This ENERGIE publication is one of a series highlighting the potential for innovative non-nuclear energytechnologies to be applied widely and contribute to provision of superior services. European Commission strategiesaim to influence the scientific and engineering communities, policy makers and key market actors so that theydevelop and apply cleaner, more efficient and more sustainable energy solutions to benefit themselves and societyin general.

Funded under the European Union’s Fifth Framework Programme for Research, Technological Development andDemonstration (RTD), ENERGIE’s range of supports cover research, development, demonstration, dissemination,replication and market uptake - the full process of converting new ideas into practical solutions to real needs. Itsprint and electronic publications disseminate the results of activities carried out under current and previousFramework Programmes, including former JOULE-THERMIE actions. Jointly managed by the Directorates-GeneralResearch and Energy & Transport, ENERGIE has a total budget of €1042 million for 1999 to 2002.

ENERGIE is organised principally around two Key Actions, (Cleaner Energy Systems, including RenewableEnergies, and Economic and Efficient Energy for a Competitive Europe), within the theme “Energy, Environment andSustainable Development”. With targets guided by the Kyoto Protocol and associated policies, ENERGIE’sintegrated activities are focussed on new solutions which achieve balanced improvements in Europe’s energy,environmental and economic performance and thereby contribute towards a sustainable future for Europe’scitizens.

ENERGIE

with the support of the EUROPEAN COMMISSIONDirectorate-General Energy & Transport

AcknowledgementsWe would like to thank the following who supplied valuable information for this publication:

Case study material: Anke Benstem, KUKA (Kronsberg Environmental Liaison Agency), Germany; Cathie Curran, Richard Rogers Partnership, UK; ChristineOehlinger, O.Ö. Energiesparverband, Austria.

Photographs and diagrams: Alfanso Sevilla, Geohabitat, Almeria, Spain; Tjeerd Deelstra, Ministry of Housing, The Hague, Amsterdam; Marylene Ferrand,FFL Architectes, France; Bill Hastings, ARC Survey, Ireland; Jaime Lopez de Asiain, ETS de Arquitectura de Seville, Spain; Maurice Stack, Architect, Ireland; Derry

O’Connell, John Goulding, Brian O’Brien and Crea O’Dowd, University College Dublin, Ireland; International Dark Sky Association.

Expert review: Philip Geoghegan, Derry O’Connell, University College Dublin, Ireland.

LEGAL NOTICE

Neither the European Commission, nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission,is responsible for the use which might be made of the information contained in this publication.

The views given in this publication do not necessarily represent the views of the European Commission.

Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.

Printed in Ireland 2000

Produced byEnergy Research Group, University College Dublin,

School of Architecture, Richview, Clonskeagh, Dublin 14, IrelandTel: + 353.1-269 2750, Fax: +353.1-283 8908

WWW: http://erg.ucd.ie/, E-mail: erg@erg.ucd.ie

Written by: Vivienne Brophy, Crea O’Dowd,Rachel Bannon, John Goulding and J. Owen Lewis

Design: Sinéad McKeon and Pierre Jolivet

ENERGIE

E u r o p e a n C o m m i s s i o n

Gene ra l i n f o r ma t i on

Sustainable Urban Design

1

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

2. Urban impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

2.1 Ecological Footprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

2.2 Urban Heat Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

2.3 Buildings and Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

2.4 Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

2.5 Wastes (solid, liquid, gaseous) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

2.6 Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

2.7 Air Quality, Ozone Depletion, Greenhouse Gases, Solar Radiation . . . .4

2.8 Aerodynamic Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

2.9 Urban Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

3. Urban Design Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

3.1 Site Selection and Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

3.2 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

3.3 Climate Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

3.4 Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

3.5 Resource Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

3.6 Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

4. Selected Design Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

5. References and Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

This is an ENERGIE publication, funded under the European Union’s Fifth FrameworkProgramme for Research, Technological Development and Demonstration. Jointlymanaged by the Directorates-General for Research and Energy & Transport of theEuropean Commission.

Partners on the project were:Energy Research Group, University College Dublin, IrelandInstitut Catala D’Energia, Barcelona, SpainO.Ö. Energiesparverband, Linz, Austria

Sustainable Urban Design

1. INTRODUCTION

In urban settlements, where over 80% of Europeans live, the concentrations of peopleand their activities create intensified demands on the environment. However, this veryconcentration offers opportunities, through design and actions at an urban scale, tominimise the various environmental impacts - ideally to the point where they can beassimilated by the ecosystems of the region without lasting damage. It can then be saidthat a level of sustainable existence has been reached at which the community can livein symbiotic harmony with its environment.

The best known definition of sustainable development, that of the World Commissionon Environment and Development (the Brundtland Commission), dates from thepublication in 1987 of ’Our Common Future‘ [1]:

(Sustainable development is)…“development that meets the needs of today‘sgeneration without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs”.

It is worth emphasising that it is our needs, not wants, that deserve primary attention.It is also worth reminding ourselves that we in the developed countries have usedpower and knowledge to help ourselves to a grossly disproportionate share of theworld's resources leaving much environmental, social and economic degradation inless developed countries - and sometimes closer to home.

There are many indicators of sustainability that can help in assessing the presentcondition, and strategies that may be adopted by a community to ensure its continuedexistence and development. An holistic, interdisciplinary approach involving thenatural and physical sciences and the humanities is a feature of most comprehensiveanalyses, and the issues involved in developing and implementing action plans forsustainable urban living are diverse and often interdependent.

While recognising that social and economic factors are also of fundamentalimportance, the focus of this maxibrochure is on physical environmental issues. It aimsto outline some of the current thinking in urban design, and show some exemplaryresponses, as an aid to the process of making urban settlements in Europe moreenvironmentally sustainable.

1.1 BACKGROUND

The knowledge of an appropriate response to climate was fundamental to the planningof many traditional settlements. Vernacular architecture and urban design oftenembodied an intimate knowledge of the locality, climatically and geographically, andits potential for sustainable life. Long before the Roman architect Vitruvius wrote theTen Books of Architecture two thousand years ago, builders, were of neccessity,optimising their local environment, through the manipulation of site, the forms,organisation of external spaces, and the building layout itself. During the IndustrialRevolution in the mid-1800s, the design of buildings came to depend less on ambientenergy and more on the abundant supply of fossil fuels for their thermal comfort.Current trends in architecture and urbanism often continue to ignore the potential ofpassive measures to achieve thermal comfort. The resulting impacts can be measuredin environmental, social and economic terms.

There is increasing acceptance among planners, urban designers and governmentsthat current modes of human existence in developed countries are unsustainable inenvironmental, social and economic terms. Some of the factors supporting this vieware indications of: global climate change; resource depletion; droughts and floods;local pollution and damage to ecosystems; species extinction; deterioration in thequality of life, especially in cities; increasing polarisation in wealth distribution; andpoor equality in access to resources and knowledge.

The nature of the problem, now beginning to be recognised in broad terms andsometimes only from indications at a global or regional scale, is such that it is stillpossible to take corrective action and begin to halt the decline, and reverse it in manyinstances, if measures are urgently applied. However, failure to act appropriately atthis stage may soon result in our having to face catastrophic failure of the

2

Sustainable development is develop-ment that delivers environmental,economical and social services to allresidents of a community, withoutthreatening the viability of thenatural, built, economic and socialsystems upon which the delivery ofthese systems depend. [2]

Environment

EconomySociety

SustainableDevelopment

Environment

Society

Economy

Two models of sustainable developments.

Evaporative cooling at the Alhambra,Granada, Spain.

Evaporative cooling at EXPO ’92, Seville,Spain.

environmental (and socio-economic) systems on which our existence depends.Therefore, it is vital that we begin to understand in specific terms the damage we aredoing and what measures can be applied to rectify that damage and support ourcontinued existence and welfare.

Many of these issues come to a focus in urban settlements. In general terms they maybe considered as inputs and outputs of the ‘urban system’ including: non-renewableand renewable resource use (both including energy); solid, liquid and gaseous wastesand their recycling, treatment or disposal; and manpower and knowledge.

More specifically, we can consider the environmental impacts of buildings, transport,industry and commerce, agriculture, institutions (education, health care, etc.), andrecreational or social facilities and what is involved in their establishment andmaintenance. Population size, its affluence and the extent and nature of its economicand social activities will determine the scale of the issues to be considered.

Further subdivision and characterisation of these issues is addressed in thismaxibrochure with the overall objective of raising awareness of the specific nature ofthe damage we do to the environment and of opportunities for remedial measures wecan undertake locally as individuals or communities which, cumulatively, will havebeneficial regional and global effects.

2. URBAN IMPACTS

2.1 ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT

The ‘ecological footprint’ is a measure of sustainable development by which categoriesof human consumption are translated into areas of productive land needed to provideresources and assimilate waste products. Included in the calculations of the ecologicalfootprint of a community, are the volumes of ‘imported’ raw materials, food and fuel,taking into account land, water or air used for production or waste disposal. Cities indeveloped countries generally have a much larger ecological footprint than those indeveloping countries. For example, the average ecological footprint in Italy is 4ha/person, representating 320% of the land available in Italy, while Switzerland andGermany have ecological footprints greater than 5 ha/person. London’s ecologicalfootprint is almost equivalent to the entire area of Britain’s farmland. By comparison,the world’s average ecological footprint is 2.4 ha/person. [4]

2.2 URBAN HEAT ISLANDS

A heat island is an area of land whose ambient temperature is higher than the landsurrounding it. Many studies show a direct correlation between the density andpopulation of a city and the intensity of the heat island effect. Higher urbantemperatures increase the demand for electricity for cooling and air conditioning inwarm conditions which leads to an increase in the production of carbon dioxide andother pollutants. These pollutants in turn contribute to increasing global temperaturesdue to the ‘greenhouse effect’.

