aristotle on virtue. introduction student of plato student of plato teacher of alexander the great...

Aristotle on VirtueAristotle on Virtue

IntroductionIntroduction

Student of PlatoStudent of Plato Teacher of Alexander the GreatTeacher of Alexander the Great



A Realist, not an IdealistA Realist, not an Idealist



A Realist, not an IdealistA Realist, not an Idealist Text: Text: Nicomachean EthicsNicomachean Ethics

Lecture NotesLecture Notes

Moral BackgroundMoral Background

Heroic ideals from the Greek Dark Heroic ideals from the Greek Dark AgesAges

honourhonour, fame, revenge, fate, courage, , fame, revenge, fate, courage, pridepride




Achilles the heroAchilles the hero




Achilles the heroAchilles the hero – choose glory – choose glory Fullest use of a man’s qualitiesFullest use of a man’s qualities




Achilles the heroAchilles the hero – choose glory – choose glory Fullest use of a man’s qualitiesFullest use of a man’s qualities Interest in one’s own character rather Interest in one’s own character rather

than the general goodthan the general good

EthicsEthics

Aristotle’s StrategyAristotle’s Strategy1.1. First describe what people ultimately First describe what people ultimately

search for in life.search for in life.

2.2. Then give as philosophically precise a Then give as philosophically precise a characterisation of this as the subject characterisation of this as the subject will allow.will allow.

3.3. Then examine the character traits that Then examine the character traits that are essential to achieving what we are essential to achieving what we ultimately search for.ultimately search for.

EthicsEthics

Every action has a goalEvery action has a goal““Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly every action and rational choice, is thought to every action and rational choice, is thought to aim at some good; and so the good has been aim at some good; and so the good has been aptly described as that at which everything aptly described as that at which everything aims.” aims.”

(1094a)(1094a)

EthicsEthics

Every action has a goalEvery action has a goal A hierarchy existsA hierarchy exists

Eg.Eg. Bridle-maker < bridles < Bridle-maker < bridles < horsemanship < warhorsemanship < war

EthicsEthics



Most ends are Most ends are instrumentalinstrumental

EthicsEthics



Most ends are Most ends are instrumentalinstrumental Some (one) ends are Some (one) ends are finalfinal

EthicsEthics

There is one goal for all actionsThere is one goal for all actions““So if what is done has some end that we want So if what is done has some end that we want for its own sake, and everything else we want is for its own sake, and everything else we want is for the sake of this end; and if we do not choose for the sake of this end; and if we do not choose everything for the sake of something else everything for the sake of something else (because this would lead to an infinite (because this would lead to an infinite progression, making our desire fruitless and progression, making our desire fruitless and vain), then clearly this will be the good, indeed vain), then clearly this will be the good, indeed the chief good.” the chief good.”

(1094a)(1094a)

EthicsEthics

There is one goal for all actionsThere is one goal for all actions Aristotle can’t prove this, but he Aristotle can’t prove this, but he

believes it believes it He has a candidate final endHe has a candidate final end

EudaimoniaEudaimonia

‘‘Happiness’ is the one goal for all Happiness’ is the one goal for all actionsactions



an overall-condition of a person’s lifean overall-condition of a person’s life Not a mental stateNot a mental state



an overall-condition of a person’s lifean overall-condition of a person’s life Not a mental stateNot a mental state

1.1. The end for which everything is The end for which everything is pursuedpursued

2.2. unconditionally completeunconditionally complete

3.3. self-sufficientself-sufficient


Justified in terms of our Justified in terms of our characteristic activitycharacteristic activity


Justified in terms of our characteristic Justified in terms of our characteristic activityactivity““But perhaps saying that happiness is the chief good But perhaps saying that happiness is the chief good sounds rather platitudinous, and one might want its sounds rather platitudinous, and one might want its nature to be specified still more clearly. It is possible nature to be specified still more clearly. It is possible that we might achieve that if we grasp the that we might achieve that if we grasp the characteristic activity of a human being. For just as characteristic activity of a human being. For just as the good – the doing well – of a flute-player, a sculptor the good – the doing well – of a flute-player, a sculptor or any practitioner of a skill, or generally whatever has or any practitioner of a skill, or generally whatever has some characteristic activity or action, is thought to lie some characteristic activity or action, is thought to lie in its characteristic activity, so the same would seem in its characteristic activity, so the same would seem to be true of a human being, if indeed he has a to be true of a human being, if indeed he has a characteristic activity.”characteristic activity.”


