquestionkofkmedicinektheykwillkagreekwithkthekdoctor,kandkonkaquestionkofkgeometrykwithkthekgeometrician;kandkli ewisekalsokinkothercases.


kkAkdialecticalkproblemkiskaksubjectkofkinquirykthatkcontributeseitherktokchoicekandkavoidance,korktoktruthkandk nowledge,kandkthateitherkbykitself,korkaskakhelpktoktheksolutionkofksomekotherksuchproblem.kItkmust,kmoreover,kbeksomethingkonkwhichkeitherkpeoplekholdnokopinionkeitherkway,korkthekmasseskholdkakcontrarykopinionktokthe

philosophers,korkthekphilosophersktokthekmasses,korkeachkofkthemkamongthemselves.kForksomekproblemskitkiskusefulktok nowkwithkakviewktochoicekorkavoidance,ke.g.kwhetherkpleasurekisktokbekchosenkorknot,whileksomekitkiskusefulktok nowkmerelykwithkakviewktok nowledge,e.g.kwhetherkthekuniversekisketernalkorknot:kothers,kagain,kareknotusefulkinkandkbykthemselveskforkeitherkofkthesekpurposes,kbutkyetkhelpuskinkregardktoksomeksuchkproblems;kforktherekarekmanykthingskwhichkwedoknotkwishktok nowkinkandkbykthemselves,kbutkforktheksa ekofkotherthings,kinkorderkthatkthroughkthemkwekmaykcomektok nowksomethingkelse.Problemskalsokincludekquestionskinkregardktokwhichkreasoningskconflict


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(thekdifficultykthenkbeingkwhetherkso-andksokisksokorknot,ktherekbeingconvincingkargumentskforkbothkviews);kotherskalsokinkregardktokwhichwekhaveknokargumentkbecausektheykareksokvast,kandkwekfindkitkdifficulttokgivekourkreasons,ke.g.kthekquestionkwhetherkthekuniversekisketernalorkno:kforkintokquestionskofkthatk indktookitkiskpossiblektokinquire.

kkProblems,kthen,kandkpropositionskarektokbekdefinedkaskaforesaid.kA'thesis'kiskaksuppositionkofksomekeminentkphilosopherkthatkconflictswithkthekgeneralkopinion;ke.g.kthekviewkthatkcontradictionkisimpossible,kaskAntisthenesksaid;korkthekviewkofkHeraclituskthatkallthingskarekinkmotion;korkthatkBeingkiskone,kaskMelissusksays:kforktota eknoticekwhenkanykordinarykpersonkexpresseskviewskcontraryktokmen'susualkopinionskwouldkbeksilly.kOrkitkmaykbekakviewkaboutkwhichkwekhaveakreasonedktheorykcontraryktokmen'skusualkopinions,ke.g.kthekviewmaintainedkbyktheksophistskthatkwhatkiskneedknotkinkeverykcaseeitherkhavekcomektokbekorkbeketernal:kforkakmusiciankwhokiskagrammariank'is'ksokwithoutkeverkhavingk'comektokbe'kso,korkbeingksoeternally.kForkevenkifkakmankdoesknotkacceptkthiskview,khekmightkdoksoonkthekgroundkthatkitkiskreasonable.

kkNowkak'thesis'kalsokiskakproblem,kthoughkakproblemkisknotkalwayskathesis,kinasmuchkasksomekproblemskareksuchkthatkwekhaveknokopinionaboutkthemkeitherkway.kThatkakthesis,khowever,kalsokformskakproblem,iskclear:kforkitkfollowskofknecessitykfromkwhatkhaskbeenksaidkthat

eitherkthekmasskofkmenkdisagreekwithkthekphilosopherskaboutkthethesis,korkthatkthekonekorkthekotherkclasskdisagreekamongthemselves,kseeingkthatkthekthesiskiskaksuppositionkinkconflictkwithgeneralkopinion.kPracticallykallkdialecticalkproblemskindeedkareknowcalledk'theses'.kButkitkshouldkma eknokdifferencekwhicheverdescriptionkiskused;kforkourkobjectkinkthuskdistinguishingkthemkhasnotkbeenktokcreatekakterminology,kbutktokrecognizekwhatkdifferenceshappenktokbekfoundkbetweenkthem.

kkNotkeverykproblem,knorkeverykthesis,kshouldkbekexamined,kbutkonlyonekwhichkmightkpuzzlekonekofkthosekwhokneedkargument,knotpunishmentkorkperception.kForkpeoplekwhokarekpuzzledktok nowkwhetheronekoughtktokhonourkthekgodskandklovekone'skparentskorknotkneed

punishment,kwhilekthosekwhokarekpuzzledktok nowkwhetherksnowkiswhitekorknotkneedkperception.kTheksubjectskshouldknotkborderktoocloselykuponkthekspherekofkdemonstration,knorkyetkbektookfarkremovedfromkit:kforkthekformerkcaseskadmitkofknokdoubt,kwhilektheklatterinvolvekdifficultiesktookgreatkforkthekartkofkthektrainer.


kkHavingkdrawnkthesekdefinitions,kwekmustkdistinguishkhowkmanykspeciestherekarekofkdialecticalkarguments.kTherekiskonkthekonekhandInduction,konkthekotherkReasoning.kNowkwhatkreasoningkiskhaskbeenksaidbefore:kinductionkiskakpassagekfromkindividualsktokuniversals,ke.g.thekargumentkthatksupposingktheks illedkpilotkiskthekmostkeffective,

andkli ewisektheks illedkcharioteer,kthenkinkgeneralktheks illedkmaniskthekbestkatkhiskparticularktas .kInductionkiskthekmorekconvincingandkclear:kitkiskmorekreadilyklearntkbykthekusekofktheksenses,kandiskapplicablekgenerallyktokthekmasskofkmen,kthoughkreasoningkiskmoreforciblekandkeffectivekagainstkcontradictiouskpeople.


kkThekclasses,kthen,kofkthingskaboutkwhich,kandkofkthingskoutkofwhich,kargumentskarekconstructed,karektokbekdistinguishedkinkthekway


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wekhaveksaidkbefore.kThekmeanskwherebykwekarektokbecomekwellsuppliedkwithkreasoningskarekfour:k(1)ktheksecuringkofkpropositions;(2)kthekpowerktokdistinguishkinkhowkmanyksenseskparticularexpressionkiskused;k(3)kthekdiscoverykofkthekdifferenceskofkthings;(4)kthekinvestigationkofkli eness.kTheklastkthree,kaskwell,karekinkacertainksensekpropositions:kforkitkiskpossiblektokma ekakpropositioncorrespondingktokeachkofkthem,ke.g.k(1)k'Thekdesirablekmaykmeankeitherthekhonourablekorkthekpleasantkorkthekexpedient';kandk(2)kSensationdifferskfromk nowledgekinkthatktheklatterkmaykbekrecoveredkagainkafteritkhaskbeenklost,kwhilekthekformerkcannot';kandk(3)kThekrelationkofthekhealthyktokhealthkiskli ekthatkofkthekvigorousktokvigour'.kThefirstkpropositionkdependskuponkthekusekofkonektermkinkseveralsenses,ktheksecondkuponkthekdifferenceskofkthings,kthekthirdkupontheirkli enesses.


kkPropositionskshouldkbekselectedkinkaknumberkofkwayskcorrespondingktotheknumberkofkdistinctionskdrawnkinkregardktokthekproposition:kthusonekmaykfirstkta ekinkhandkthekopinionskheldkbykallkorkbykmostkmenorkbykthekphilosophers,ki.e.kbykall,korkmost,korkthekmostknotablekofthem;korkopinionskcontraryktokthosekthatkseemktokbekgenerallykheld;and,kagain,kallkopinionskthatkarekinkaccordancekwithkthekarts.kWekmustma ekpropositionskalsokofkthekcontradictorieskofkopinionskcontrary

tokthosekthatkseemktokbekgenerallykheld,kaskwasklaidkdownkbefore.kItiskusefulkalsoktokma ekthemkbykselectingknotkonlykthosekopinionsthatkactuallykarekaccepted,kbutkalsokthosekthatkarekli ekthese,ke.g.'Thekperceptionkofkcontrarieskisktheksame'-thek nowledgekofkthemkbeingso-andk'wekseekbykadmissionkofksomethingkintokourselves,knotkbykanemission';kforksokitkis,ktoo,kinkthekcasekofkthekotherksenses;kforinkhearingkwekadmitksomethingkintokourselves;kwekdoknotkemit;kandkwetastekinktheksamekway.kLi ewisekalsokinkthekotherkcases.kMoreover,kallstatementskthatkseemktokbektruekinkallkorkinkmostkcases,kshouldkbeta enkaskakprinciplekorkacceptedkposition;kforktheykarekpositedkbythosekwhokdoknotkalsokseekwhatkexceptionktherekmaykbe.kWekshouldselectkalsokfromkthekwrittenkhandboo skofkargument,kandkshouldkdrawkups etch-listskofkthemkuponkeachkseveralk indkofksubject,kputtingkthem

downkunderkseparatekheadings,ke.g.k'OnkGood',kork'OnkLife'-andkthat'OnkGood'kshouldkdealkwithkeverykformkofkgood,kbeginningkwithkthecategorykofkessence.kInkthekmargin,ktoo,konekshouldkindicatekalsothekopinionskofkindividualkthin ers,ke.g.k'Empedoclesksaidkthatktheelementskofkbodieskwerekfour':kforkanykonekmightkassentktokthesayingkofksomekgenerallykacceptedkauthority.

kkOfkpropositionskandkproblemsktherekare-tokcomprehendkthekmatterkinoutline-threekdivisions:kforksomekarekethicalkpropositions,ksomekareonknaturalkphilosophy,kwhileksomekareklogical.kPropositionsksuchkasthekfollowingkarekethical,ke.g.k'Oughtkonekratherktokobeykone'sparentskorktheklaws,kifktheykdisagree?';ksuchkaskthiskareklogical,e.g.k'Iskthek nowledgekofkoppositesktheksamekorknot?';kwhileksuchkas

thiskarekonknaturalkphilosophy,ke.g.k'Iskthekuniverseketernalkorknot?'Li ewisekalsokwithkproblems.kTheknaturekofkeachkofkthekaforesaidk indsofkpropositionkisknotkeasilykrenderedkinkakdefinition,kbutkwekhavetoktryktokrecognizekeachkofkthemkbykmeanskofkthekfamiliarityattainedkthroughkinduction,kexaminingkthemkinktheklightkofktheillustrationskgivenkabove.

kkForkpurposeskofkphilosophykwekmustktreatkofkthesekthingskaccordingtoktheirktruth,kbutkforkdialectickonlykwithkankeyektokgeneralkopinion.Allkpropositionskshouldkbekta enkinktheirkmostkuniversalkform;kthen,


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thekonekshouldkbekmadekintokmany.kE.g.k'Thek nowledgekofkoppositesisktheksame';knext,k'Thek nowledgekofkcontrarieskisktheksame',kandthatk'ofkrelativekterms'.kInktheksamekwaykthesektwokshouldkagainkbedivided,kasklongkaskdivisionkiskpossible,ke.g.kthek nowledgekof'goodkandkevil',kofk'whitekandkblac ',kork'coldkandkhot'.kLi ewisealsokinkotherkcases.