3

Our aim should be to promotesustainable urban developmentswhich are designed in response to theclimatic, topographic and environ-mental characteristics of a site,protecting its natural features andpromoting an efficient, prudent use ofresources.

Ecological Footprints per per-son in Canada [3]

Ecological Footprinthectares per capita

Housing 0.89Transportation 0.89Consumer Goods 0.89Services 0.3Food 1.3

(0.02 vegetable and fruit)Total 4.27

Input - output model of energy and material flows of a city.

Utilization of external spaces.

Taking corrective action in the developmentof Curitiba.

Conservation of existing buildings.

Integration of public transport within newdevelopment.

4

2.3 BUILDINGS AND LAND USE

Buildings are required for almost every activity and are the principal elements of theurban fabric. There are environmental impacts associated with their construction useand disposal. Land use for buildings and other purposes is a scarce, finite resourcethat has hitherto often been used wastefully, especially in and near cities and townsand in suburban areas. Future sustainable development needs to address land use andplanning according to function to ensure that optimal use is made of the available landresource to serve the needs of society as a whole. Issues of sustainability associatedwith buildings and the land they occupy are discussed in detail in the following pages.

2.4 TRAFFIC

Traffic congestion reduces the quality of life in cities, wastes time and energy, andincreases environmental degradation. The design, placement and density of buildingsin an urban environment have a great influence on the consequent transportationpatterns. The prolific use of the private car is both a cause and result of inadequatepublic transport facilities in many European cities.

2.5 WASTES (SOLID, LIQUID, GASEOUS)

The domestic, commercial and industrial waste generated by urban living are ofconcern to local authorities and inhabitants and a major source of environmentalpollution. The smells and other emissions associated with sewage treatment plants andlandfill sites, traffic and industrial processes are a regular source of irritation,particularly where large numbers of people live close to such pollution.

2.6 WATER QUALITY

The quality of our water is influenced greatly by human development. Acid rain is acommon problem in and downwind of urban communities and industrial facilities. Theexpanse of hard impermeable surfaces in cities results in large bodies of rainwaterrequiring collection and discharge elsewhere. Dust, dirt and other solid pollutants arewashed with rainwater into drains, the water sometimes discharged untreated intolocal waterways. Drinking water from local waterways often requires treatment withchemicals to combat bacteria and other micro-organisms from such pollution.

2.7 AIR QUALITY, OZONE DEPLETION, GREENHOUSE GASES, SOLARRADIATION

Many cities have succeeded in reducing the high levels of pollution traditionally causedby large-scale fossil fuel combustion. In London prior to the 1956 Clean Act, airpollution had reduced midwinter solar radiation in the city by 50% compared with thesurrounding countryside [5]. The sun’s capacity to contribute to thermal comfort inwinter was thus halved. Today, vehicle use is one of the main contributors to airpollution in cities. Despite reductions in individual vehicular emissions, the increasingnumber of vehicles on the roads in cities ensures the continuing rise of urban airpollution levels.

2.8 AERODYNAMIC IMPACT

Wind velocities in cities are generally lower than those in the surrounding countrysidedue to the obstructions to air flow caused by buildings. Wind affects the temperature,rates of evaporative cooling and plant transpiration and is thus an important factor ata micro-climatic level. Built-up areas with tall buildings may lead to complex air

Too manycars onstreets

Increasingtraffic

congestion

Less useof publictransport

Slower masstransport

less mobilityreduced service

Some of the main factors contributingto increased temperatures in urbanareas are:• air pollution and heat production

from buildings and traffic; • building and other hard surfaces

which absorb solar radiation and reflect heat;

• reduction in airflow and humiditycaused by the sheltering effect of buildings.

High point

∆τ

Tem

per

atur

e

Base temperature

Urban heat island effect.

Traffic congestion in Dublin.

Impermeable city surfaces.

Smog over Paris.

movement through a combination of wind channelling and resistance, and this oftenresults in wind turbulence in some areas and concentrated pollution where there arewind shadows.

2.9 URBAN DUST

Urban dust is particulate matter released into the air as a by-product of buildingworks, exhaust fumes from buildings and vehicular traffic, manufacturing and otherprocesses. It clings to porous surfaces such as stone, brick or concrete. The streakingeffect under windows and architectural mouldings is a result of this dust being washedoff non-porous surfaces such as glass, and lodging itself on the porous material below.Extensive sealed surfaces and insufficient planted areas intensify this problem. Apartfrom the aesthetic effects of urban dust, studies have shown that excessive exposure tothis dust may aggravate pulmonary disorders.

3. URBAN DESIGN STRATEGIES

Environmental strategies for sustainable development should be based on anunderstanding of the climate, geography, culture and traditions of a location,combined with knowledge of best practice experience and innovation. Such contextualinfluences have been implicit in traditional landscapes, settlements and lifestyles, andthey often continue to serve as exemplars, although technological developments canoffer solutions hitherto unavailable. Sustainable urban design and planning shouldpromote an environment which offers:

Diversity - allowing variety, flexibility• Comprising a mix of different building types, activities and social classes and

considering the 24 hour occupation of urban areas• Developed around ‘green’ spaces with a diversity of flora and fauna species• Utilising a range of energy sources (primarily renewable) thus reducing

dependence on a single resource

Productivity - efficient, closed-loop production• In the near future building-integrated systems, such as photovoltaics, heat recovery,

water recycling and solar thermal, will give every urban block the potential toproduce energy and water both for its own use and to contribute to urban networksof energy production. This use, recovery and reuse could reduce the demand onelectricity grids and water supply networks

• Through resource use minimisation, reuse and recycling, waste can be largely dealtwith within city boundaries and the environmental impact of urban developmentscontained

Protection - mitigating climatic extremes• Bioclimatic, ecological planning and design can offer a means of climatic

moderation to benefit people, flora and fauna in urban settlements• Strategies include optimising solar energy, wind and acoustic sheltering, natural

cooling, groundwater management and vegetative pollution filters• Natural shelters (e.g. tree shelter belts) can create climatic buffer zones between

differing land uses

5

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

Alti

tude

40

30

20

40

40

3020

30

20

Windspeed : m/s

In older settlements and mediaevaltowns, low buildings following curvedstreet lines result in low windvelocities at street level. Contem-porary cities populated by high-risebuildings experience down draughtson windward faces and suction on leefaces causing turbulence at groundlevel particularly around corners,through arcades, building openingsand passageways.

Wind speed at a given height, is lower in towns than over open land.

Stone decay in Dublin.

Traditional sustainable design.

6

3.1 SITE SELECTION AND ORIENTATION

Solar access should be a principal influence on the planning of any development.Consideration must be given to the need for heating or cooling and to daily andseasonal variations in solar radiation and wind flows, which will determine the relativeimportance of solar and wind strategies. These factors vary across Europe; forexample, in northern Europe the sun is at a lower angle for any given time of the year,causing longer shadows, and more solar radiation is desirable in buildings there thanin countries further south. Daylight penetration and thermal comfort within any builtenvironment are largely the result of the building’s exposure, and these are influencedby:

• OrientationIn relation to the sun’s daily and seasonal movement, and wind flows. North-Southorientations are generally preferable to East-West facing buildings, where excessivesolar gain may be problematic.

• FormThe design, relative size and glazing ratio of each facade can play a major role inthe energy efficiency of a building.

• Surrounding terrainTopography, windbreaks and surface roughness determine protection or exposure.

• Adjoining developmentsIn general, denser developments result in a greater reduction in wind speeds butproportionally increased turbulence. The edges of built-up urban areas in particular need protection from prevailing winds and driving rain in northernEurope.

Consideration must be given to optimising the solar access of any site, particularly aspassive solar technologies become increasingly common in urban situations. Wheresolar gain is desired (during the heating season, for example) adjacent structures orvegetation should not be permitted to obstruct sunlight. The planning of access roadson a site influences solar access considerably by determining plot orientations,particularly on smaller sites. Roads laid on an east/west axis, with smaller north/southlinks where necessary, are most conducive to southerly oriented buildings, but this maynot be viable in every situation.

In a typical residential development with houses at 21m spacing, compare the heatingrequirements of the same house on: (i) flat ground (ii) a 5°slope, north facing (iii) a 5°slope,south facing.

Common planning constraints:• Site topography (steep contours, water courses, geological characteristics, patterns

of water run-off)• Landscape features and obstacles • Existing roads, buildings and infrastructure routes• Planning and building legislation (setbacks, plot ratio, site coverage, rights to light,

emergency services access)

Where such constraints require roads to be on a north/south axis, innovative designand configuration of buildings within urban plots can help ensure adequate solaraccess. Considerable tolerance in orientation (+/- 30° of south) is possible and the useof appropriate building forms can result in successful, climate-responsive buildings.