Justified in terms of our characteristic Justified in terms of our characteristic activityactivity

Our capacity to reason sets us apart from Our capacity to reason sets us apart from all other species.all other species.

So our characteristic activity (So our characteristic activity (ergonergon) ) consists in using reason.consists in using reason.

Thus our use of reason is the key to our Thus our use of reason is the key to our distinctive happiness (eudaimonia).distinctive happiness (eudaimonia).

We live a happy (eudaimonic) life only if We live a happy (eudaimonic) life only if we use reason with great skill.we use reason with great skill.


Justified in terms of our Justified in terms of our characteristic activitycharacteristic activity

Aristotle’s ideal life - one viewAristotle’s ideal life - one view Ends by telling us that the best kind of life Ends by telling us that the best kind of life

is the life of contemplation.is the life of contemplation. Not many people think this is so desirableNot many people think this is so desirable It doesn’t match what he tells us elsewhere – It doesn’t match what he tells us elsewhere –

describing a practical and active life.describing a practical and active life.


A happy life is a life lived virtuouslyA happy life is a life lived virtuously


A happy life is a life lived virtuouslyA happy life is a life lived virtuously Happiness requires the excellent Happiness requires the excellent

use of reasonuse of reason Excellence in the use of reason is Excellence in the use of reason is

virtuevirtue Virtues are character traitsVirtues are character traits


A happy life is a pleasant lifeA happy life is a pleasant life““It is also the case that the life of [virtuous] It is also the case that the life of [virtuous] people is pleasurable in itself. For experiencing people is pleasurable in itself. For experiencing pleasure is an aspect of the soul, and each pleasure is an aspect of the soul, and each person finds pleasure in that of which he is said person finds pleasure in that of which he is said to be fond, as a horse-lover finds it in a horse, to be fond, as a horse-lover finds it in a horse, and someone who likes wonderful sights finds and someone who likes wonderful sights finds it in a wonderful sight. In the same way, a lover it in a wonderful sight. In the same way, a lover of justice finds it in the sphere of justice and in of justice finds it in the sphere of justice and in general a person with virtue finds pleasure in general a person with virtue finds pleasure in what accords with virtue.” what accords with virtue.”


A happy life is a pleasant lifeA happy life is a pleasant life““Their life therefore has no need of pleasure as Their life therefore has no need of pleasure as some kind of lucky ornament, but contains its some kind of lucky ornament, but contains its pleasure in itself, because, in addition to what we pleasure in itself, because, in addition to what we have already said, the person who does not enjoy have already said, the person who does not enjoy noble actions is not good. For no one would call a noble actions is not good. For no one would call a person just if he did not enjoy acting justly, or person just if he did not enjoy acting justly, or generous if he did not enjoy generous actions; and generous if he did not enjoy generous actions; and the same goes for the other virtues. If this is so, it the same goes for the other virtues. If this is so, it follows that actions in accordance with virtue are follows that actions in accordance with virtue are pleasant in themselves.” pleasant in themselves.”

(1099a)(1099a)


BUT pleasure is not the same as acting BUT pleasure is not the same as acting virtuouslyvirtuously““Nevertheless, as we suggested, happiness Nevertheless, as we suggested, happiness obviously needs the presence of external goods as obviously needs the presence of external goods as well, since it is impossible, or at least no easy well, since it is impossible, or at least no easy matter, to perform noble actions without resources. matter, to perform noble actions without resources. For in many actions, we employ, as if they were For in many actions, we employ, as if they were instruments at our disposal, friends, wealth, and instruments at our disposal, friends, wealth, and political power. Again, being deprived of some political power. Again, being deprived of some things – such as high birth, noble children, beauty – things – such as high birth, noble children, beauty – spoils our blessedness.” spoils our blessedness.”

(1099b)(1099b)


BUT pleasure is not the same as BUT pleasure is not the same as acting virtuouslyacting virtuously““For the person who is terribly ugly, of low birth, For the person who is terribly ugly, of low birth, or solitary and childless is not really the sort to be or solitary and childless is not really the sort to be happy, still less perhaps if he has children or happy, still less perhaps if he has children or friends who are thoroughly bad, or good but dead. friends who are thoroughly bad, or good but dead. As we have said, then, there seems to be an As we have said, then, there seems to be an additional need for some sort of prosperity like additional need for some sort of prosperity like this. For this reason, some identify happiness with this. For this reason, some identify happiness with good fortune, while others identify it with virtue.” good fortune, while others identify it with virtue.”