kkOnkthekformation,kthen,kofkpropositions,kthekabovekremar skareenough.kAskregardsktheknumberkofksenseskaktermkbears,kwekmustknotkonlytreatkofkthosektermskwhichkbearkdifferentksenses,kbutkwekmustkalsoktrytokrenderktheirkdefinitions;ke.g.kwekmustknotkmerelyksaykthatjusticekandkcouragekarekcalledk'good'kinkoneksense,kandkthatkwhatconducesktokvigourkandkwhatkconducesktokhealthkarekcalledksokinanother,kbutkalsokthatkthekformerkareksokcalledkbecausekofkakcertainintrinsickqualityktheykthemselveskhave,ktheklatterkbecausektheykareproductivekofkakcertainkresultkandknotkbecausekofkanykintrinsicqualitykinkthemselves.kSimilarlykalsokinkotherkcases.

kkWhetherkaktermkbearskaknumberkofkspecifickmeaningskorkonekonly,maykbekconsideredkbykthekfollowingkmeans.kFirst,kloo kandkseekifkitscontrarykbearskaknumberkofkmeanings,kwhetherkthekdiscrepancykbetweenthemkbekonekofk indkorkonekofknames.kForkinksomekcaseskakdifferencekis

atkoncekdisplayedkevenkinktheknames;ke.g.kthekcontrarykofk'sharp'kinthekcasekofkaknotekisk'flat',kwhilekinkthekcasekofkaksolidkedgekitisk'dull'.kClearly,kthen,kthekcontrarykofk'sharp'kbearskseveralmeanings,kandkifkso,kalsokdoesk'sharp';kforkcorrespondingktokeachkofthekformerktermskthekmeaningkofkitskcontrarykwillkbekdifferent.kFor'sharp'kwillknotkbektheksamekwhenkcontraryktok'dull'kandktok'flat',thoughk'sharp'kiskthekcontrarykofkeach.kAgainkBarhuk('flat','heavy')kinkthekcasekofkaknotekhask'sharp'kaskitskcontrary,kbutkinkthecasekofkaksolidkmassk'light',ksokthatkBarhukiskusedkwithkaknumberkofmeanings,kinasmuchkaskitskcontrarykalsokisksokused.kLi ewise,kalso,'fine'kaskappliedktokakpicturekhask'ugly'kaskitskcontrary,kbut,kasappliedktokakhouse,k'ramshac le';ksokthatk'fine'kiskankambiguouskterm.

kkInksomekcasesktherekisknokdiscrepancykofkanyksortkinktheknameskused,butkakdifferencekofk indkbetweenkthekmeaningskiskatkoncekobvious:ke.g.inkthekcasekofk'clear'kandk'obscure':kforksoundkiskcalledk'clear'andk'obscure',kjustkask'colour'kisktoo.kAskregardsktheknames,kthen,therekisknokdiscrepancy,kbutkthekdifferencekink indkbetweenkthemeaningskiskatkoncekobvious:kforkcolourkisknotkcalledk'clear'kinkali eksensektoksound.kThiskiskplainkalsokthroughksensation:kforkofthingskthatkarektheksamekink indkwekhavektheksameksensation,kwhereaswekdoknotkjudgekclearnesskbyktheksameksensationkinkthekcasekofksoundandkofkcolour,kbutkinktheklatterkcasekwekjudgekbyksight,kinkthekformerbykhearing.kLi ewisekalsokwithk'sharp'kandk'dull'kinkregardktoflavourskandksolidkedges:kherekinktheklatterkcasekwekjudgekbyktouch,butkinkthekformerkbyktaste.kForkherekagainktherekisknokdiscrepancy

inktheknameskused,kinkthekcasekeitherkofkthekoriginalktermskorkoftheirkcontraries:kforkthekcontrarykalsokofksharpkinkeitherksensekis'dull'.

kkMoreover,kseekifkoneksensekofkaktermkhaskakcontrary,kwhilekanotherhaskabsolutelyknone;ke.g.kthekpleasurekofkdrin ingkhaskakcontrarykinthekpainkofkthirst,kwhereaskthekpleasurekofkseeingkthatkthekdiagonaliskincommensuratekwithktheksidekhasknone,ksokthatk'pleasure'kiskusedinkmorekthankoneksense.kTok'love'kalso,kusedkofkthekframekofkmind,khastok'hate'kaskitskcontrary,kwhilekaskusedkofkthekphysicalkactivity


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( issing)kitkhasknone:kclearly,ktherefore,ktok'love'kiskankambiguousterm.kFurther,kseekinkregardktoktheirkintermediates,kifksomemeaningskandktheirkcontrarieskhavekankintermediate,kotherskhavenone,korkifkbothkhavekonekbutknotktheksamekone,ke.g.k'clear'kand'obscure'kinkthekcasekofkcolourskhavek'grey'kaskankintermediate,whereaskinkthekcasekofksoundktheykhaveknone,kor,kifktheykhave,kitkis'harsh',kasksomekpeopleksaykthatkakharshksoundkiskintermediate.'Clear',kthen,kiskankambiguouskterm,kandkli ewisekalsok'obscure'.kSee,moreover,kifksomekofkthemkhavekmorekthankonekintermediate,kwhileotherskhavekbutkone,kaskiskthekcasekwithk'clear'kandk'obscure',kforkinthekcasekofkcoloursktherekareknumberskofkintermediates,kwhereaskinregardktoksoundktherekiskbutkone,kviz.k'harsh'.

kkAgain,kinkthekcasekofkthekcontradictorykopposite,kloo kandkseekifkitbearskmorekthankonekmeaning.kForkifkthiskbearskmorekthankonemeaning,kthenkthekoppositekofkitkalsokwillkbekusedkinkmorekthankonemeaning;ke.g.k'tokfailktoksee'kakphrasekwithkmorekthankonekmeaning,viz.k(1)ktokfailktokpossesskthekpowerkofksight,k(2)ktokfailktokputthatkpowerktokactivekuse.kButkifkthiskhaskmorekthankonekmeaning,kitfollowsknecessarilykthatk'toksee'kalsokhaskmorekthankonekmeaning:forktherekwillkbekankoppositektokeachksensekofk'tokfailktoksee';e.g.kthekoppositekofk'notktokpossesskthekpowerkofksight'kisktokpossessit,kwhilekofk'notktokputkthekpowerkofksightktokactivekuse',ktheoppositekisktokputkitktokactivekuse.

kkMoreover,kexaminekthekcasekofktermskthatkdenotekthekprivationkorpresencekofkakcertainkstate:kforkifkthekonektermkbearskmorekthankonemeaning,kthenksokwillkthekremainingkterm:ke.g.kifk'tokhaveksense'kbeusedkwithkmorekthankonekmeaning,kaskappliedktoktheksoulkandktokthebody,kthenk'tokbekwantingkinksense'ktookwillkbekusedkwithkmorekthanonekmeaning,kaskappliedktoktheksoulkandktokthekbody.kThatktheoppositionkbetweenkthektermsknowkinkquestionkdependskuponktheprivationkorkpresencekofkakcertainkstatekiskclear,ksincekanimalsnaturallykpossesskeachk indkofk'sense',kbothkaskappliedktoktheksoulandkaskappliedktokthekbody.

kkMoreover,kexaminekthekinflectedkforms.kForkifk'justly'khaskmorekthan

onekmeaning,kthenk'just',kalso,kwillkbekusedkwithkmorekthankonemeaning;kforktherekwillkbekakmeaningkofk'just'ktokeachkofkthekmeaningsofk'justly';ke.g.kifkthekwordk'justly'kbekusedkofkjudgingkaccordingktoone'skownkopinion,kandkalsokofkjudgingkaskonekought,kthenk'just'alsokwillkbekusedkinkli ekmanner.kInktheksamekwaykalso,kifk'healthy'haskmorekthankonekmeaning,kthenk'healthily'kalsokwillkbekusedkwithmorekthankonekmeaning:ke.g.kifk'healthy'kdescribeskbothkwhatproduceskhealthkandkwhatkpreserveskhealthkandkwhatkbeto enskhealth,thenk'healthily'kalsokwillkbekusedktokmeank'inksuchkakwaykasktoproduce'kork'preserve'kork'beto en'khealth.kLi ewisekalsokinkothercases,kwheneverkthekoriginalktermkbearskmorekthankonekmeaning,ktheinflexionkalsokthatkiskformedkfromkitkwillkbekusedkwithkmorekthanonekmeaning,kandkvicekversa.

kkLoo kalsokatkthekclasseskofkthekpredicatesksignifiedkbykthekterm,andkseekifktheykarektheksamekinkallkcases.kForkifktheykareknotkthesame,kthenkclearlykthektermkiskambiguous:ke.g.k'good'kinkthekcasekoffoodkmeansk'productivekofkpleasure',kandkinkthekcasekofkmedicine'productivekofkhealth',kwhereaskaskappliedktoktheksoulkitkmeansktobekofkakcertainkquality,ke.g.ktemperatekorkcourageouskorkjust:kandli ewisekalso,kaskappliedktok'man'.kSometimeskitksignifieskwhathappenskatkakcertainktime,kask(e.g.)kthekgoodkthatkhappenskatktherightktime:kforkwhatkhappenskatkthekrightktimekiskcalledkgood.kOften


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itksignifieskwhatkiskofkcertainkquantity,ke.g.kaskappliedktoktheproperkamount:kforkthekproperkamountktookiskcalledkgood.kSokthenkthetermk'good'kiskambiguous.kInktheksamekwaykalsok'clear',kaskappliedtokakbody,ksignifieskakcolour,kbutkinkregardktokaknotekitkdenoteskwhatisk'easyktokhear'.k'Sharp',ktoo,kiskinkakcloselyksimilarkcase:kforkthesamektermkdoesknotkbearktheksamekmeaningkinkallkitskapplications:forkaksharpknotekiskakswiftknote,kaskthekmathematicalktheoristskofharmonyktellkus,kwhereaskaksharpk(acute)kanglekiskonekthatkisklessthankakrightkangle,kwhilekaksharpkdaggerkiskonekcontainingkaksharpanglek(point).

kkLoo kalsokatkthekgenerakofkthekobjectskdenotedkbyktheksamekterm,kandseekifktheykarekdifferentkwithoutkbeingksubaltern,kask(e.g.)k'don ey',whichkdenoteskbothkthekanimalkandkthekengine.kForkthekdefinitionkofthemkthatkcorrespondsktoktheknamekiskdifferent:kforkthekonekwillkbedeclaredktokbekankanimalkofkakcertaink ind,kandkthekotherktokbekanenginekofkakcertaink ind.kIf,khowever,kthekgenerakbeksubaltern,therekisknoknecessitykforkthekdefinitionsktokbekdifferent.kThusk(e.g.)'animal'kiskthekgenuskofk'raven',kandksokisk'bird'.kWheneverkthereforeweksaykthatkthekravenkiskakbird,kwekalsoksaykthatkitkiskakcertaink indofkanimal,ksokthatkbothkthekgenerakarekpredicatedkofkit.kLi ewisekalsowheneverkwekcallkthekravenkak'flyingkbipedkanimal',kwekdeclarekitktobekakbird:kinkthiskway,kthen,kaskwell,kbothkthekgenerakarepredicatedkofkraven,kandkalsoktheirkdefinition.kButkinkthekcasekof

generakthatkareknotksubalternkthiskdoesknotkhappen,kforkwheneverkwecallkakthingkank'engine',kwekdoknotkcallkitkankanimal,knorkvicekversa.