Optimal siting:

• Cool climatelow to mid slope to avoid strongwinds and cool air pockets

• Temperatemid slope preferable to exploitsummer breezes, upper and lowerslope also possible when shelteredfrom prevailing winds without compromising the benefits of summer breezes

• Hot aridhigh altitudes preferable above sloped ground to benefit from coolair flows

• Hot humidhigh altitudes on windward side toincrease evaporative cooling potential

E

SW

(I) Standard house0° inclination

5°S

EN

N

N

W

(III) South facing slope5° inclination

-150 kWh/year

5°

E

SW

(II) North facing slope5° inclination

+400 kWh/year

N

Prim

ary

acce

ss r

oad

Providing secondary access roadsalong east/west axis giving buildingsside-entry and side-gardens. This can create open spaces serving as solar /thermal buffers in front of buildings.

Secondary access road

Site planning aims:• Maximise the potential for passive

solar gain in winter• Allow solar access at street level,

appropriate to the climate• Enable a degree of freedom in

placing buildings on plots without causing excessive solar obstructions to/by adjacent buildings

• Use street proportions andexternal landscaping featureswhich take into account variations in climate and sun angles occurring across Europe

High altitude siting.

In developments with a mix of building types and forms, buildings should be arrangedwith respect to the sun’s path and orientation of the site. Taller buildings should beplaced to the north of lower ones, at site boundaries or corners surrounded by roads,where they cause least solar obstruction and overshadowing.Varying roof profilesacross a site helps to increase the number of buildings with good solar access.Grouping and spacing of buildings should be designed to prevent undesirable wind-tunnel effects.

Southern European site layouts should aim to optimise natural cooling. Building formsand densities can be designed to optimise shading. The cooling potential of wind flowsacross a site should be considered at the early stages of a design.

Air movement up or down a slope can significantly influence cooling. Anabatic flows,where air is warmed by the ground on a calm, sunny day, rise up a slope. Katabaticflows, where air is cooled by the ground on a calm, clear night, move downwards andhave more noticeable effects, creating cold pockets in hollows or valleys andaggravating frosty conditions due to trapped cold air.

As pressure on land for development increases, designers are often faced with sites inecologically sensitive areas or on difficult soil conditions. Such developments, if theyare to occur, require especially careful design to minimise environmental impact,particularly in terms of ground and surface water conditions. Sites located nearwetlands, for example, should limit water run-off to avoid disrupting salinity levels,water-based wildlife and vegetation.

3.1.1 Case Study – ParcBIT Project, Mallorca

As part of the EXPO CITIES project in the Balearic Islands, the architectural firm,Richard Rogers Partnership, together with a multi-disciplinary design team, hasprovided a masterplan for a new sustainable community near the capital city of Palma.As a residential community of 2,500 people with a peak working population of 6,000people, ParcBIT is intended to be a business and science park set within the context ofa full community development.

The communities are arranged within three urban clusters each of which is in itself avillage, and which together form a distinct balanced community. Each cluster graduallydiffuses from a vibrant, publicly focused centre, through a working district of offices,production, manufacturing and housing to a quieter residential area on the outskirts.The proposal aims to maintain a balanced cycle of activities over the day andthroughout the year. The phasing of the construction is structured so that each of thevillages will grow from the core outwards, establishing life in the centre to form a focusfor each village, preceded by the progressive laying down of infrastructure.

Careful analysis of the site and its landscape has influenced the masterplan which isdesigned to preserve natural landscape features. The topography of the site hasplayed a significant role in the definition of built form and circulation patterns.Buildings are located on terraces which wrap around a ridge following the contoursof the land. Ten percent of the winter floodwater from two flood torrents traversing thesite is to be collected in a storage area and released over the year to provide bothirrigation and drinking water.

Traditionally constructed buildings with thick masonry walls will help ensure that roomsare cool and comfortable. Height to width ratios for streets and squares are controlledto ensure good daylight penetration to buildings, while providing shade to publicspaces in summer and allowing solar access in winter. Building facades are designedto open in summer to provide shade and ventilation to buildings and pedestrian routes,and when closed in winter provide a buffer zone.

The energy strategy for the development proposes to reduce demand by 70% byconstructing energy-efficient buildings and by using a combined heat and powersystem fuelled using renewable energy sources.

An important part of the concept at ParcBIT is the proposed integrated transport systemwith trams, buses, and electric cars connecting each cluster with the university and

7

Objectives of ParcBIT project:

• To provide a masterplan for a high-quality living and work environ-ment

• To encourage state-of-the-art tele-communications technologies in apilot community that offerssolutions to the problems ofmodern urban living

• To make ecological concernsparamount in the design solutions

• To create a vibrant, publiclyfocused, compact urban community

• To use the naturally availableresources on the site to create anenriched agricultural landscape

1

2

3

4

1 roof2 south facing glazing3 south facing external space4 north elevation

Surfaces to consider when assessingsolar access.

Most solar thermal systems in Europeare used for domestic hot water(DHW]; In NW Europe a 3m2 solarinstallation can provide up to 50% ofaverage annual DHW demand. [6]

Model of ParcBIT, Mallorca.

Plan of urban clusters.

Palma. A road-based tram system will serve 7,000 inhabitants and a further 5,000people on the university campus. Green-planted cycle and pedestrian routes willprovide access to residential areas from road and tram links. Parking areas will belocated so that residents and office workers can share spaces, thus reducing the overallnumber of spaces required.

3.2 DENSITY

3.2.1 Buildings

The move towards revitalising and repopulating inner city sites with high density,mixed-use developments aims to improve the viability and vitality of urban centres,increase the potential for shared resources and reduce vehicle use generated bysuburban dispersal. A sustainable approach to the issue of density reduces thedominance of the role of the car and instead considers less environmentally damagingways of achieving the horizontal and vertical movement of people, energy, food,goods, water and waste.

In general, developments with higher densities use less energy for horizontalmovement: in mixed use developments most facilities can be located within walkingdistance or integrated within an efficient public transport system. Reducing traveldistances will reduce car use and its related greenhouse gas emissions, allowingdesign strategies to focus on the needs of cyclists, pedestrians and the provision ofgreen spaces between buildings. Higher density developments enable the sharing offacilities and resources. Infrastructure supply lines can be shorter, reducing distancesfor energy and water service runs.

For maximum density developments containing high-rise buildings, the additionalenergy required for the vertical transfer of people and services such as energy, waterand waste must be addressed. Moving infrastructure upwards against gravity requiresmore energy than horizontal flows. However, a higher density scheme will allow agreater area of land to be dedicated to landscaped public areas and activities,including allotments for food production and on-site bio waste treatments, forexample. At an architectural level, the embodied energy of the building materials mustbe considered. High-rise structures often require materials (e.g. steel) with a higherembodied energy than traditional materials used in low rise construction.

The optimum densities for mixed development of a site depend on variables such asclimatic, social, and topographical factors, location and existing settlement.Fundamental to the success of any new development is planning foresight and well-programmed investment in high quality infrastructure and facilities.

The potential disadvantages of high-density developments in terms of daylight access,wind tunnelling and urban heat island effects for example, can be mitigated byclimate-responsive design. A starting point in any project must be to assess the micro-and macro-climatic characteristics of the site, an exercise which will indicate8

A net density of 100 people perhectare [or about 40 – 50dwellings] is recommended forneighbourhood developmentson average in the UK on thebasis that: [13]

• it is the necessary density tosupport a good bus service

• it is the lowest density viable fordistrict heating schemes

• it is the highest density capable of allowing good solar access withappropriate layout

Advantages of medium to highdensity developments:

• Increasing the density will leave more land for green areas withinand adjacent to urban areas

• Schemes for food production at acommunity scale become feasible.

• Reduced travel distances favourcyclists and pedestrians

• District heating and coolingsystems become more feasiblewhere local sources of waste heatare available

Comfortable walking distances.

Traditional inner city density.

Bio-climatic design for buildings and open spaces in ParcBIT, Mallorca.

Energy strategy.

appropriate bioclimatic design strategies. Some basic considerations for developmentsin different European climates are outlined below:

Cool climate• Aim for optimum balance between maximum solar access and wind shelter• Use vegetation to reduce heat loss in winter and at night

Temperate climate• Maximise solar access and natural ventilation potential in buildings• Use vegetation for seasonal wind-shelter and solar shading

Hot-arid climate• Plan high-density developments which allow space for shaded external areas; e.g.

courtyards• Select vegetation appropriate to the climate for shading• Provide adequate solar access in winter

Hot-humid climate• Plan high-density developments around shaded external areas conducive to a free

flow of air• Design buildings to facilitate natural air movement patterns• Provide adequate solar access in winter

3.2.2 Case Study – Kronsberg, Hannover

Another example of an EXPO CITIES project, the new district of Kronsberg, Hannover,is being developed according to the International Council for Local EnvironmentalInitiatives recommendations of Agenda 21, coordinated by the KronsbergEnvironmental Liason Agency, with an ecological concept in the spirit of the Charter ofAalborg, which commits it to a new sustainable design approach. A mixed residentialdistrict of terraced houses and large and small apartments, will provide 6,000dwellings for 15,000 inhabitants, almost half of whom will be living there by theopening of the EXPO in June 2000. Services and amenities for the new district willinclude a primary school, a schools centre and three kindergartens, neighbourhoodparks, and reserved areas for social services and commercial uses. An Arts andCommunity Centre will house the city council’s advice bureau, church and communitycentre, health centre, shops, cafes and restaurants.