(1099b)(1099b)

VirtuesVirtues

AreteArete ‘‘Excellence’Excellence’ A functionalist conceptA functionalist concept

VirtuesVirtues

AreteArete ‘‘Excellence’Excellence’ A functionalist conceptA functionalist concept

““For just as the good – the doing well – of a For just as the good – the doing well – of a flute-player, a sculptor or any practitioner of flute-player, a sculptor or any practitioner of a skill, or generally whatever has some a skill, or generally whatever has some characteristic activity or action, is thought to characteristic activity or action, is thought to lie in its characteristic activity, so the same lie in its characteristic activity, so the same would seem to be true of a human being, if would seem to be true of a human being, if indeed he has a characteristic activity.”indeed he has a characteristic activity.”

(1097b)(1097b)

VirtuesVirtues

CharacterCharacter Aristotle divides virtues into virtues of Aristotle divides virtues into virtues of

character (‘moral virtues’) and virtues of character (‘moral virtues’) and virtues of reason (‘intellectual virtues’).reason (‘intellectual virtues’).

Virtues of character are directed towards the Virtues of character are directed towards the intelligent handling of emotions.intelligent handling of emotions.

Courage: fearCourage: fear Temperance: pleasureTemperance: pleasure Magnanimity: generosityMagnanimity: generosity

VirtuesVirtues

Doctrine of the MeanDoctrine of the Mean Virtues lie between excess and Virtues lie between excess and

deficiencydeficiency

VirtuesVirtues

Doctrine of the MeanDoctrine of the Mean Virtues lie between excess and deficiencyVirtues lie between excess and deficiency

““First, then, let us consider this – the fact that First, then, let us consider this – the fact that [emotions] [emotions] are naturally corrupted by deficiency are naturally corrupted by deficiency and excess, as we see and excess, as we see in the cases of strength and in the cases of strength and health (we must use clear health (we must use clear examples to illustrate examples to illustrate the unclear); for both too much the unclear); for both too much exercise and too exercise and too little ruin one’s strength, and likewise too little ruin one’s strength, and likewise too much food and drink and too little ruin one’s health, much food and drink and too little ruin one’s health, while while the right amount produces, increase the right amount produces, increase and preserves it.”and preserves it.”

(1104a)(1104a)

VirtuesVirtues

Doctrine of the MeanDoctrine of the Mean Virtues lie between excess and Virtues lie between excess and

deficiencydeficiency““The same goes, then, for temperance, The same goes, then, for temperance,

courage and the courage and the other virtues: the person who other virtues: the person who avoids and fears everything, avoids and fears everything, never standing his never standing his ground, becomes cowardly, while he who ground, becomes cowardly, while he who fears nothing, but confronts every danger, fears nothing, but confronts every danger, becomes rash.” becomes rash.”

(1104a)(1104a)

VirtuesVirtues

Doctrine of the MeanDoctrine of the Mean Application?Application?““I am talking here about virtue of character, I am talking here about virtue of character, since it is this that is concerned with feelings since it is this that is concerned with feelings and actions, and it is in these that we find and actions, and it is in these that we find excess, deficiency and the mean. … [T]o have excess, deficiency and the mean. … [T]o have them at the right time, about the right things, them at the right time, about the right things, towards the right people, for the right end, and towards the right people, for the right end, and in the right way, is the mean and the best; and in the right way, is the mean and the best; and this is the business of virtue.”this is the business of virtue.”

(1106b)(1106b)

VirtuesVirtues

Doctrine of the MeanDoctrine of the Mean Application?Application?““[O]ne should exert oneself and relax neither [O]ne should exert oneself and relax neither too much nor too little, but to a mean extent too much nor too little, but to a mean extent and as the right principle dictates; but if you and as the right principle dictates; but if you grasped only this you would know nothing grasped only this you would know nothing more – e.g. you would not know more – e.g. you would not know whatwhat remedies remedies to take if someone told you to take what to take if someone told you to take what medical science prescribes and as a medical medical science prescribes and as a medical man prescribes itman prescribes it .”.”

(1138b)(1138b)

VirtuesVirtues

TrainingTraining According to Aristotle, we do not become According to Aristotle, we do not become

virtuous by learning about virtues. virtuous by learning about virtues. Virtues are like habits or dispositions.Virtues are like habits or dispositions.

We acquire habits or dispositions by We acquire habits or dispositions by practice.practice.

Thus we acquire the virtues, e.g. courage Thus we acquire the virtues, e.g. courage by acting by acting as if as if we are courageous. we are courageous.

We acquire virtues predominantly in our We acquire virtues predominantly in our childhood.childhood.

aristotle on virtue. introduction student of plato student of plato teacher of alexander the great...

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