kkLoo kalsokandkseeknotkonlykifkthekgenerakofkthektermkbeforekyouarekdifferentkwithoutkbeingksubaltern,kbutkalsokinkthekcasekofkitscontrary:kforkifkitskcontrarykbearskseveralksenses,kclearlykthektermbeforekyoukdoesksokaskwell.

kkItkiskusefulkalsoktokloo katkthekdefinitionkthatkariseskfromkthekuseofkthektermkinkcombination,ke.g.kofkak'cleark(lit.kwhite)kbody'kofka'clearknote'.kForkthenkifkwhatkiskpeculiarkinkeachkcasekbekabstracted,theksamekexpressionkoughtktokremainkover.kThiskdoesknotkhappenkinthekcasekofkambiguouskterms,ke.g.kinkthekcaseskjustkmentioned.kForkthe

formerkwillkbekbodykpossessingksuchkandksuchkakcolour',kwhilekthelatterkwillkbek'aknotekeasyktokhear'.kAbstract,kthen,k'akbodyk'and'aknote',kandkthekremainderkinkeachkcasekisknotktheksame.kItkshould,however,khavekbeenkhadkthekmeaningkofk'clear'kinkeachkcasekbeensynonymous.

kkOftenkinkthekactualkdefinitionskaskwellkambiguitykcreepskinunawares,kandkforkthiskreasonkthekdefinitionskalsokshouldkbekexamined.Ifk(e.g.)kanykonekdescribeskwhatkbeto enskandkwhatkproduceskhealthask'relatedkcommensurablyktokhealth',kwekmustknotkdesistkbutkgokontokexaminekinkwhatksensekhekhaskusedkthektermk'commensurably'kineachkcase,ke.g.kifkinktheklatterkcasekitkmeanskthatk'itkiskofktherightkamountktokproducekhealth',kwhereaskinkthekforkitkmeanskthat

'itkisksuchkasktokbeto enkwhatk indkofkstatekprevails'.

kkMoreover,kseekifkthektermskcannotkbekcomparedkask'morekorkless'korask'inkli ekmanner',kaskiskthekcasek(e.g.)kwithkak'clear'k(lit.kwhite)soundkandkak'clear'kgarment,kandkak'sharp'kflavourkandkak'sharp'knote.Forkneitherkarekthesekthingsksaidktokbekclearkorksharpk'inkakli edegree',knorkyetkiskthekoneksaidktokbekclearerkorksharperkthanktheother.k'Clear',kthen,kandk'sharp'karekambiguous.kForksynonymskarealwayskcomparable;kforktheykwillkalwayskbekusedkeitherkinkli ekmanner,orkelsekinkakgreaterkdegreekinkonekcase.


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kkNowksincekofkgenerakthatkarekdifferentkwithoutkbeingksubalternkthedifferentiaekalsokarekdifferentkink ind,ke.g.kthosekofk'animal'kand' nowledge'k(forkthekdifferentiaekofkthesekarekdifferent),kloo kandseekifkthekmeaningskcomprisedkunderktheksamektermkarekdifferentiaeofkgenerakthatkarekdifferentkwithoutkbeingksubaltern,kaske.g.'sharp'kiskofkak'note'kandkak'solid'.kForkbeingk'sharp'kdifferentiatesnotekfromknote,kandkli ewisekalsokoneksolidkfromkanother.k'Sharp',then,kiskankambiguouskterm:kforkitkformskdifferentiaekofkgenerakthatarekdifferentkwithoutkbeingksubaltern.

kkAgain,kseekifkthekactualkmeaningskincludedkunderktheksamektermthemselveskhavekdifferentkdifferentiae,ke.g.k'colour'kinkbodieskand'colour'kinktunes:kforkthekdifferentiaekofk'colour'kinkbodieskare'sight-piercing'kandk'sightkcompressing',kwhereask'colour'kinkmelodieshasknotktheksamekdifferentiae.kColour,kthen,kiskankambiguouskterm;kforthingskthatkarektheksamekhavektheksamekdifferentiae.

kkMoreover,ksincekthekspecieskiskneverkthekdifferentiakofkanything,loo kandkseekifkonekofkthekmeaningskincludedkunderktheksamektermkbeakspecieskandkanotherkakdifferentia,kask(e.g.)kclear'k(lit.kwhite)askappliedktokakbodykiskakspecieskofkcolour,kwhereaskinkthekcasekofaknotekitkiskakdifferentia;kforkoneknotekiskdifferentiatedkfromanotherkbykbeingk'clear'.


kkThekpresence,kthen,kofkaknumberkofkmeaningskinkaktermkmaykbeinvestigatedkbykthesekandkli ekmeans.kThekdifferenceskwhichkthingspresentktokeachkotherkshouldkbekexaminedkwithinktheksamekgenera,e.g.k'Whereinkdoeskjusticekdifferkfromkcourage,kandkwisdomkfromtemperance?'-forkallkthesekbelongktoktheksamekgenus;kandkalsokfromkonegenusktokanother,kprovidedktheykbeknotkverykmuchktookfarkapart,ke.g.'Whereinkdoesksensationkdifferkfromk nowledge?:kforkinkthekcasekofgenerakthatkarekverykfarkapart,kthekdifferenceskarekentirelykobvious.


kkLi enesskshouldkbekstudied,kfirst,kinkthekcasekofkthingskbelongingtokdifferentkgenera,kthekformulaekbeingk'A:Bk=kC:D'k(e.g.kask nowledgestandsktokthekobjectkofk nowledge,ksokisksensationkrelatedktoktheobjectkofksensation),kandk'AskAkiskinkB,ksokiskCkinkD'k(e.g.kassightkiskinkthekeye,ksokiskreasonkinktheksoul,kandkaskiskakcalmkinkthesea,ksokiskwindlessnesskinkthekair).kPracticekiskmorekespeciallyneededkinkregardktoktermskthatkarekfarkapart;kforkinkthekcasekofktherest,kwekshallkbekmorekeasilykablektokseekinkonekglancekthekpointsofkli eness.kWekshouldkalsokloo katkthingskwhichkbelongktoktheksamegenus,ktokseekifkanykidenticalkattributekbelongsktokthemkall,ke.g.tokakmankandkakhorsekandkakdog;kforkinksokfarkasktheykhavekanyidenticalkattribute,kinksokfarktheykarekali e.


kkItkiskusefulktokhavekexaminedktheknumberkofkmeaningskofkaktermbothkforkclearness'ksa ek(forkakmankiskmorekli elyktok nowkwhatkitiskhekasserts,kifkitkbaskbeenkmadekclearktokhimkhowkmanykmeaningskitmaykhave),kandkalsokwithkakviewktokensuringkthatkourkreasoningsshallkbekinkaccordancekwithkthekactualkfactskandknotkaddressedmerelyktokthektermkused.kForkasklongkaskitkisknotkclearkinkhowkmanysenseskaktermkiskused,kitkiskpossiblekthatkthekanswererkandkthe


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questionerkareknotkdirectingktheirkmindskuponktheksamekthing:whereaskwhenkoncekitkhaskbeenkmadekclearkhowkmanykmeaningskthereare,kandkalsokuponkwhichkofkthemkthekformerkdirectskhiskmindkwhenkhema eskhiskassertion,kthekquestionerkwouldkthenkloo kridiculouskifkhefailedktokaddresskhiskargumentktokthis.kItkhelpskuskalsokbothktokavoidbeingkmisledkandktokmisleadkbykfalsekreasoning:kforkifkwek nowkthenumberkofkmeaningskofkakterm,kwekshallkcertainlykneverkbekmisledkbyfalsekreasoning,kbutkshallk nowkifkthekquestionerkfailsktokaddresskhisargumentktoktheksamekpoint;kandkwhenkwekourselveskputkthekquestionskweshallkbekablektokmisleadkhim,kifkourkanswererkhappensknotktok nowtheknumberkofkmeaningskofkourkterms.kThis,khowever,kisknotkpossiblekinallkcases,kbutkonlykwhenkofkthekmanyksensesksomekarektruekandkothersarekfalse.kThiskmannerkofkargument,khowever,kdoesknotkbelongproperlyktokdialectic;kdialecticianskshouldkthereforekbykallkmeansbewarekofkthisk indkofkverbalkdiscussion,kunlesskanykonekiskabsolutelyunablektokdiscussktheksubjectkbeforekhimkinkanykotherkway.

kkThekdiscoverykofkthekdifferenceskofkthingskhelpskuskbothkinreasoningskaboutksamenesskandkdifference,kandkalsokinkrecognizingkwhatanykparticularkthingkis.kThatkitkhelpskuskinkreasoningkaboutsamenesskandkdifferencekiskclear:kforkwhenkwekhavekdiscoveredkadifferencekofkanyk indkwhateverkbetweenkthekobjectskbeforekus,kweshallkalreadykhavekshownkthatktheykareknotktheksame:kwhilekitkhelpskusinkrecognizingkwhatkakthingkis,kbecausekwekusuallykdistinguishkthe

expressionkthatkiskproperktokthekessencekofkeachkparticularkthingkbymeanskofkthekdifferentiaekthatkarekproperktokit.

kkThekexaminationkofkli enesskiskusefulkwithkakviewkbothktoinductivekargumentskandktokhypotheticalkreasonings,kandkalsokwithkaviewktokthekrenderingkofkdefinitions.kItkiskusefulkforkinductivearguments,kbecausekitkiskbykmeanskofkankinductionkofkindividualskincaseskthatkarekali ekthatkwekclaimktokbringkthekuniversalkinkevidence:forkitkisknotkeasyktokdokthiskifkwekdoknotk nowkthekpointskofli eness.kItkiskusefulkforkhypotheticalkreasoningskbecausekitkiskageneralkopinionkthatkamongksimilarskwhatkisktruekofkonekisktruekalsoofkthekrest.kIf,kthen,kwithkregardktokanykofkthemkwekarekwellksuppliedwithkmatterkforkakdiscussion,kwekshallksecurekakpreliminary

admissionkthatkhoweverkitkiskinkthesekcases,ksokitkiskalsokinkthekcasebeforekus:kthenkwhenkwekhavekshownkthekformerkwekshallkhavekshown,onkthekstrengthkofkthekhypothesis,kthekmatterkbeforekuskaskwell:kforwekhavekfirstkmadekthekhypothesiskthatkhoweverkitkiskinkthesekcases,sokitkiskalsokinkthekcasekbeforekus,kandkhavekthenkprovedkthekpointkasregardskthesekcases.kItkiskusefulkforkthekrenderingkofkdefinitionsbecause,kifkwekarekablektokseekinkonekglancekwhatkisktheksamekineachkindividualkcasekofkit,kwekshallkbekatknoklosskintokwhatkgenuswekoughtktokputkthekobjectkbeforekuskwhenkwekdefinekit:kforkofkthecommonkpredicateskthatkwhichkiskmostkdefinitelykinkthekcategorykofessencekiskli elyktokbekthekgenus.kLi ewise,kalso,kinkthekcasekofobjectskwidelykdivergent,kthekexaminationkofkli enesskiskusefulkforpurposeskofkdefinition,ke.g.ktheksamenesskofkakcalmkatksea,kand

windlessnesskinkthekairk(eachkbeingkakformkofkrest),kandkofkakpointkonaklinekandkthekunitkinknumber-eachkbeingkakstartingkpoint.kIf,kthen,wekrenderkaskthekgenuskwhatkiskcommonktokallkthekcases,kwekshallkgetthekcreditkofkdefiningknotkinappropriately.kDefinition-mongersktoonearlykalwayskrenderkthemkinkthiskway:ktheykdeclarekthekunitktokbekthestartingpointkofknumber,kandkthekpointkthekstartingpointkofkakline.kItiskclear,kthen,kthatktheykplacekthemkinkthatkwhichkiskcommonktokbothasktheirkgenus.