A grid layout incorporates avenues, parks, squares and planted courtyards, with eachsection of the district containing 1000 dwellings in eight blocks grouped around aneighbourhood park. It is a high-density development respecting the principles ofefficient resource and land-use. There will be three zones from west to east withdiffering levels, density and dwelling types; four storey apartment buildings to the westnext to the service road and tram route; three storey housing in the middle; and twostorey terraced housing to the east. Ten per cent of the housing will be owner-occupied;the remaining ninety per cent will be subsidised rented accommodation. All of thedwellings will have direct access to a green space in the form of a courtyard andnearly all of the dwellings will have a private garden, a balcony or a roof garden. Thelandscape plan for Kronsberg incorporates the planting of woodland on the Kronsbergridge with diverse habitats created in the vicinity for wild plants and animals .

Extensive commercial estates are being developed directly adjacent to the residentialdistrict, fulfilling the aim to develop workplaces close to home, accessible by publictransport. The long-term planning aim is to expand the current commercialdevelopment to the south after EXPO 2000. The simultaneous realisation of theresidential area with its infrastructure and amenities, comprehensive landscaping andgreen space, constitute attractive conditions for the location of businesses andemployment.

A new tram service connecting Kronsberg to the city centre will have a journey time of20 minutes, with sufficient tram-stops to ensure that no dwelling is more than 600mfrom a stop. The main service road runs parallel to the tramway on the edge of theresidential area to minimise disruption. From the main service road, the district has anetwork of minor streets, serving only local traffic, bordered with trees and grassverges. The streets are laid out to favour pedestrians and cyclists. Car parking

9

New forests planted in four yearrotations of fast growing willow orpoplar within a framework of mixedhardwoods, whose timber can beused as a substitute for coal, couldreduce the amount of carbon in theatmosphere by 3 tonnes/hectare peryear. [7]

Mutual shading.

Commercial development at Kronsberg.

Residential district at Kronsberg.

Transport route, Kronsberg.

requirements in Kronsberg have been set at 0.8 parking space per dwelling, much ofit located in underground car parks.

3.2.3 External Spaces

Much research has been done on the psychological benefits of comfortable externalspaces and how these can be influenced by climatic, spatial and architectural designparameters. Social issues such as maintenance, security, and visual privacy oropenness must also be addressed when designing external spaces.Climaticconsiderations to be addressed in providing comfortable external spaces include solarand wind access and proximity to sources of noise or air pollution.

The most significant benefits of climate control are usually gained from localisedfeatures such as courtyards, sheltered or shaded areas creating microclimates morecomfortable than surrounding public open spaces. Thus when considering climate andair quality at an urban scale, the provision of a network of many small green spacesor ‘urban forests’ throughout a city is often preferable to a few large parks. Derelictland in cities may be reused to provide community forests and parks, climatic shelterbelts and buffer zones, and visual and acoustic screening of motorways.

3.2.4 Case Study - Urban Parks in Paris

Paris has many large and small public parks and gardens. As part of the regenerationof disused and derelict parts of the city, three new parks have been formed; the Parcde Bercy, the Parc André-Citroën, and the Bastille Viaduct. Filled with vegetation, frommature trees to flower beds, these amenity spaces improve the immediate and generalenvironment through the provision of natural air filtration mechanisms, water retentionareas, summer shading canopies, as well as habitats for the area’s local fauna.

Parc de Bercy is built in the centre of a former wine quarter in the east of Paris.Much of the area was derelict and in need of renovation. The park was designed byBernard Huet and FFL architectes, and encompasses an area of 14 hectares. It isdivided into three rectangular sections: an open grassed play area, containing treesinformally interspersed within an orthogonal grid of paths; a central garden section,subdivided into regularly planted and shaped plots, and traversed by a canal whichleads to the third, ‘water’ section of the park. A raised walkway, designed to act as a10

Solar houses, Kronsberg.

External space, Berlin.

Parc de Bercy, Paris.

Parc de Bercy, Paris.

Bastille Viaduct, Paris.

visual and noise buffer to the nearby motorway was also planned but financialconstraints have prevented the construction of this part of the development.

Parc André-Citroën is located on the site of the former Citroën car factory in thewest of Paris. Gilles Clement and Patrick Berger designed the northern sector and JeanPaul Viguier, Jean-Francois Jodry and Alain Provost were responsible for the southernpart. The park covers an area of 14 hectares, and is centred around a large greenexpanse of grass. Geometrically sculpted gardens contain and control the vegetation.Each garden has a different theme: deciduous trees are scattered throughout onegarden; another contains a pattern of evergreens; yet another is left to grow wild. Aterrace of fountains saturates and cools the paved area between the orangeries, whilea row of limestone pillars containing small water fountains lines the western end of thepark.

The Bastille Viaduct is an example of the advantages of reusing existing urbanfabric to improve a local environment socially, economically and environmentally. Adisused viaduct was renovated to provide an elevated linear park, along which runs apromenade lined with trees and other vegetation. Patrick Berger was the architectresponsible for the design of the renovation works, comprising the viaduct, the 13hectare park above, and shops under the arches of the viaduct at street level.

3.3 CLIMATE OPTIMISATION

3.3.1 Solar Radiation

The aim when addressing solar access to any development is to design for maximumdesirable solar radiation when heating is required, while protecting against unwantedsolar radiation when overheating may occur. Maximising solar access is generallydesirable in northern latitudes, while in southern latitudes protection from excessivesolar access is generally required in summer.

Deciduous trees are particularly effective seasonal shading devices, providingprotection in the summer months while allowing daylight and solar penetration inwinter. Where sunlight reaches ground surfaces directly (plazas, wide streets)vegetation can be used effectively as a means of solar shading (trees and shrubs) andabsorption (grass).

The main considerations in the design of planting are species type, growth rate andlocation. Different species of vegetation have different capacities to absorb solarradiation. Local species generally have stronger resistance to local pest and climaticconditions, requiring less maintenance than exotic species. The characteristics of plantsthat can significantly affect their contribution to solar shading are:

• Growth patternthe time taken for sufficient growth to provide shade/cooling benefits

• Diameter and heightimplications for tree-spacing, distance from buildings, extent of shadows atmaturity

• Duration of leaf seasontiming relative to the heating/cooling season, implications for solar access and theappearance of the trees in winter

11

SPECIES SOLAR RETENTION

%

Acer Negundo 88.6Catalpa Bignoinoides 85.8Celtis Australis 91.0Ceratonia Silicua 83.6Cercis Siliquastrum 90.1Citrus Aurantium 87.0Ficus Macrophilia 93.8Gleditsia Triacanthos 89.0Ligustrum Japonicum 89.0Melia Azedarach 89.1Mioporum Pictum 91.4Morus Alba 77.5Nerium Oleander 91.6Olea Europea 89.8Phoenis Dactilifera 90.6Pinus Alpensis 85.8Platanus Acerofilia 85.8Populus Alba Bolleana 94.3Robina Pseudoacacia 86.0Sophora Japonica 93.2[8]

Y1

X1

Y2

X2

COMPARISON OF TREE FORMS:Y < Y AND X > X ,WIDE, SHORT TREES GIVE BETTER SHADEPATTERNS BOTH SUMMER AND WINTER

2 1 2 1

X : BENEFICIAL SUMMER SHADEY :DETRIMENTAL

AL WINTER SHADE

Bastille Viaduct, Paris.

Seasonal shading, Dublin.

12

• Pollution resistancedurable species are needed in urban areas to avoid premature plant death

When planning trees near buildings, consider crown diameter and height relative tothe location of solar collectors and windows. Trees in sheltered locations retain theirleaves for longer, which may or may not be desirable depending on the climate andsolar access requirements.

Roof gardens can be established on the flat roofs of buildings using potted trees,shrubs and plants. Roof planting also reduces the area of roof surface exposed directlyto the sun and the summer and winter temperature extremes to which a building’s roofstructure is subjected.

Planted, or grassed roofs, though not common, are beginning to be found on buildingsin urban centres across Europe. Low maintenance grass roof systems are increasinglyavailable. Some of the benefits include:

• Improved thermal stability of building structures and, consequently, interiors• Reduced thermal stress in roofing materials, which extends their lifetime• Acoustic insulation from the additional roof mass• A natural habitat for species is created in an often otherwise hostile urban

environment• Up to 50% reduction in rain water discharge from roofs due to vegetation retention

and evapo-transpiration of water• Reduction of the urban heat island effect through the absorption of solar radiation

by vegetation• Replacement of green space lost to the building’s footprint

3.3.2 Wind

Wind velocities have a significant impact on thermal comfort in urban microclimates.Although average wind velocities in cities can be as little as 50% of those over openwater, tall buildings separated by open spaces can create local turbulence withimplications for driving rain and drifting snow.

In cool climates and locations subject to high winds, vegetation can be used as a windbreak, reducing excessive wind speeds, yet allowing enough air flow through externalspaces. Dense planting around narrow openings in the urban fabric will mitigatewind-tunnel effects, impede the movement of dust and improve thermal comfort withinsurrounding buildings by reducing fabric heat transfer and infiltration.