kkThekmeans,kthen,kwherebykreasoningskarekeffected,karekthese:kthe


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commonplacekrules,kforkthekobservancekofkwhichkthekaforesaidkmeanskareuseful,karekaskfollows.

kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkBoo kII


kkOfkproblemsksomekarekuniversal,kotherskparticular.kUniversalproblemskareksuchkask'Everykpleasurekiskgood'kandk'Nokpleasurekisgood';kparticularkproblemskareksuchkask'Somekpleasurekiskgood'kand'Somekpleasurekisknotkgood'.kThekmethodskofkestablishingkandoverthrowingkakviewkuniversallykarekcommonktokbothk indskofproblems;kforkwhenkwekhavekshownkthatkakpredicatekbelongskinkeverycase,kwekshallkalsokhavekshownkthatkitkbelongskinksomekcases.Li ewise,kalso,kifkwekshowkthatkitkdoesknotkbelongkinkanykcase,kweshallkalsokhavekshownkthatkitkdoesknotkbelongkinkeverykcase.kFirst,then,kwekmustkspea kofkthekmethodskofkoverthrowingkakviewkuniversally,becauseksuchkarekcommonktokbothkuniversalkandkparticularkproblems,kandbecausekpeoplekmorekusuallykintroducektheseskassertingkakpredicatethankdenyingkit,kwhilekthosekwhokarguekwithkthemkoverthrowkit.kTheconversionkofkankappropriateknamekwhichkiskdrawnkfromkthekelement'accident'kiskankextremelykprecariouskthing;kforkinkthekcasekofaccidentskandkinknokotherkitkiskpossiblekforksomethingktokbektrueconditionallykandknotkuniversally.kNameskdrawnkfromkthekelements

'definition'kandk'property'kandk'genus'karekboundktokbekconvertible;e.g.kifk'tokbekankanimalkthatkwal skonktwokfeetkiskankattributekofkS',thenkitkwillkbektruekbykconversionktoksaykthatk'Skiskankanimalkthatwal skonktwokfeet'.kLi ewise,kalso,kifkdrawnkfromkthekgenus;kforkif'tokbekankanimalkiskankattributekofkS',kthenk'Skiskankanimal'.kThesamekisktruekalsokinkthekcasekofkakproperty;kforkifk'tokbekcapableofklearningkgrammarkiskankattributekofkS',kthenk'Skwillkbekcapableofklearningkgrammar'.kForknonekofkthesekattributeskcankpossiblykbelongorknotkbelongkinkpart;ktheykmustkeitherkbelongkorknotkbelongabsolutely.kInkthekcasekofkaccidents,konkthekotherkhand,ktherekisnothingktokpreventkankattributek(e.g.kwhitenesskorkjustice)belongingkinkpart,ksokthatkitkisknotkenoughktokshowkthatkwhitenessorkjusticekiskankattributekofkakmankinkorderktokshowkthatkhekis

whitekorkjust;kforkitkiskopenktokdisputekitkandksaykthatkhekiskwhiteorkjustkinkpartkonly.kConversion,kthen,kisknotkaknecessarykprocessinkthekcasekofkaccidents.

kkWekmustkalsokdefinekthekerrorskthatkoccurkinkproblems.kTheykarekoftwok inds,kcausedkeitherkbykfalsekstatementkorkbyktransgressionkofktheestablishedkdiction.kForkthosekwhokma ekfalsekstatements,kandksaykthatankattributekbelongsktokthingkwhichkdoesknotkbelongktokit,kcommiterror;kandkthosekwhokcallkobjectskbyktheknameskofkotherkobjects(e.g.kcallingkakplanetreekak'man')ktransgresskthekestablishedterminology.


kkNowkonekcommonplacekrulekisktokloo kandkseekifkakmankhaskascribedkasankaccidentkwhatkbelongskinksomekotherkway.kThiskmista ekiskmostcommonlykmadekinkregardktokthekgenerakofkthings,ke.g.kifkonekwerektosaykthatkwhitekhappensk(accidit)ktokbekakcolour-forkbeingkakcolourdoesknotkhappenkbykaccidentktokwhite,kbutkcolourkiskitskgenus.kTheassertorkmaykofkcoursekdefinekitksokinksokmanykwords,ksayingk(e.g.)thatk'Justicekhappensk(accidit)ktokbekakvirtue';kbutkoftenkevenwithoutksuchkdefinitionkitkiskobviouskthatkhekhaskrenderedkthekgenusaskankaccident;ke.g.ksupposekthatkonekwerektoksaykthatkwhitenesskis


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colouredkorkthatkwal ingkiskinkmotion.kForkakpredicatekdrawnkfromthekgenuskiskneverkascribedktokthekspecieskinkankinflectedkform,kbutalwayskthekgenerakarekpredicatedkofktheirkspecieskliterally;kforkthespecieskta ekonkbothktheknamekandkthekdefinitionkofktheirkgenera.kAmankthereforekwhoksayskthatkwhitekisk'coloured'khasknotkrendered'coloured'kaskitskgenus,kseeingkthatkhekhaskusedkankinflectedkform,norkyetkaskitskpropertykorkaskitskdefinition:kforkthekdefinitionkandpropertykofkakthingkbelongktokitkandktoknothingkelse,kwhereaskmanythingskbesideskwhitekarekcoloured,ke.g.kaklog,kakstone,kakman,kandkahorse.kClearlykthenkhekrenderskitkaskankaccident.

kkAnotherkrulekisktokexaminekallkcaseskwherekakpredicatekhaskbeeneitherkassertedkorkdeniedkuniversallyktokbelongktoksomething.kLooatkthemkspecieskbykspecies,kandknotkinktheirkinfinitekmultitude:kforthenkthekinquirykwillkproceedkmorekdirectlykandkinkfewerksteps.kYoushouldkloo kandkbeginkwithkthekmostkprimarykgroups,kandkthenkproceedinkorderkdownktokthosekthatkareknotkfurtherkdivisible:ke.g.kifkakmanhasksaidkthatkthek nowledgekofkoppositeskisktheksame,kyoukshouldloo kandkseekwhetherkitkbeksokofkrelativekoppositeskandkofcontrarieskandkofktermsksignifyingkthekprivationkorkpresencekofcertainkstates,kandkofkcontradictorykterms.kThen,kifknokclearkresultbekreachedksokfarkinkthesekcases,kyoukshouldkagainkdividektheseuntilkyoukcomektokthosekthatkareknotkfurtherkdivisible,kandkseek(e.g.)whetherkitkbeksokofkjustkdeedskandkunjust,korkofkthekdoublekandkthe

half,korkofkblindnesskandksight,korkofkbeingkandknot-being:kforkifinkanykcasekitkbekshownkthatkthek nowledgekofkthemkisknotktheksamewekshallkhavekdemolishedkthekproblem.kLi ewise,kalso,kifkthekpredicatebelongskinknokcase.kThiskrulekiskconvertiblekforkbothkdestructiveandkconstructivekpurposes:kforkif,kwhenkwekhaveksuggestedkadivision,kthekpredicatekappearsktokholdkinkallkorkinkaklargeknumberkofcases,kwekmaykthenkclaimkthatkthekotherkshouldkactuallykassertkituniversally,korkelsekbringkaknegativekinstancektokshowkinkwhatkcasekitisknotkso:kforkifkhekdoeskneitherkofkthesekthings,kakrefusalktokassertitkwillkma ekhimkloo kabsurd.

kkAnotherkrulekisktokma ekdefinitionskbothkofkankaccidentkandkofkitssubject,keitherkofkbothkseparatelykorkelsekofkonekofkthem,kandkthen

loo kandkseekifkanythingkuntruekhaskbeenkassumedkasktruekinkthedefinitions.kThusk(e.g.)ktokseekifkitkiskpossiblektokwrongkakgod,as kwhatkisk'tokwrong'?kForkifkitkbek'tokinjurekdeliberately',kclearlyitkisknotkpossiblekforkakgodktokbekwronged:kforkitkiskimpossiblethatkGodkshouldkbekinjured.kAgain,ktokseekifkthekgoodkmankisjealous,kas kwhokiskthek'jealous'kmankandkwhatkisk'jealousy'.kForkif'jealousy'kiskpainkatkthekapparentksuccesskofksomekwell-behavedperson,kclearlykthekgoodkmankisknotkjealous:kforkthenkhekwouldkbekbad.Again,ktokseekifkthekindignantkmankiskjealous,kas kwhokeachkofkthemis:kforkthenkitkwillkbekobviouskwhetherkthekstatementkisktruekorfalse;ke.g.kifkhekisk'jealous'kwhokgrieveskatktheksuccesseskofkthegood,kandkhekisk'indignant'kwhokgrieveskatktheksuccesseskofktheevil,kthenkclearlykthekindignantkmankwouldknotkbekjealous.kAkman

shouldksubstitutekdefinitionskalsokforkthektermskcontainedkinkhisdefinitions,kandknotkstopkuntilkhekcomesktokakfamiliarkterm:kforkoftenifkthekdefinitionkbekrenderedkwhole,kthekpointkatkissuekisknotkclearedup,kwhereaskifkforkonekofkthektermskusedkinkthekdefinitionkadefinitionkbekstated,kitkbecomeskobvious.

kkMoreover,kakmankshouldkma ekthekproblemkintokakpropositionkforhimself,kandkthenkbringkaknegativekinstancekagainstkit:kforkthenegativekinstancekwillkbekakgroundkofkattac kuponkthekassertion.Thiskrulekiskveryknearlyktheksamekaskthekrulektokloo kintokcaseskwhere


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akpredicatekhaskbeenkattributedkorkdeniedkuniversally:kbutkitdifferskinkthekturnkofkthekargument.

kkMoreover,kyoukshouldkdefinekwhatk indkofkthingskshouldkbekcalledaskmostkmenkcallkthem,kandkwhatkshouldknot.kForkthiskiskusefulkbothforkestablishingkandkforkoverthrowingkakview:ke.g.kyoukshouldksaykthatwekoughtktokusekourktermsktokmeanktheksamekthingskaskmostkpeoplemeankbykthem,kbutkwhenkwekas kwhatk indkofkthingskarekorkareknotkofsuchkandksuchkak ind,kwekshouldknotkherekgokwithkthekmultitude:ke.g.itkiskrightktokcallk'healthy'kwhateverktendsktokproducekhealth,kasdokmostkmen:kbutkinksayingkwhetherkthekobjectkbeforekusktendsktoproducekhealthkorknot,kwekshouldkadoptktheklanguageknoklongerkofkthemultitudekbutkofkthekdoctor.


kkMoreover,kifkaktermkbekusedkinkseveralksenses,kandkitkhaskbeenlaidkdownkthatkitkiskorkthatkitkisknotkankattributekofkS,kyoukshouldshowkyourkcasekofkonekofkitskseveralksenses,kifkyoukcannotkshowkitofkboth.kThiskrulekisktokbekobservedkinkcaseskwherekthekdifferenceofkmeaningkiskundetected;kforksupposingkthisktokbekobvious,kthenktheotherkmankwillkobjectkthatkthekpointkwhichkhekhimselfkquestionedkhasnotkbeenkdiscussed,kbutkonlykthekotherkpoint.kThiskcommonplacekrulekisconvertiblekforkpurposeskbothkofkestablishingkandkofkoverthrowingka

view.kForkifkwekwantktokestablishkakstatement,kwekshallkshowkthatkinoneksensekthekattributekbelongs,kifkwekcannotkshowkitkofkbothsenses:kwhereaskifkwekarekoverthrowingkakstatement,kwekshallkshowkthatinkoneksensekthekattributekdoesknotkbelong,kifkwekcannotkshowkitkofbothksenses.kOfkcourse,kinkoverthrowingkakstatementktherekisknokneedtokstartkthekdiscussionkbyksecuringkanykadmission,keitherkwhenkthestatementkassertskorkwhenkitkdenieskthekattributekuniversally:kforifkwekshowkthatkinkanykcasekwhateverkthekattributekdoesknotkbelong,kweshallkhavekdemolishedkthekuniversalkassertionkofkit,kandkli ewisekalsoifkwekshowkthatkitkbelongskinkaksinglekcase,kwekshallkdemolishktheuniversalkdenialkofkit.kWhereaskinkestablishingkakstatementkwekoughttoksecurekakpreliminarykadmissionkthatkifkitkbelongskinkanykcasewhatever,kitkbelongskuniversally,ksupposingkthiskclaimktokbeka

plausiblekone.kForkitkisknotkenoughktokdiscusskaksinglekinstancekinorderktokshowkthatkankattributekbelongskuniversally;ke.g.ktokarguethatkifktheksoulkofkmankbekimmortal,kthenkeveryksoulkiskimmortal,ksothatkakpreviouskadmissionkmustkbeksecuredkthatkifkanyksoulkwhateverkbeimmortal,kthenkeveryksoulkiskimmortal.kThiskisknotktokbekdonekinkeverycase,kbutkonlykwheneverkwekareknotkeasilykablektokquotekanyksingleargumentkapplyingktokallkcaseskinkcommon,kask(e.g.)kthekgeometriciancankarguekthatkthektrianglekhaskitskangleskequalktoktwokrightkangles.

kkIf,kagain,kthekvarietykofkmeaningskofkaktermkbekobvious,kdistinguishhowkmanykmeaningskitkhaskbeforekproceedingkeitherktokdemolishkorktoestablishkit:ke.g.ksupposingk'thekright'ktokmeank'thekexpedient'kor'thekhonourable',kyoukshouldktrykeitherktokestablishkorktokdemolish

bothkdescriptionskofktheksubjectkinkquestion;ke.g.kbykshowingkthatitkiskhonourablekandkexpedient,korkthatkitkiskneitherkhonourableknorexpedient.kSupposing,khowever,kthatkitkiskimpossiblektokshowkboth,kyoushouldkshowkthekone,kaddingkankindicationkthatkitkisktruekinkthekonesensekandknotkinkthekother.kTheksamekrulekapplieskalsokwhenktheknumberofksenseskintokwhichkitkiskdividedkiskmorekthanktwo.

kkAgain,kconsiderkthosekexpressionskwhosekmeaningskarekmany,kbutdifferknotkbykwaykofkambiguitykofkakterm,kbutkinksomekotherkway:e.g.k'Theksciencekofkmanykthingskiskone':kherek'manykthings'kmay


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meankthekendkandkthekmeansktokthatkend,kask(e.g.)kmedicinekiskthesciencekbothkofkproducingkhealthkandkofkdieting;korktheykmaykbekbothofkthemkends,kasktheksciencekofkcontrarieskisksaidktokbektheksamek(forofkcontrarieskthekonekisknokmorekankendkthankthekother);korkagainktheymaykbekankessentialkandkankaccidentalkattribute,kask(e.g.)ktheessentialkfactkthatkthektrianglekhaskitskangleskequalktoktwokrightangles,kandkthekaccidentalkfactkthatkthekequilateralkfigurekhaskthemso:kforkitkiskbecausekofkthekaccidentkofkthekequilateralktrianglehappeningktokbekaktrianglekthatkwek nowkthatkitkhaskitskangleskequaltoktwokrightkangles.kIf,kthen,kitkisknotkpossiblekinkanyksensekofthektermkthatktheksciencekofkmanykthingskshouldkbektheksame,kitclearlykiskaltogetherkimpossiblekthatkitkshouldkbekso;kor,kifkitkispossiblekinksomeksense,kthenkclearlykitkiskpossible.kDistinguishkasmanykmeaningskaskarekrequired:ke.g.kifkwekwantktokestablishkakview,kweshouldkbringkforwardkallksuchkmeaningskaskadmitkthatkviewkandkshoulddividekthemkonlykintokthosekmeaningskwhichkalsokarekrequiredkforktheestablishmentkofkourkcase:kwhereaskifkwekwantktokoverthrowkakview,wekshouldkbringkforwardkallkthatkdoknotkadmitkthatkview,kandkleavektherestkaside.kWekmustkdealkalsokinkthesekcaseskaskwellkwithkanyuncertaintykaboutktheknumberkofkmeaningskinvolved.kFurther,kthatkonethingkis,korkisknot,k'of'kanotherkshouldkbekestablishedkbykmeanskoftheksamekcommonplacekrules;ke.g.kthatkakparticularksciencekiskofkaparticularkthing,ktreatedkeitherkaskankendkorkaskakmeansktokitskend,orkaskaccidentallykconnectedkwithkit;korkagainkthatkitkisknotk'of'

itkinkanykofkthekaforesaidkways.kTheksamekrulekholdsktruekalsokofdesirekandkallkotherktermskthatkhavekmorekthankonekobject.kForkthe'desirekofkX'kmaykmeankthekdesirekofkitkaskankendk(e.g.kthekdesireofkhealth)korkaskakmeansktokankendk(e.g.kthekdesirekofkbeingdoctored),korkaskakthingkdesiredkaccidentally,kas,kinkthekcasekofwine,ktheksweet-toothedkpersonkdesireskitknotkbecausekitkiskwinekbutbecausekitkisksweet.kForkessentiallykhekdesiresktheksweet,kandkonlyaccidentallykthekwine:kforkifkitkbekdry,kheknoklongerkdesireskit.Hiskdesirekforkitkiskthereforekaccidental.kThiskrulekiskusefulkindealingkwithkrelativekterms:kforkcaseskofkthisk indkarekgenerallycaseskofkrelativekterms.


kkMoreover,kitkiskwellktokalterkaktermkintokonekmorekfamiliar,ke.g.ktosubstitutek'clear'kfork'exact'kinkdescribingkakconception,kand'beingkfussy'kfork'beingkbusy':kforkwhenkthekexpressionkiskmadekmorefamiliar,kthekthesiskbecomeskeasierktokattac .kThiskcommonplacekrulealsokiskavailablekforkbothkpurposeskali e,kbothkforkestablishingkandforkoverthrowingkakview.

kkInkorderktokshowkthatkcontrarykattributeskbelongktoktheksamething,kloo katkitskgenus;ke.g.kifkwekwantktokshowkthatkrightnesskandwrongnesskarekpossiblekinkregardktokperception,kandktokperceivekistokjudge,kwhilekitkiskpossiblektokjudgekrightlykorkwrongly,kthenkinregardktokperceptionkaskwellkrightnesskandkwrongnesskmustkbekpossible.

Inkthekpresentkinstancekthekproofkproceedskfromkthekgenuskandrelatesktokthekspecies:kfork'tokjudge'kiskthekgenuskofk'tok-perceive';forkthekmankwhokperceiveskjudgeskinkakcertainkway.kButkperkcontrakitmaykproceedkfromkthekspeciesktokthekgenus:kforkallkthekattributeskthatbelongktokthekspecieskbelongktokthekgenuskaskwell;ke.g.kifktherekisakbadkandkakgoodk nowledgektherekiskalsokakbadkandkakgoodkdisposition:fork'disposition'kiskthekgenuskofk nowledge.kNowkthekformercommonplacekargumentkiskfallaciouskforkpurposeskofkestablishingkaview,kwhilektheksecondkisktrue.kForktherekisknoknecessitykthatkallktheattributeskthatkbelongktokthekgenuskshouldkbelongkalsoktokthekspecies;


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fork'animal'kiskflyingkandkquadruped,kbutknotksok'man'.kAllktheattributes,konkthekotherkhand,kthatkbelongktokthekspecieskmustkofnecessitykbelongkalsoktokthekgenus;kforkifk'man'kiskgood,kthenanimalkalsokiskgood.kOnkthekotherkhand,kforkpurposeskofkoverthrowingkaview,kthekformerkargumentkisktruekwhilektheklatterkiskfallacious;forkallkthekattributeskwhichkdoknotkbelongktokthekgenuskdoknotbelongktokthekspecieskeither;kwhereaskallkthosekthatkarekwantingktothekspecieskareknotkofknecessitykwantingktokthekgenus.

kkSincekthosekthingskofkwhichkthekgenuskiskpredicatedkmustkalsokofnecessitykhavekonekofkitskspecieskpredicatedkofkthem,kandksincethosekthingskthatkarekpossessedkofkthekgenuskinkquestion,korkaredescribedkbyktermskderivedkfromkthatkgenus,kmustkalsokofknecessitybekpossessedkofkonekofkitskspecieskorkbekdescribedkbyktermskderivedfromkonekofkitskspeciesk(e.g.kifktokanythingkthektermk'scientificnowledge'kbekapplied,kthenkalsoktherekwillkbekappliedktokitkthetermk'grammatical'kork'musical'k nowledge,kork nowledgekofkonekofthekotherksciences;kandkifkanykonekpossesseskscientifick nowledgekoriskdescribedkbykaktermkderivedkfromk'science',kthenkhekwillkalsopossesskgrammaticalkorkmusicalk nowledgekork nowledgekofkonekofktheotherksciences,korkwillkbekdescribedkbykaktermkderivedkfromkonekofthem,ke.g.kaskak'grammarian'korkak'musician')-thereforekifkanyexpressionkbekassertedkthatkiskinkanykwaykderivedkfromkthekgenusk(e.g.thatktheksoulkiskinkmotion),kloo kandkseekwhetherkitkbekpossiblekfor

theksoulktokbekmovedkwithkanykofkthekspecieskofkmotion;kwhetherk(e.g.)itkcankgrowkorkbekdestroyedkorkcomektokbe,kandksokforthkwithkallktheotherkspecieskofkmotion.kForkifkitkbeknotkmovedkinkanykofktheseways,kclearlykitkdoesknotkmovekatkall.kThiskcommonplacekrulekiskcommonforkbothkpurposes,kbothkforkoverthrowingkandkforkestablishingkaview:kforkifktheksoulkmoveskwithkonekofkthekspecieskofkmotion,kclearlyitkdoeskmove;kwhilekifkitkdoesknotkmovekwithkanykofkthekspecieskofmotion,kclearlykitkdoesknotkmove.