To reduce wind speeds so to provide shelter:

• Configure buildings to give wind protection without creating tunnels• Use wind shelter belts (vegetation or architectural elements) to provide protection

from prevailing winds• Plant a mixture of high- and low-branching trees and shrubs, to reduce wind speeds

at different levels• Provide protected public spaces, using earth berms or changes in ground levels, for

example

45º 45º

N

GREEN SPACE ACCESSROAD

HOUSE AND GARDEN BUFFERSPACE

MAJOR ROAD

Winter sun

Planting and landscaping act as insulation and shelters against motorway noise and pollution, and prevailing winds.

Gardens and living spaces are orientedsouth to maximise light and heat to livingareas and to garden.

Service and circulation spaces are to the north of the house and act as thermal buffers.

Green spaces provide shelter, shade and a more pleasant environment.

Deciduous planting provides shade in summer and allows light to penetrate in winter

Prevailing winds

Swiss municipalities are encouragingthe planting of existing flat roofs. InBern, a law has been introducedrequiring the provision of plantedroofs on all new construction orexisting buildings undergoing retro-fitting.

Roof ponds are an alternative toplanted roofs, covering entire roofsurfaces or incorporated within roofgardens, especially in warm climates.They provide a thermal mass whichhelps stabilise roof temperatures,and, through evaporation of thewater, provides cooling.

Turbulant wind conditions around tallbuildings.

Selective tree siting to maintain solaraccess.

Green roofs, Vienna.

13

To increase wind speeds, promoting natural ventilation:

• Use vegetation, architectural elements (screens, walls, buildings) and configurationof streets and buildings to direct prevailing winds where needed while notobstructing desirable summer air flows

• Limit the use of low-branching trees and shrubs• Locate public spaces where they will benefit from katabatic air flows down valleys

and slopes

3.3.3 Temperature

Evaporative cooling has been used to reduce temperatures locally in SouthernEuropean countries for centuries, from the Gardens of Alhambra to the 1992 SevilleEXPO. Water evaporation absorbs a considerable amount of heat energy – 590calories per cubic cm of water evaporated.

Direct evaporation of water raises the moisture content of surrounding air, from bodiesof water, fountains or evapo-transpiration of vegetation, inducing cooling of the airand adjacent surfaces.

Passive direct evaporation strategies at an urban scale can be achieved by simplemeans, such as the provision of vegetation, fountains or ponds in public spaces, or bymore complex means such as water towers. When using evaporation in hot climatesan expansive surface of water is not needed but natural ventilation should be designedto avoid problems with increased humidity levels. Indirect evaporation avoidsproblems with humidity levels and does not require as high a velocity of air flow asdirect systems, although its use often entails a greater level of planning, design andequipment.

Due to the evaporation of water from vegetation, temperatures can be up to 10K lowerin urban parks than in surrounding densely built areas (see section 3.3.6). Alternatingdensely planted areas with open spaces enhances night cooling, by allowing thehumid air from around the vegetation to escape. Concentrated sources of heatproduction, e.g. kitchens or plant rooms, should be located near densely plantedareas.

The presence of a body of water will help to moderate temperature extremes due to itshigh thermal storage capacity. Evaporative cooling is most effective downwind of acool, dry air flow, seen in many traditional settlements in hot-arid climates whichfeature ponds or wetted surfaces placed along known air-paths. The temperature ofhard landscaping materials can be lowered when water is sprinkled, run over orthrough them. This is especially beneficial in built-up areas with large surfaces of heatretaining materials, exposed to high solar radiation.

To increase air temperatures at a site:

• Optimise solar exposure and create `sun traps’ on south-east to south-west facingsites

• Provide windbreaks to direct cold air flows away from open occupied spaces andbuildings

• Use dark coloured heat retaining materials (concrete, masonry) on south facingsurfaces

Avoid large flank walls facingdominant wind

Orientate long axis parallel to dominant wind

Avoid funnel-like gaps between buildings

Avoid long, parallel rows of smooth faced buildings.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Opportunities for integrating vege-tation within urban developments: • Public and semi-public open

spaces: plazas, squares, court-yards, passageways, arcades and other spaces between buildings at ground level

• Private gardens, courtyards,building plots and allotments

• Alongside roads, paved streets,pedestrian streets, motorways

• Down the centre of roads andmotorways

• Roof gardens• Pergolas• Planted roofs• Planting applied to vertical

building surfaces as ‘organic’facades

Landscaping elements used to obstruct the path of the winter wind through public spaces

By placing trees along promenade,wind tunnelling is avoided andsummer evaporative cooling is provided creating a protected microclimate.

evaporative coolingfrom river

Urban heat stored in landscaping mass dissipates, and is replaced with cooled external air, thus inducing natural ventilation in buildings.

Evaporative cooling, Sydney.

Evaporative cooling, EXPO’ 92, Seville.

To decrease air temperatures:

• Use vegatation for solar shading, particularly in summer• Site any wind shelter belts to avoid impeding air flows, use only branching trees• Provide measures for evaporative cooling• Limit the amount of exposed hard landscaping materials and use ground cover

vegetation extensively

3.3.4 Relative Humidity

In landscaped urban areas the evapo-transpiration process of plants influences therelative humidity and air temperature. Relative humidities under planting or densetrees can be 3% to 10% higher than in unplanted areas [10]. As the level ofevaporation is directly proportional to the density of vegetation, leaf surface-to-airtemperature and relative humidity of the air, effects are greatest in hot dry summers,and least in winter.

Studies have shown that for mid-European latitudes, if at least 20% of an urban areais planted, more solar radiation is used to evaporate water on the leaves of the plantsthan to raise the temperature of the air, providing an effective natural cooling strategy.[9].

3.3.5 Air Quality

Plants and soil survive through the exchange of light, water and gases. In areas whereair quality is poor, many species of vegetation can absorb substantial levels of commonurban pollutants such as CO2, NOx, SO2. Some plants are not only resistant to airpollution, but can significantly improve the local air quality by filtering particulatematter from the air through their leaves. A Douglas Fir, for example, with a trunkdiameter of 38cm can remove 19.7kg of sulphur dioxide per annum, without damageto itself, where atmospheric pollution is around 0.25 p.p.m. [9]. Deciduous trees havethe added advantage of a seasonal replenishment of their leaf supply, with which tofilter the air. Consider planting near or downwind from sources of dust or pollutionsuch as motorways and dry and dusty ground surfaces.

3.3.6 Case Study – EXPO’ 92, Seville

One of the main aims of the designers of the 1992 Seville EXPO was to provide acomfortable external environment in which the estimated 290,000 visitors per daycould relax between visits to over a hundred international pavilions on the site. Thearea of the EXPO site was 215 hectares with pavilions taking up an area of 50hectares, leaving three quarters of the site as external spaces.

A master plan was devised for EXPO ’92 by a team of architects, planners and localauthorities which established criteria to achieve a bio-climatic, ecological frameworkfor the development. Fundamental to the development was the provision of the mostcomfortable external conditions possible through natural and passive coolingmeasures using vegetation and water. Extensive planting of vegetation took place veryearly in the process to provide sufficient time for plant growth before the opening ofEXPO. The pavilions were grouped to allow the public open spaces to give a sense ofunity to the site while providing external spaces for restaurants, meeting and restingareas which could be bio-climatically controlled. Reductions in outdoor airtemperatures of up to 10K were claimed.

The ratio of soft to hard landscaping was proposed at 60:40, with vegetationintegrated with the built areas as much as possible. Vegetation species of differentheights were used to maximise the filtration of air at different levels. Planted screenswere designed to channel prevailing winds into the site, enhancing their cooling.Water was used throughout the site in fountains, water walls, sprays, cascades, ponds.

Studies prior to the construction of the EXPO, and further in-use assessments haveshown that comfortable external environments were achieved by the natural meansdescribed above when climatic conditions in Seville remained below the followinglevels:

14

To increase humidity at a site:• Increase the water retention of

surfaces and reduce drainage• Provide a means of evaporative

cooling using fountains, ponds,sprinklers and sprays for example

• Use vegetation in preference tohard landscaping materials wherepossible

• Use low planting to reducemoisture evaporation from ground

Over one day, a single, large tree cantranspire 450 litres, diverting230,000 Kcal of energy away fromraising air temperatures, equivalentto five average air-conditioner unitsrunning for 19 hours each. [9]

• Vegetation absorbs ozone, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and other polutants, reducing theamounts present in the atmos-phere

• Soil micro-organisms are part-icularly effective in contributing tothe conversion of carbon mono-xide to carbon dioxide

• Plants placed at roadsides releaseoxygen which combines withnitrogen oxide to form nitrogendioxide, which is again absorbedby plants

Bio-climatically controlled externalspaces, EXPO’ 92, Seville.

Relative humidity 40% and Max. temperature = 36°CRelative humidity 60% and Max. temperature = 30°C*

*with minimum wind speeds of 1m/second.

3.4 BUILDINGS

3.4.1 Building Materials

A building’s envelope not only acts as a climatic filter determining internal comfort but,due to its thermal mass, solar reflectance and transmittance, also influences thermaland visual comfort conditions in adjacent external spaces.

Building materials exposed to direct solar radiation will store this as heat which isreleased after a time period depending on the reflectance and heat storage capacityof the material. At an urban level this can be an advantage in contexts where adelayed release of stored heat will benefit external spaces used in the evening time. Inhot climates, light coloured, reflective surfaces are preferable for reducing the heatgain of a structure by day, but care should be taken to reduce exposure to glarecaused by light reflected off these surfaces, and glass facades in particular.

Using dark coloured finishes to reduce glare may result in an increase in the solar heatgain of the structure, which can in turn increase the cooling load of the building. Theuse of vegetation and architectural features to providing shade in such situations maybe more appropriate. Vertical and horizontal shading can shield large surfaces of afacade, offering solar, wind and rain protection. In cold climates where solar heat gainby day is beneficial for evening heat release, south facing walls can be covered withdeciduous vegetation to avoid obstructing desirable solar gain in winter.

Conventional dark coloured roof finishes (asphalt, PVC, EPDM) absorb large amountsof solar radiation especially in summer. Lighter coloured or reflective finishes, grassedroofs and roof gardens can significantly mitigate heat gain.

3.4.2 Building Form and Construction

Optimum building forms vary according to climatic parameters and can have aprofound impact on the form of urban spaces. In all climates, building design shouldaim to maximise daylighting, energy conservation, and shelter (solar or wind shelter,depending on the climate). In general compact building forms are preferable. Byminimising the surface to volume ratio, heat losses and gains can also be minimised.

Building construction with a high thermal mass can be beneficial in both cool and hotclimates. The thermal stabilty provided by high mass construction contributes to slowerheat transfer in hot dry climates, while in cooler climates, solid construction exposedto winter sun can act as a heat sink.

The use of light colours on external finishes reduces thermal gains in buildingenvelopes, but consideration should be made to avoid problems with glare.

15

Strategies used for microclimatecontrol throughout the EXPO ’92 siteinclude the design of:

• Vegetation• Shading• Ventilation• Water evaporation• Thermal inertia of the ground,

landscaping features• Heat dissipation systems• Air filtration systems

In general, construction materialsshould be:

• appropriate to the climate• preferably indigenous• of low embodied-energy• recycled, recyclable, non-toxic• dependant on local skills

BUFFER SPACESHallways, Storage, Stairs, etc.

WorkshopBath

Bedroom LivingArea

Kitchen /Dining

Bath

Bedroom

S

N

EXPO ’92, Seville.

Appropriate light-coloured reflectivefacade in hot climate.

Location of indoor spaces.

Shaded pedestrian routes, EXPO ’92, Seville.

Buildings should be designed to encourage natural ventilation in the summer monthswhile providing wind shelter in winter.

Zoning rooms to provide thermal buffers can benefit both hot and cool climates. InNorthern European climates, buffer zones located to the north of buildings preventexcessive heat loss, while in the warmer southern European climates uninhabitedrooms to the west of buildings provides a thermal buffer against low afternoon sun.

3.4.3 Case Study - GREEN City; Radstadt, Austria

The European GREEN (Global Renewable Energy and Environmentally responsibleNeighbourhoods) Cities project, supported by the EU Thermie programme, includedeleven low-energy residential projects in seven EU Member States: Austria; Belgium;Denmark; France; Italy; Spain and the UK, and involves the planned construction ofover 900 new dwellings.

The main purpose is twofold: to initiate low-energy and environmentally sound house-building practice in these cities using best available technologies in new-build andretrofit projects based on energy and environmental assessment; and to provideinformation and demonstration of this practice for city authorities, builders andconsultants. A special design tool was developed and is being used throughout theproject, which assesses, from an economic viewpoint, the implementation of differentenergy-saving measures in the new and retrofitted buildings.

Some of the sustainable building measures to be carried out include:

• Reduced ventilation rates achieved by improved ventilation design and the use of low-emissivity building materials

• Integrated solar heating design, PV solar energy for ventilation and optimisedenergy supply systems with an Energy Management Control System

• Sustainable low energy design which aims for:- 40 – 60% energy savings for space heating and hot water- 30% saving on electricity use- 30 – 40% saving on water usage

• Monitoring programmes which will be carried out for all the projects

In the 13th century city of Radstadt, fifty new dwellings were planned, of which thirty-six have been completed. This solar low-energy development has become a modelresidential area, giving new identity and an improved quality of life to one of the oldestparts of Radstadt.

Optimisation of the micro-climate and passive solar design were major objectives insite selection and building orientation. A primary aim was to minimise the total energyconsumption for both construction and operation of the buildings. Life-cycleenvironmental impacts of ten construction methods and heating systems wereundertaken to determine the most cost-effective, environmentally acceptable systems. To achieve low-energy buildings standards, the walls to the north, west and east areconstructed of brick cavity walls with 160mm insulation, and to the south of lightweighttimber construction. The design U-values of 0.2 W/m2K for walls and 0.7 W/m2K forwindows respectively indicate the high thermal standards applied.

The project is served by 108m2 of solar collectors for hot water, while a wood-chipfuelled district heating system and a heat recovery ventilation system help ensure lowenergy consumption. The total energy consumption for heating and domestic hot waterfor an average multi-family house is 76kWh/m2/yr; 14kWh/m2/yr provided by solarenergy and 62kWh/m2/yr by biomass.

3.5 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

3.5.1Energy and Resource Management

The efficient management of energy and other resources is of great importance in anysustainable urban design strategy. Minimisation of activities and functions that wasteenergy and resources is a primary consideration where effective action can result in amuch smaller energy and resource supply task.16

GREEN City Project PlanningPrinciples• Sustainable urban planning• Sustainable and healthy building

design• Energy and environmental

assessment• Optimised energy and water

supply systems• Building-integrated solar energy

design

Waste management strategy:1. Reduce waste at source2. Sort wastes3. Re-use/re-cycle4. Dispose of waste safely[11]

In all climate zones it is beneficial tozone activities within buildingsaccording to solar and windexposure, daily and seasonal occu-pancy.

Cavity wall construction, Radstadt.

Light-weight timber construction,Radstadt.

17

While energy and resource optimisation at the scale of the individual building or otherfacility is important and the cumulative effects of such measures can be large, thereare many energy and resource supply measures that are often best undertaken at anurban scale including: district heating systems; large-scale photovoltaic energygeneration; large-scale combined heat and power production (eg using biomass as afuel), wind power, and hydro-electric power production.

3.5.2 Waste Management

The provision of adequate storage is necessary for different categories of waste,particularly for domestic waste in high density residential developments. This includesrecycling collection points and communal waste-disposal areas. Particular attentionshould be paid to construction wastes and the potential for re-use of materials rangingfrom formwork to top-soil. Designated access routes of adequate dimensions for wastecollection vehicles must be provided. Strategies for as much on-site treatment of wasteas possible should be established, to reduce transportation energy costs and minimiselandfill.

Communal strategies for waste collection and treatment must be managed properlyand supported by a large enough population for the process to be feasible. Forexample, the scale of waste combustion operations must be large enough to meet thecost of efficient, environmentally acceptable waste treatment equipment and controlswhich minimise the level of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere.

3.5.3 Water Management

Strategies with regard to water use should promote sustainable water management,reduced consumption, water conservation, and the re-use and efficient treatment ofwater. Efficient removal of surface water (street drainage) and the high run-offcoefficients of hard landscaping materials in contemporary cities reduce the amountof water retained on or in the ground with effects on drainage, vegetation, soil stabilityand oppurtunities for natural cooling through evaporation. Whilst the use of waterfeatures (fountains, ponds) for natural cooling is most effective in high temperatures,increasing ground water retention within urban areas will be of benefit in mostclimates by addressing the important issue of water management.

Typically, households require 30 to 50cubic metres of water per person peryear for direct domestic consumptionalone. [12]

Volume of waterused by...

...2 persons living in 40 m2 apt. per year

100 m3

Accidental spillage

Leaky sewerWell

River

Refuse dump

Leaking storage container Waste incinerator

Polluted groundwater

Water table

Septic Tanks

Water channeling as design feature,Copenhagen.

Photovoltaic application.

The principle of a CHP plant.

Reed bed, Earth Centre, Doncaster.

Impact of poor waste handling on water resources.

18

It is important to establish an efficient water conservation system. Even in countrieswith high rainfall, due to the inadequate provision of water storage, water shortagesmay occur during prolonged dry weather. A comprehensive analysis of precipitationand evaporation data for a site should be carried out at the early stages of a project.

Rainwater Storage Strategies• Below ground

Underground tanks and lakes, effectively acting as thermal heat sinks, contribute tonatural cooling within the immediate microclimate

• Above ground- Lakes, canals and reservoirs can collect rainwater whilst providing areas of

natural habitats and amenity- Rivers and canals can form the edge of landscaped pedestrian routes,

introducing a greater variety of vegetation into urban areas- Roadways and pavements can be designed to incorporate rainwater retention

and infiltration systems e.g. using protected channels and soakaways to createsmall water-courses along urban routes

Rainwater collected and stored may then be used for irrigation and other purposes,where water of potable quality is not required.