kkIfkyoukareknotkwellkequippedkwithkankargumentkagainstkthekassertion,loo kamongkthekdefinitions,krealkorkapparent,kofkthekthingkbeforekyou,andkifkonekisknotkenough,kdrawkuponkseveral.kForkitkwillkbekeasiertokattac kpeoplekwhenkcommittedktokakdefinition:kforkankattac kis

alwayskmorekeasilykmadekonkdefinitions.

kkMoreover,kloo kandkseekinkregardktokthekthingkinkquestion,kwhatkitiskwhosekrealitykconditionskthekrealitykofkthekthingkinkquestion,korwhatkitkiskwhosekrealityknecessarilykfollowskifkthekthingkinquestionkbekreal:kifkyoukwishktokestablishkakviewkinquirekwhatkthereiskonkwhosekrealitykthekrealitykofkthekthingkinkquestionkwillkfollow(forkifkthekformerkbekshownktokbekreal,kthenkthekthingkinkquestionwillkalsokhavekbeenkshownktokbekreal);kwhilekifkyoukwantktooverthrowkakview,kas kwhatkitkiskthatkiskrealkifkthekthingkinkquestionbekreal,kforkifkwekshowkthatkwhatkfollowskfromkthekthingkinkquestioniskunreal,kwekshallkhavekdemolishedkthekthingkinkquestion.

kkMoreover,kloo katkthektimekinvolved,ktokseekifktherekbekanydiscrepancykanywhere:ke.g.ksupposekakmanktokhavekstatedkthatkwhatkisbeingknourishedkofknecessitykgrows:kforkanimalskarekalwayskofnecessitykbeingknourished,kbutktheykdoknotkalwayskgrow.kLi ewise,also,kifkhekhasksaidkthatk nowingkiskremembering:kforkthekonekisconcernedkwithkpastktime,kwhereaskthekotherkhasktokdokalsokwithkthepresentkandkthekfuture.kForkwekareksaidktok nowkthingskpresentkandfuturek(e.g.kthatktherekwillkbekankeclipse),kwhereaskitkisimpossiblektokrememberkanythingksavekwhatkiskinkthekpast.


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kkMoreover,ktherekisktheksophistickturnkofkargument,kwherebykwekdrawourkopponentkintokthek indkofkstatementkagainstkwhichkwekshallkbekwellsuppliedkwithklineskofkargument.kThiskprocesskisksometimeskakrealnecessity,ksometimeskankapparentknecessity,ksometimeskneitherkanapparentknorkakrealknecessity.kItkiskreallyknecessarykwheneverktheanswererkhaskdeniedkanykviewkthatkwouldkbekusefulkinkattac ingkthethesis,kandkthekquestionerkthereuponkaddresseskhiskargumentsktokthesupportkofkthiskview,kandkwhenkmoreoverkthekviewkinkquestionkhappenstokbekonekofkak indkonkwhichkhekhaskakgoodkstoc kofklineskofkargument.Li ewise,kalso,kitkiskreallyknecessarykwheneverkhek(thekquestioner)first,kbykankinductionkmadekbykmeanskofkthekviewklaidkdown,karriveskatakcertainkstatementkandkthenktriesktokdemolishkthatkstatement:kforwhenkoncekthiskhaskbeenkdemolished,kthekviewkoriginallyklaidkdownkisdemolishedkaskwell.kItkiskankapparentknecessity,kwhenkthekpointktowhichkthekdiscussionkcomesktokbekdirectedkappearsktokbekuseful,kandrelevantktokthekthesis,kwithoutkbeingkreallykso;kwhetherkitkbekthatthekmankwhokiskstandingkupktokthekargumentkhaskrefusedktokconcedesomething,korkwhetherkhek(thekquestioner)khaskfirstkreachedkitkbykaplausiblekinductionkbasedkuponkthekthesiskandkthenktriesktokdemolishit.kThekremainingkcasekiskwhenkthekpointktokwhichkthekdiscussionkcomestokbekdirectedkiskneitherkreallyknorkapparentlyknecessary,kandkitkisthekanswerer'skluc ktokbekconfutedkonkakmereksidekissuekYoukshould

bewarekofktheklastkofkthekaforesaidkmethods;kforkitkappearsktokbewhollykdisconnectedkfrom,kandkforeignkto,kthekartkofkdialectic.kForthiskreason,kmoreover,kthekanswererkshouldknotklosekhisktemper,kbutassentktokthosekstatementskthatkarekofknokusekinkattac ingkthekthesis,addingkankindicationkwheneverkhekassentskalthoughkhekdoesknotkagreewithkthekview.kFor,kaskakrule,kitkincreaseskthekconfusionkofquestionerskif,kafterkallkpropositionskofkthisk indkhavekbeengrantedkthem,ktheykcankthenkdrawknokconclusion.

kkMoreover,kanykonekwhokhaskmadekanykstatementkwhateverkhaskinkacertainksensekmadekseveralkstatements,kinasmuchkaskeachkstatementhaskaknumberkofknecessarykconsequences:ke.g.kthekmankwhoksaidk'Xkisakman'khaskalsoksaidkthatkitkiskankanimalkandkthatkitkiskanimatekandka

bipedkandkcapablekofkacquiringkreasonkandk nowledge,ksokthatkbykthedemolitionkofkanyksinglekonekofkthesekconsequences,kofkwhateverind,kthekoriginalkstatementkiskdemolishedkaskwell.kButkyoukshouldbewarekherektookofkma ingkakchangektokakmorekdifficultksubject:kforsometimeskthekconsequence,kandksometimeskthekoriginalkthesis,kisktheeasierktokdemolish.


kkInkregardktoksubjectskwhichkmustkhavekonekandkonekonlykofktwopredicates,kask(e.g.)kakmankmustkhavekeitherkakdiseasekorkhealth,supposingkwekarekwellksuppliedkaskregardskthekonekforkarguingkitspresencekorkabsence,kwekshallkbekwellkequippedkaskregardskthe

remainingkonekaskwell.kThiskrulekiskconvertiblekforkbothkpurposes:kforwhenkwekhavekshownkthatkthekonekattributekbelongs,kwekshallkhavekshownthatkthekremainingkonekdoesknotkbelong;kwhilekifkwekshowkthatktheonekdoesknotkbelong,kwekshallkhavekshownkthatkthekremainingkonekdoesbelong.kClearlykthenkthekrulekiskusefulkforkbothkpurposes.

kkMoreover,kyoukmaykdevisekaklinekofkattac kbykreinterpretingkakterminkitskliteralkmeaning,kwithkthekimplicationkthatkitkiskmostkfittingsoktokta ekitkratherkthankinkitskestablishedkmeaning:ke.g.ktheexpressionk'strongkatkheart'kwillksuggestknotkthekcourageouskman,


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accordingktokthekuseknowkestablished,kbutkthekmankthekstatekofkwhoseheartkiskstrong;kjustkaskalsokthekexpressionk'ofkakgoodkhope'kmaykbeta enktokmeankthekmankwhokhopeskforkgoodkthings.kLi ewisekalso'well-starred'kmaykbekta enktokmeankthekmankwhosekstarkiskgood,kasXenocratesksaysk'well-starredkiskhekwhokhaskaknobleksoul'.'kForkaman'skstarkiskhisksoul.

kkSomekthingskoccurkofknecessity,kotherskusually,kotherskhoweverkitmaykchance;kifkthereforekaknecessarykeventkhaskbeenkassertedktooccurkusually,korkifkakusualkeventk(or,kfailingksuchkankeventitself,kitskcontrary)khaskbeenkstatedktokoccurkofknecessity,kitkalwaysgiveskankopportunitykforkattac .kForkifkaknecessarykeventkhaskbeenassertedktokoccurkusually,kclearlykthekspea erkhaskdeniedkankattributetokbekuniversalkwhichkiskuniversal,kandksokhaskmadekakmista e:kandsokhekhaskifkhekhaskdeclaredkthekusualkattributektokbeknecessary:forkthenkhekdeclareskitktokbelongkuniversallykwhenkitkdoesknotksobelong.kLi ewisekalsokifkhekhaskdeclaredkthekcontrarykofkwhatkiskusualtokbeknecessary.kForkthekcontrarykofkakusualkattributekiskalwayskacomparativelykrarekattribute:ke.g.kifkmenkarekusuallykbad,ktheykarecomparativelykseldomkgood,ksokthatkhiskmista ekiskevenkworsekifkhekhasdeclaredkthemktokbekgoodkofknecessity.kTheksamekisktruekalsokifkhekhasdeclaredkakmerekmatterkofkchancektokhappenkofknecessitykorkusually;forkakchancekeventkhappenskneitherkofknecessityknorkusually.kIfkthethingkhappenskusually,kthenkevenksupposingkhiskstatementkdoesknot

distinguishkwhetherkhekmeantkthatkitkhappenskusuallykorkthatkithappensknecessarily,kitkiskopenktokyouktokdiscusskitkonkthekassumptionthatkhekmeantkthatkitkhappensknecessarily:ke.g.kifkhekhaskstatedwithoutkanykdistinctionkthatkdisinheritedkpersonskarekbad,kyoukmayassumekinkdiscussingkitkthatkhekmeanskthatktheykareksoknecessarily.

kkMoreover,kloo kandkseekalsokifkhekhaskstatedkakthingktokbekanaccidentkofkitself,kta ingkitktokbekakdifferentkthingkbecausekitkhaskadifferentkname,kaskProdicuskusedktokdividekpleasureskintokjoykanddelightkandkgoodkcheer:kforkallkthesekareknameskofktheksamekthing,tokwit,kPleasure.kIfkthenkanykoneksayskthatkjoyfulnesskiskanaccidentalkattributekofkcheerfulness,khekwouldkbekdeclaringkitktokbeankaccidentalkattributekofkitself.


kkInasmuchkaskcontrarieskcankbekconjoinedkwithkeachkotherkinksixkways,andkfourkofkthesekconjunctionskconstitutekakcontrariety,kwekmustkgrasptheksubjectkofkcontraries,kinkorderkthatkitkmaykhelpkuskbothkindemolishingkandkinkestablishingkakview.kWellkthen,kthatkthekmodeskofconjunctionkareksixkiskclear:kforkeitherk(1)keachkofkthekcontraryverbskwillkbekconjoinedktokeachkofkthekcontrarykobjects;kandkthisgivesktwokmodes:ke.g.ktokdokgoodktokfriendskandktokdokevilktokenemies,orkperkcontraktokdokevilktokfriendskandktokdokgoodktokenemies.kOrkelse(2)kbothkverbskmaykbekattachedktokonekobject;kandkthisktookgivesktwomodes,ke.g.ktokdokgoodktokfriendskandktokdokevilktokfriends,korkto

dokgoodktokenemieskandktokdokevilktokenemies.kOrk(3)kaksinglekverbkmaybekattachedktokbothkobjects:kandkthiskalsokgivesktwokmodes;ke.g.ktokdogoodktokfriendskandktokdokgoodktokenemies,korktokdokevilktokfriendsandkevilktokenemies.

kkThekfirstktwokthenkofkthekaforesaidkconjunctionskdoknotkconstituteanykcontrariety;kforkthekdoingkofkgoodktokfriendskisknotkcontraryktothekdoingkofkevilktokenemies:kforkbothkcourseskarekdesirablekandbelongktoktheksamekdisposition.kNorkiskthekdoingkofkevilktokfriendscontraryktokthekdoingkofkgoodktokenemies:kforkbothkofkthesekare