3.5.4 Light Pollution

Measures to reduce light pollution in urban areas:

• Reduce the use of non-essential lighting (turn off neon signage or shop-windowdisplays in the early hours of the morning for example)

• Where lighting is required for emergency, security or operational reasons, useenergy efficient luminaires of the minimum necessary wattage and, where possible,shield fittings to avoid light spillage

• Infrared motion-sensor lights are successful in security applications and help toreduce electricity consumption

• On public roads, uniform lighting with a low glare co-efficient and fully shieldedfixtures effectively pointed downwards reduce light pollution and through moreefficient lighting, can provide safer road conditions

Low pressure sodium lighting is one of the most efficient light sources and has a lowoperating cost. The bright yellow monochromatic light causes less glare than mercuryvapour lamps which are commonly used for all-night lighting.

3.5.5 Case Study – EXPO 2000 Kronsberg, Hannover

An energy target has been set for the Kronsberg development, to reduce CO2

emissions by up to 60% through savings on heating, hot-water and electricity, but withno reduction in comfort. This will be achieved by optimising energy use in low-energyhousing and the incorporation of renewable energy sources and innovativetechnolgies. A standard ‘Low Energy House’ in Germany has an energy requirementof 70–100 kWh/m2/yr. At Kronsberg, a maximum level of 55 kWh/m2/yr wasestablished. Specific energy-efficient construction methods and the use ofenvironmentally sound building materials are mandatory. All buildings are to be linkedto a district heating system.

In the Solar City part of the development, 100 passive solar dwellings and a children’sday-centre are to draw half of their heating requirements from active solar energy andthe other half from the district heating network. Another 32 dwellings are to beconstructed as ‘passive solar houses’ to demonstrate a building standard that willenable the space heating to be reduced to 15–20 kWh/m2/yr while significantlyreducing energy needs for hot water and household appliances.

A district co-generation plant will produce power and heat with reduced emissions.Photovoltaic cells installed on the roofs of the primary school and the community anddistrict arts centres produce power for these buildings. Two wind turbines have beenerected which will supply the electricity needs of 3,000 dwellings.

Sky glow at night.

Low-energy housing, Kronsberg.

Wind turbine, Kronsberg.

Fresh water, Brazil.

Canal, Lucca.

19

Waste Management ConceptHigh priority is given in Kronsberg to waste-minimisation strategies. Strategies forminimising construction waste as well as household, commercial and industrial waste,were developed.

Construction waste makes up 40% by weight of Hannover’s waste. The Cityadministration has made regulations obliging property developers to chooseenvironmentally friendly materials, low waste building methods, and materials that canbe recycled. The on-site sorting of building waste for reuse, is supported by HannoverWaste management.

Waste avoidance is the key principle in household waste management. Retailers willminimise packaging, and the nearby Kronsberg Farm will sell its produce directly inthe district. Pre-sorting of household waste into organic matter, paper, glass andpackaging will facilitate recycling. Organic matter may be composted by eachhousehold, with help and advice from the Hannover Waste management andKronsberg Environmental Liason Agency. Recycling banks near dwellings willsubstantially reduce waste collection (by about 75%) and will subsequently reducehouseholders’ waste collection charges.

Water Management ConceptThe water management strategy for Kronsberg comprises three main principles: • rainwater management • reduction in potable water use• awareness-raising programmes

Rainwater from hard-landscaped areas is collected, filtered and redirected into thewater features on site in a “Mulden-Rigolen-System”. In the community centre andschool, rainwater is reused for flushing toilets, watering gardens and green areas. Allnew houses will be equipped with water-saving fittings (flow restricters and pressureregulators), contributing to an estimated reduction in drinking water use of about 26litres per person per year.

Residents are encouraged to save potable water. A public awareness campaign,incorporating exhibitions, leaflets and brochures, will promote water-saving strategiesfor residents. Training for water engineers and school teachers will also be provided.

The value of water will be emphasised through school projects by primary schoolchildren. All the rainwater falling in the school grounds and from the grassed roof ofthe school will be collected and used for flushing toilets and to water the schoolgarden.

General Water Strategies:

• Follow natural drainage paths as closely as possible• Minimise the use of impervious ground surfaces• Facilitate the absorption of rainwater in the cleanest condition possible• Provide for collection and storage of rainwater for irrigation and other uses• Consider on-site treatment of grey water

Infiltration Strategy - the Mulden-Rigolen System:

• Rainwater falls towards open gulleys, which run alongside roadways andpavements, and is channelled into a grassed-over hollow (mulde) which acts as afilter

• Beneath the hollow runs a pebble-filled underground storage basin (rigole) intowhich the water seeps

• Some of the water is allowed to seep back into the ground to maintain the watertable level

• The rainwater is gradually released from the basin into surrounding retention areasvia a drainage pipe with a restricted-flow outlet

Retention Strategy:

• Most of the water leaves the site at this stage, via the existing stream which runsthrough the site. Some of the filtered rainwater is collected in retention basins andfed to points of use for toilet flushing and irrigating landscaped areas

Sorting of construction waste.

Composting of organic waste.

Water conservation project.

Public awareness campaign.

Water retention area.

20

3.6 TRANSPORT

Whilst patterns of movement are influential in defining and sustaining a city,particularly in terms of integrating different areas within an urban settlement, modesof movement are a major source of environmental and social degradation, due tovehicle emissions and the loss of land to roads and parking facilities.

An increase in ‘sustainable mobility’ is needed. ‘Sustainable mobility’ is the facilitationof transport which fulfils its economic and social functions while limiting its detrimentaleffect on the environment. This includes design and planning strategies which supportand promote less environmentally damaging transport systems for people and goods.Often, this may involve urban zoning to reduce travel distances and the provision offacilities which encourage low or zero energy modes of transport.

3.6.1 Urban traffic control

Developments should be planned and designed according to a road managementhierarchy primarily favouring pedestrians and cyclists.

Planning

Development should be:• located around or close to public transport nodes and frequently used routes• planned around a network of pedestrian routes and footpaths which encourage

walking and cycling by minimising distances between frequented facilities• served by an efficient low-emission public transport network with stations planned

to facilitate minimum walking distances, and measures to reduce traffic speeds(traffic calming) outside of established transport corridors

• provided with an infrastructure of ample cycle parks, sheltered bus stops and theminimum necessary car parking spaces

Energy used in transportation. [14]

Strategies to reduce private car use will be most beneficial and successful in mixed-usedevelopments where alternative modes of transport can be offered i.e. an efficientlyrun public transport network.

Design

Pedestrian routes should be safe, attractive, and easy to use. The following issuesshould be considered:• seasonal solar shading or access depending on the climate• shelter from wind, driving rain and snow• landscaping materials• energy-efficient street lighting of minimum wattage and with shielded fixtures

3.6.2 Renewable vehicle fuels

Renewable vehicle fuels have a range of benefits, including lower emissions, andunlimited supply when compared with conventional fossil fuels. Biodiesel fuels such asRME, a product of rapeseed oil, offer the benefits of a renewable energy source whosepollutant emissions may be eliminated using vehicles equipped with catalyticconverters.

Tim

e i

n m

inu

tes

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

1 100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12

Distance in km

Pedestrian Bus Bicycle Car

Underground

10km+ faster by underground (or lightrail)

< 450m faster to walk

< 250m faster to walk

< 4500m faster by bicycle

Some European car parkingrequirements

spaces perdwelling

UK & Ireland-standard 1.5 Germany-standard 1.0 Kronsberg, Hannover 0.8 DWM Terrain, Amsterdam 0.3

Alternative fuels for vehicles:

DME DiMethyl EsterRME RapsMethyl EsterBiogasEthanolElectricity

Incentives for using ‘low-energy /zero-emission public transport’:• Cycle-path networks integrated

with urban planning policies• Providing municipal bicycles and

low-energy vehicles for hire• Adequate charging / fuelling

stations for electric and biodieselvehicles

• Restricted access for private carswithin city centres and environ-mentally sensitive sites

• Public awareness campaigns andincentives

Travel times from door to door fordifferent modes of transport in urbanareas. [11]

Internal street network favourspedestrians and cyclists, Kronsberg.

3.6.3 Information systems and telematics

Technology has its part to play in improving urban transport networks, and manyexamples of its use in increasing the efficiency of public transport can be found acrossEurope. Advanced Transport Telematics (ATT), the transmission of computerisedinformation over long distances, is used for giving priority to buses at traffic lights, ordata to passengers, for example.

Road management systems which improve the efficiency of public transport andreduce private car use include co-ordinated fares, and road charges based on caruse. Microprocessor chips and smart cards can be used to track municipally-ownedbicycles and low-energy vehicles available for hire.

3.6.4 Case Study – Copenhagen Free Bike Scheme

Greater Copenhagen has 1.7 million inhabitants, with 480,000 people living in themunicipality of Copenhagen. Approximately one third of commuters in Copenhagentravel to work by bicycle, a third by public transport and a third by private car. TheCity of Copenhagen has an extensive network of bicycle tracks throughout the city. Toencourage the use of bicycles in the city, the “Free-of-Charge City Bikes Project” waslaunched in 1994, and today there are 2,500 free City Bikes in the streets.

City-Bikes are available from numerous City-Bike racks throughout the city, for anominal deposit. The bikes are available from April to December. In December theyare collected, repaired and stored during the winter. The City-Bikes can only be usedin the city centre, as specified on maps provided at each City-Bike rack. After use, theCity-Bike can be locked at any City-Bike rack and the deposit is returned. The bike canbe used for an unlimited time, but can only be locked at a City-Bike rack with thespecial lock provided. In this way, City-Bikes are kept in circulation continuously.