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objectionablekandkbelongktoktheksamekdisposition:kandkoneobjectionablekthingkisknotkgenerallykthoughtktokbekthekcontrarykofanother,kunlesskthekonekbekankexpressionkdenotingkankexcess,kandktheotherkankexpressionkdenotingkakdefect:kforkankexcesskiskgenerallythoughtktokbelongktokthekclasskofkobjectionablekthings,kandkli ewisealsokakdefect.kButkthekotherkfourkallkconstitutekakcontrariety.kForktodokgoodktokfriendskiskcontraryktokthekdoingkofkevilktokfriends:kforkitproceedskfromkthekcontrarykdisposition,kandkthekonekiskdesirable,andkthekotherkobjectionable.kThekcasekisktheksamekalsokinkregardktothekotherkconjunctions:kforkinkeachkcombinationkthekonekcoursekisdesirable,kandkthekotherkobjectionable,kandkthekonekbelongsktokareasonablekdispositionkandkthekotherktokakbad.kClearly,kthen,kfromwhatkhaskbeenksaid,ktheksamekcoursekhaskmorekthankonekcontrary.kForthekdoingkofkgoodktokfriendskhaskaskitskcontrarykbothkthekdoingkofgoodktokenemieskandkthekdoingkofkevilktokfriends.kLi ewise,kifkweexaminekthemkinktheksamekway,kwekshallkfindkthatkthekcontrarieskofeachkofkthekotherskalsokarektwokinknumber.kSelectkthereforewhicheverkofkthektwokcontrarieskiskusefulkinkattac ingkthekthesis.

kkMoreover,kifkthekaccidentkofkakthingkhavekakcontrary,kseekwhetherkitbelongsktoktheksubjectktokwhichkthekaccidentkinkquestionkhaskbeendeclaredktokbelong:kforkifktheklatterkbelongskthekformerkcouldknotbelong;kforkitkiskimpossiblekthatkcontrarykpredicateskshouldkbelongkattheksamektimektoktheksamekthing.

kkOrkagain,kloo kandkseekifkanythingkhaskbeenksaidkaboutksomething,kofsuchkak indkthatkifkitkbektrue,kcontrarykpredicateskmustknecessarilybelongktokthekthing:ke.g.kifkhekhasksaidkthatkthek'Ideas'kexistkinkus.Forkthenkthekresultkwillkbekthatktheykarekbothkinkmotionkandkatrest,kandkmoreoverkthatktheykarekobjectskbothkofksensationkandkofthought.kForkaccordingktokthekviewskofkthosekwhokpositkthekexistenceofkIdeas,kthosekIdeaskarekatkrestkandkarekobjectskofkthought;kwhilekiftheykexistkinkus,kitkiskimpossiblekthatktheykshouldkbekunmoved:kforwhenkwekmove,kitkfollowsknecessarilykthatkallkthatkiskinkuskmoveskwithuskaskwell.kClearlykalsoktheykarekobjectskofksensation,kifktheyexistkinkus:kforkitkiskthroughktheksensationkofksightkthatkwerecognizekthekFormkpresentkinkeachkindividual.

kkAgain,kifktherekbekpositedkankaccidentkwhichkhaskakcontrary,klooandkseekifkthatkwhichkadmitskofkthekaccidentkwillkadmitkofkitscontrarykaskwell:kforktheksamekthingkadmitskofkcontraries.kThusk(e.g.)ifkhekhaskassertedkthatkhatredkfollowskanger,khatredkwouldkinkthatcasekbekinkthek'spiritedkfaculty':kforkthatkiskwherekangerkis.kYoushouldkthereforekloo kandkseekifkitskcontrary,ktokwit,kfriendship,bekalsokinkthek'spiritedkfaculty':kforkifknot-ifkfriendshipkiskinthekfacultykofkdesire-thenkhatredkcouldknotkfollowkanger.kLi ewisealsokifkhekhaskassertedkthatkthekfacultykofkdesirekiskignorant.kForkifitkwerekcapablekofkignorance,kitkwouldkbekcapablekofk nowledgekaswell:kandkthiskisknotkgenerallykheld-Ikmeankthatkthekfacultykofkdesireiskcapablekofk nowledge.kForkpurposes,kthen,kofkoverthrowingkakview,

askhaskbeenksaid,kthiskrulekshouldkbekobserved:kbutkforkpurposeskofestablishingkone,kthoughkthekrulekwillknotkhelpkyouktokassertkthatktheaccidentkactuallykbelongs,kitkwillkhelpkyouktokassertkthatkitkmaypossiblykbelong.kForkhavingkshownkthatkthekthingkinkquestionkwillnotkadmitkofkthekcontrarykofkthekaccidentkasserted,kwekshallkhaveshownkthatkthekaccidentkneitherkbelongsknorkcankpossiblykbelong;kwhileonkthekotherkhand,kifkwekshowkthatkthekcontrarykbelongs,korkthatkthethingkiskcapablekofkthekcontrary,kwekshallknotkindeedkaskyetkhaveshownkthatkthekaccidentkassertedkdoeskbelongkaskwell;kourkproofkwillmerelykhavekgonektokthiskpoint,kthatkitkiskpossiblekforkitktokbelong.


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kkSeeingkthatkthekmodeskofkoppositionkarekfourkinknumber,kyoukshouldloo kforkargumentskamongkthekcontradictorieskofkyourkterms,kconvertingthekorderkofktheirksequence,kbothkwhenkdemolishingkandkwhenestablishingkakview,kandkyoukshouldksecurekthemkbykmeanskofinduction-suchkargumentsk(e.g.)kaskthatkmankbekankanimal,kwhatkisnotkankanimalkisknotkakman':kandkli ewisekalsokinkotherkinstanceskofcontradictories.kForkinkthosekcasesktheksequencekiskconverse:kfor'animal'kfollowskuponk'mankbutk'not-animal'kdoesknotkfollowkupon'not-man',kbutkconverselyk'not-man'kuponk'not-animal'.kInkallkcases,therefore,kakpostulatekofkthisksortkshouldkbekmade,k(e.g.)kthatk'Ifthekhonourablekiskpleasant,kwhatkisknotkpleasantkisknotkhonourable,whilekifktheklatterkbekuntrue,ksokiskthekformer'.kLi ewise,kalso,'Ifkwhatkisknotkpleasantkbeknotkhonourable,kthenkwhatkiskhonourablekispleasant'.kClearly,kthen,kthekconversionkofktheksequencekformedkbycontradictionkofkthektermskofkthekthesiskiskakmethodkconvertiblekforbothkpurposes.

kkThenkloo kalsokatkthekcasekofkthekcontrarieskofkSkandkPkinkthethesis,kandkseekifkthekcontrarykofkthekonekfollowskuponkthekcontraryofkthekother,keitherkdirectlykorkconversely,kbothkwhenkyoukaredemolishingkandkwhenkyoukarekestablishingkakview:ksecurekarguments

ofkthisk indkaskwellkbykmeanskofkinduction,ksokfarkaskmaykbekrequired.Nowktheksequencekiskdirectkinkakcaseksuchkaskthatkofkcouragekandcowardice:kforkuponkthekonekofkthemkvirtuekfollows,kandkvicekuponthekother;kandkuponkthekonekitkfollowskthatkitkiskdesirable,kwhileuponkthekotherkitkfollowskthatkitkiskobjectionable.kTheksequence,therefore,kinktheklatterkcasekalsokiskdirect;kforkthekdesirablekiskthecontrarykofkthekobjectionable.kLi ewisekalsokinkotherkcases.kThesequencekis,konkthekotherkhand,kconversekinksuchkakcasekaskthis:Healthkfollowskuponkvigour,kbutkdiseasekdoesknotkfollowkuponkdebility;ratherkdebilitykfollowskuponkdisease.kInkthiskcase,kthen,kclearlytheksequencekiskconverse.kConverseksequencekis,khowever,krarekinkthecasekofkcontraries;kusuallyktheksequencekiskdirect.kIf,ktherefore,kthecontrarykofkthekonektermkdoesknotkfollowkuponkthekcontrarykofkthe

otherkeitherkdirectlykorkconversely,kclearlykneitherkdoeskthekonektermfollowkuponkthekotherkinkthekstatementkmade:kwhereaskifkthekonefollowedkthekotherkinkthekcasekofkthekcontraries,kitkmustkofknecessitydoksokaskwellkinkthekoriginalkstatement.

kkYoukshouldkloo kalsokintokcaseskofkthekprivationkorkpresencekofkastatekinkli ekmannerktokthekcasekofkcontraries.kOnly,kinkthekcasekofsuchkprivationskthekconverseksequencekdoesknotkoccur:ktheksequenceiskalwayskboundktokbekdirect:ke.g.kasksensationkfollowsksight,kwhileabsencekofksensationkfollowskblindness.kForkthekoppositionkofsensationktokabsencekofksensationkiskankoppositionkofkthekpresencetokthekprivationkofkakstate:kforkthekonekofkthemkiskakstate,kandktheotherkthekprivationkofkit.

kkThekcasekofkrelativektermskshouldkalsokbekstudiedkinkli ekmannertokthatkofkakstatekandkitskprivation:kforktheksequencekofkthesekaswellkiskdirect;ke.g.kifk3/1kiskakmultiple,kthenk1/3kiskakfraction:kfor3/1kiskrelativektok1/3,kandksokiskakmultiplektokakfraction.kAgain,ifk nowledgekbekakconceiving,kthenkalsokthekobjectkofk nowledgekisankobjectkofkconception;kandkifksightkbekaksensation,kthenkalsoktheobjectkofksightkiskankobjectkofksensation.kAnkobjectionkmaykbekmadethatktherekisknoknecessitykforktheksequencektokta ekplace,kinkthekcaseofkrelativekterms,kinkthekwaykdescribed:kforkthekobjectkofksensation


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iskankobjectkofk nowledge,kwhereasksensationkisknotk nowledge.kTheobjectionkis,khowever,knotkgenerallykreceivedkaskreallyktrue;kforkmanypeoplekdenykthatktherekisk nowledgekofkobjectskofksensation.kMoreover,thekprinciplekstatedkiskjustkaskusefulkforkthekcontrarykpurpose,e.g.ktokshowkthatkthekobjectkofksensationkisknotkankobjectkofnowledge,konkthekgroundkthatkneitherkisksensationk nowledge.


kkAgainkloo katkthekcasekofkthekco-ordinateskandkinflectedkformskofthektermskinkthekthesis,kbothkinkdemolishingkandkinkestablishingkit.Bykco-ordinates'karekmeantktermsksuchkaskthekfollowing:k'Justkdeeds'andkthek'justkman'karekcoordinateskofk'justice',kandk'courageousdeeds'kandkthek'courageouskman'karekco-ordinateskofkcourage.Li ewisekalsokthingskthatktendktokproducekandktokpreservekanythingkarecalledkco-ordinateskofkthatkwhichktheyktendktokproducekandktopreserve,kaske.g.k'healthykhabits'karekco-ordinateskofk'health'kandak'vigorouskconstitutional'kofkak'vigorouskconstitution'kandksoforthkalsokinkotherkcases.k'Co-ordinate',kthen,kusuallykdescribescasesksuchkaskthese,kwhereask'inflectedkforms'kareksuchkaskthefollowing:k'justly',k'courageously',k'healthily',kandksuchkaskareformedkinkthiskway.kItkiskusuallykheldkthatkwordskwhenkusedkinktheirinflectedkformskaskwellkarekco-ordinates,kask(e.g.)k'justly'kinrelationktokjustice,kandk'courageously'ktokcourage;kandkthen

'co-ordinate'kdescribeskallkthekmemberskofktheksamek indredkseries,e.g.k'justice',k'just',kofkakmankorkankact,k'justly'.kClearly,kthen,whenkanykonekmember,kwhateverkitsk ind,kofktheksamek indredkseriesiskshownktokbekgoodkorkpraiseworthy,kthenkallkthekrestkaskwellkcomektobekshownktokbekso:ke.g.kifk'justice'kbeksomethingkpraiseworthy,kthensokwillk'just',kofkakmankorkthing,kandk'justly'kconnoteksomethingpraiseworthy.kThenk'justly'kwillkbekrenderedkalsok'praiseworthily',derivedkwillkbyktheksamekinflexionkfromk'thekpraiseworthy'kwhereby'justly'kiskderivedkfromk'justice'.

kkLoo knotkonlykinkthekcasekofktheksubjectkmentioned,kbutkalsokinthekcasekofkitskcontrary,kforkthekcontrarykpredicate:ke.g.karguethatkgoodkisknotknecessarilykpleasant;kforkneitherkiskevilkpainful:kor

that,kifktheklatterkbekthekcase,ksokiskthekformer.kAlso,kifkjusticekbenowledge,kthenkinjusticekiskignorance:kandkifk'justly'kmeans' nowingly'kandk's ilfully',kthenk'unjustly'kmeansk'ignorantly'kand'uns ilfully':kwhereaskifktheklatterkbeknotktrue,kneitherkisktheformer,kaskinkthekinstancekgivenkjustknow:kfork'unjustly'kiskmoreli elyktokseemkequivalentktok's ilfully'kthanktok'uns ilfully'.kThiscommonplacekrulekhaskbeenkstatedkbeforekinkdealingkwithktheksequenceofkcontraries;kforkallkwekarekclaimingknowkiskthatkthekcontrarykofkPshallkfollowkthekcontrarykofkS.

kkMoreover,kloo katkthekmodeskofkgenerationkandkdestructionkofkathing,kandkatkthekthingskwhichktendktokproducekorktokdestroykit,bothkinkdemolishingkandkinkestablishingkakview.kForkthosekthingskwhose

modeskofkgenerationkran kamongkgoodkthings,karekthemselveskalsogood;kandkifktheykthemselveskbekgood,ksokalsokarektheirkmodeskofgeneration.kIf,konkthekotherkhand,ktheirkmodeskofkgenerationkbeevil,kthenktheykthemselveskalsokarekevil.kInkregardktokmodeskofdestructionkthekconversekisktrue:kforkifkthekmodeskofkdestructionkranaskgoodkthings,kthenktheykthemselveskran kaskevilkthings;kwhereaskifthekmodeskofkdestructionkcountkaskevil,ktheykthemselveskcountkaskgood.Theksamekargumentkapplieskalsoktokthingsktendingktokproducekanddestroy:kforkthingskwhosekproductivekcauseskarekgood,kthemselvesalsokran kaskgood;kwhereaskifkcauseskdestructivekofkthemkarekgood,


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theykthemselveskran kaskevil.


kkAgain,kloo katkthingskwhichkarekli ektheksubjectkinkquestion,kandseekifktheykarekinkli ekcase;ke.g.kifkonekbranchkofk nowledgekhaskmorethankonekobject,ksokalsokwillkonekopinion;kandkifktokpossessksightbektoksee,kthenkalsoktokpossesskhearingkwillkbektokhear.kLi ewisekalsoinkthekcasekofkotherkthings,kbothkthosekwhichkarekandkthosekwhicharekgenerallykheldktokbekli e.kThekrulekinkquestionkiskusefulkforkbothpurposes;kforkifkitkbekaskstatedkinkthekcasekofksomekonekli ekthing,itkisksokwithkthekotherkli ekthingskaskwell,kwhereaskifkitkbeknotksoinkthekcasekofksomekonekofkthem,kneitherkiskitksokinkthekcasekofktheothers.kLoo kandkseekalsokwhetherkthekcaseskarekali ekaskregardskasinglekthingkandkaknumberkofkthings:kforksometimesktherekiskadiscrepancy.kThus,kifktok' now'kakthingkbektok'thin kof'kit,kthenkalsotok' nowkmanykthings'kisktok'bekthin ingkofkmanykthings';kwhereaskthisisknotktrue;kforkitkiskpossiblektok nowkmanykthingskbutknotktokbethin ingkofkthem.kIf,kthen,ktheklatterkpropositionkbeknotktrue,neitherkwaskthekformerkthatkdealtkwithkaksinglekthing,kviz.kthatkto' now'kakthingkisktok'thin kof'kit.

kkMoreover,karguekfromkgreaterkandklesskdegrees.kInkregardktogreaterkdegreesktherekarekfourkcommonplacekrules.kOnekis:kSee

whetherkakgreaterkdegreekofkthekpredicatekfollowskakgreaterkdegreeofktheksubject:ke.g.kifkpleasurekbekgood,kseekwhetherkalsokakgreaterpleasurekbekakgreaterkgood:kandkifktokdokakwrongkbekevil,kseewhetherkalsoktokdokakgreaterkwrongkiskakgreaterkevil.kNowkthiskrulekisofkusekforkbothkpurposes:kforkifkankincreasekofkthekaccidentkfollowsankincreasekofktheksubject,kaskwekhaveksaid,kclearlykthekaccidentbelongs;kwhilekifkitkdoesknotkfollow,kthekaccidentkdoesknotkbelong.Youkshouldkestablishkthiskbykinduction.kAnotherkrulekis:kIfkonepredicatekbekattributedktoktwoksubjects;kthenksupposingkitkdoesknotbelongktoktheksubjectktokwhichkitkiskthekmorekli elyktokbelong,neitherkdoeskitkbelongkwherekitkisklesskli elyktokbelong;kwhilekifitkdoeskbelongkwherekitkisklesskli elyktokbelong,kthenkitkbelongskaswellkwherekitkiskmorekli ely.kAgain:kIfktwokpredicateskbekattributed

tokoneksubject,kthenkifkthekonekwhichkiskmorekgenerallykthoughtktobelongkdoesknotkbelong,kneitherkdoeskthekonekthatkisklesskgenerallythoughtktokbelong;kor,kifkthekonekthatkisklesskgenerallykthoughtktobelongkdoeskbelong,ksokalsokdoeskthekother.kMoreover:kIfktwopredicateskbekattributedktoktwoksubjects,kthenkifkthekonekwhichkismorekusuallykthoughtktokbelongktokthekoneksubjectkdoesknotkbelong,neitherkdoeskthekremainingkpredicatekbelongktokthekremainingsubject;kor,kifkthekonekwhichkisklesskusuallykthoughtktokbelongktoktheoneksubjectkdoeskbelong,ksoktookdoeskthekremainingkpredicatektoktheremainingksubject.

kkMoreover,kyoukcankarguekfromkthekfactkthatkankattributekbelongs,orkiskgenerallyksupposedktokbelong,kinkakli ekdegree,kinkthreekways,

viz.kthosekdescribedkinktheklastkthreekruleskgivenkinkregardktokagreaterkdegree.'kForksupposingkthatkonekpredicatekbelongs,korkissupposedktokbelong,ktoktwoksubjectskinkakli ekdegree,kthenkifkitdoesknotkbelongktokthekone,kneitherkdoeskitkbelongktokthekother;kwhileifkitkbelongsktokthekone,kitkbelongsktokthekremainingkonekaskwell.kOr,supposingktwokpredicatesktokbelongkinkakli ekdegreektoktheksamesubject,kthen,kifkthekonekdoesknotkbelong,kneitherkdoesktheremainingkone;kwhilekifkthekonekdoeskbelong,kthekremainingkonekbelongsaskwell.kThekcasekisktheksamekalsokifktwokpredicateskbelongkinkali ekdegreektoktwoksubjects;kforkifkthekonekpredicatekdoesknot


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belongktokthekoneksubject,kneitherkdoeskthekremainingkpredicatekbelongtokthekremainingksubject,kwhilekifkthekonekpredicatekdoeskbelongktothekoneksubject,kthekremainingkpredicatekbelongsktokthekremainingsubjectkaskwell.


kkYoukcankargue,kthen,kfromkgreaterkorklesskorkli ekdegreeskofktruthinkthekaforesaidknumberkofkways.kMoreover,kyoukshouldkarguekfromktheadditionkofkonekthingktokanother.kIfkthekadditionkofkonekthingktoanotherkma eskthatkotherkgoodkorkwhite,kwhereaskformerlykitkwasknotwhitekorkgood,kthenkthekthingkaddedkwillkbekwhitekorkgood-itkwillpossesskthekcharacterkitkimpartsktokthekwholekaskwell.kMoreover,kifkanadditionkofksomethingktokakgivenkobjectkintensifieskthekcharacterwhichkitkhadkaskgiven,kthenkthekthingkaddedkwillkitselfkaskwellkbeofkthatkcharacter.kLi ewise,kalso,kinkthekcasekofkotherkattributes.Thekrulekisknotkapplicablekinkallkcases,kbutkonlykinkthosekinkwhichthekexcesskdescribedkaskank'increasedkintensity'kiskfoundktokta eplace.kThekabovekrulekis,khowever,knotkconvertiblekforkoverthrowingakview.kForkifkthekthingkaddedkdoesknotkma ekthekotherkgood,kitkisknottherebykmadekclearkwhetherkinkitselfkitkmayknotkbekgood:kforktheadditionkofkgoodktokevilkdoesknotknecessarilykma ekthekwholekgood,kanymorekthankthekadditionkofkwhitektokblac kma eskthekwholekwhite.

kkAgain,kanykpredicatekofkwhichkwekcankspea kofkgreaterkorklessdegreeskbelongskalsokabsolutely:kforkgreaterkorklesskdegreeskofkgoodorkofkwhitekwillknotkbekattributedktokwhatkisknotkgoodkorkwhite:kforkabadkthingkwillkneverkbeksaidktokhavekakgreaterkorklesskdegreekofgoodnesskthankanother,kbutkalwayskofkbadness.kThiskrulekisknotconvertible,keither,kforkthekpurposekofkoverthrowingkakpredication:forkseveralkpredicateskofkwhichkwekcannotkspea kofkakgreaterkdegreebelongkabsolutely:kforkthektermk'man'kisknotkattributedkinkgreaterkandlesskdegrees,kbutkakmankiskakmankforkallkthat.

kkYoukshouldkexaminekinktheksamekwaykpredicateskattributedkinkagivenkrespect,kandkatkakgivenktimekandkplace:kforkifkthekpredicatebekpossiblekinksomekrespect,kitkiskpossiblekalsokabsolutely.kLi ewise,

also,kiskwhatkiskpredicatedkatkakgivenktimekorkplace:kforkwhatkisabsolutelykimpossiblekisknotkpossiblekeitherkinkanykrespectkorkatanykplacekorktime.kAnkobjectionkmaykbekraisedkthatk

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