3.6.5 Case Study – ZEUS in Bremen

The THERMIE Integrated Quality Targeted Project ZEUS, (Zero and low Emissionvehicles in Urban Society) involves a consortium of organisations active in theprocurement of such vehicles in eight European cities.

Cost and availability factors such as pricing, lack of fuelling and charginginfrastructure, and lack of maintenance facilities, all contribute to limiting the use ofzero and low emission vehicles. The aim of ZEUS is to demonstrate the role thatEuropean city and regional bodies can play in overcoming these market obstacles.The aim is also to generate wider interest in zero and low emission vehicles amonglarge fleet operators, public transport and taxi services in participating cities, andallow such groups the benefits of lower prices by the procurement of these vehiclesthrough ZEUS.

The consortium is putting into service more than 1,200 low or zero emissions vehicles,of which more than 150 buses will use alternative fuels and PV generated electricvehicles. It is expected to save more than 4,600 tonnes oil equivalent annually, and toreduce CO2 emissions by 14,200 tonnes, CO emissions by 300 tonnes and NOxemissions by 115 tonnes.

Car-share, Bremen, Germany

As partner in the ZEUS project, Bremen has developed an efficient intermodal mobilityservice; a combination of public transport and an extensive car sharing system. Thisservice offers a high level of flexibility and new options for reducing and adapting caruse. Key technologies are modern telematics as well as the AUTOCARD car rentalsystem.

AUTOCARD members pay an annual fee of 30 Euros and are then only charged foractual costs based on the type of car used and kilometres driven. The prices for fivedifferent car categories vary from 1,2 Euro/h to 4,4 Euro/h. There are no extra costsfor insurance and petrol. Special prices apply to cars hired for a full day or week.Users of small cars pay no charge between 11.00 pm and 7.00 am. The AUTOCARDincorporates an integrated computer chip, allowing it to be used as a personal car key.Users can collect a car at one of 28 public traffic nodes in Bremen. Cars may bebooked at any time and when returning the car, a parking space is always available.

21

City bikes project, Copenhagen.

Zeus car sharing system, Bremen.

22

4. SELECTED DESIGN TOOLS

The complexity of urban design, which incorporates several levels of analysis fromclimatic to cultural, geographic to geometric, is fundamental to the difficultiesencountered in the development of successful urban design tools.

A wide range of design tools is available to aid in the design of more energy-efficientbuildings. However, few tools have been developed to assess conditions in the urbanenvironment at city block or neighbourhood scale, or to predict the impact of proposedbuildings on an existing urban environment. Some design tools which address theenvironmental impact of a proposed development on surrounding areas are outlinedbelow.

ZEIS

Sustainability Indicators are methods of analysis which attempt to quantify the manylevels of environmental, social and economic impact of concern in urban design. Theaim of urban sustainability indicators is to analyse an urban complex in terms of itsenvironmental impacts. These impacts can be described broadly as inputs and outputs.Inputs refer to a city’s resource consumption, outputs refer to its by-products, wastes orgoods manufactured. ZEIS is a prototype for a computer aided urban design tool.Within six main categories (Energy, Emissions, Buildings, Transport, Services, andEnvironment), the programme has established approximately 100 criteria forsustainability.

Developed by: L’Ecole d’Architecture de Toulouse, France.

Canyon

Canyon is a tool developed to calculate the dynamic evolution of ambient air in urbanstreet configurations. The tool calculates the thermal balance in the street, taking intoaccount short and long wave radiation, as well as other transfer phenomenaassociated with materials and components in the street.

Developed by: Group Building Environmental Physics, University of Athens, Greece

CPCALC

CPCALC is a tool developed to calculate the air pressure distribution around buildings.The programme is designed for a large number of building configurations.

Developed by: Polytecnico di Torino, Italy

TownscopeTownscope II assesses thermal comfort, critical wind discomfort risk and perceptivequalities of urban open space, and provides an integrated multi-criteria decisionmodule to rank various alternative proposals.

Developed by: University of Liège, Belgium

URBAN SUSTAINABILITYENERGY

TRANSPORT

SERVICES

ENVIRONMENT

BUILDING EMISSIONS

RenewableEnergy

Incineration

Building

Transport

Industry

Water

GreyWater

Waste

PublicLighting

Health

Recycling

Waste

Lectures

Water

Education

PublicLighting

GreyWater

Shopping

SolidCompon. Sound

Discomfort

ChemicalCompon.

NaturalRisks Industrial

Risks

Hydrology

NaturalZones

IndoorComfort

BuildingQualityBuilding

FormNeighbour-hood

UrbanPattern

ParkingPublicTransport

PrivateTransport

PedestrianRoads

Road Syst.Efficiency

DOMAIN CRITERIA

5. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future,(The Bruntland Report), 1987

[6] Alcock R, King C, Lewis J O, Solar Thermal Systems in Europe, EC DG XVII, ESIF, 1998

[9] Hough M, Cities and Natural Process, Routledge, 1995

[10] Mascaro L, Urban Environment / Ambiencia Urbana, Sagra-Luzzatto, 1996

[11] O’Cofaigh E, Fitzgerald E, Lewis J O, A Green Vitruvius - Principles and Practice ofSustainable Architectural Design, James and James, 1999

[12] Sevilla A, Landabaso A, Present Tools to Shape Sustainable Cities, Geohabitat, 1998

[13] Barton H, Sustainable Settlements - a Guide for Planners, Designers and Developers, Bristol;Luton; University of the West of England; Local Government Management Board,1995

[14] Vilanove R, The Balearic Islands shaping the 21st century, The Balearic Government, 1998

Benstem A, Wenau A, Hannover Kronsberg: Model of a Sustainable New Urban Community,Kronsberg Environmental Liaison Agency GmbH (KUKA) and the City of Hannover, revisedversion 1998

Daniels K, The Technology of Ecological Building, Birkhåuser Verlag 1997

DETR, UK, Building a Sustainable Future - Homes for an Autonomous Community, Best PracticeProgramme, General Information Report 53, 1998

Givoni B, Climate Considerations in Building and Urban Design, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1998

Gleiniger A, Paris - Contemporary Architecture, Prestel, 1997

Herzog T, Solar Energy in Architecture and Urban Planning, Prestel Verlag, 1996

Lloyd Jones D, Hudson J, Architecture and the Environment - Bioclimatic Building Design,Laurence King, 1998

Lopez de Asiain J, Arquitectura 5, Open Spaces of Expo ’92, The Superior Technical School ofArchitecture of Seville (ETSAS), 1997

McNicholl A, Lewis J O, Green Design - Sustainable Building for Ireland, Stationary Office, 1996

O’Cofaigh E, Olley J, Lewis J O, The Climatic Dwelling, EC DG XII, James and James, 1996

Olgyay V, Design With Climate: A Bioclimatic Approach To Architectural Regionalism, VanNostrand Reinhold, 1992

Passive Solar Design Studies Project Summary 045, Estate Layout For Passive Solar HousingDesign, UK Dept. of Energy Contractors Report, Reprint Dec.1990

Rogers R, Gumuchdjian P, Cities For a Small Planet, Faber and Faber, 1997

Urban Technologies Sectoral Report 1995–1997, EC DG XVII Thermie publication, 1998

White R, Urban Environmental Management, John Wiley and Sons, 1996

Articles

[7] Dodd J, Landscaping To Save Energy: The Protective Landscape, Architects Journal, July 1993

Battle G, McCarthy C, Dynamic Cities, Architectural Design, 1996

Battle G, McCarthy C, Landscape Sustained by Nature, Architectural Design, 1994

Battle G, McCarthy C, The Design of Sustainable New Towns, Architectural Design, 1994

Glass Dr. J, Keeping The Lid On Overheating, Concrete Quarterly, Winter 1998

Rogers R, Creating the Cities and Citizens of Tomorrow, Building Design, December 1998

23

Conference Papers

Environmentally Friendly Cities -Proceedings of PLEA ‘98 Lisbon,Portugal, James and James SciencePublishers Ltd, 1998

• [3] Viljoen A, Tardiveau A,Sustainable Cities and LandscapePatterns

• [5] Yannas S, Living with the City -Urban Design and EnvironmentalSustainability

• [8] Gomez F, Dominguez E,Salvador P, The Green Zones inBioclimatic Studies of theMediterranean City

• Gonçalves J, The EnvironmentalImpact of Tall Buildings in UrbanCentres

• Nikolopoulou M, Baker N,Steemers K, Thermal Comfort inOutdoor Urban Spaces

Solar Energy in Architecture andUrban Planning, 4th EuropeanConference, Berlin Germany 26–29March 1996, H.S. Stephens andAssociates, supported by theEuropean Commission, 1996

• Deabate M, Peretti G,Environmental Conscious UrbanRenewal in Turin (Italy)

Web Sites

[2] www.iclei.orgInternational Council for LocalEnvironmental Iniatives

[4] www.progress.org/What We Use and What We Have:Ecological Footprint and EcologicalCapacity

www.uia.org/uiares/reshum.htmExcessive Ecological FootprintEncyclopedia of World Problems andHuman Potential

www.ire.ubc.ca/ecoresearch/ecoftpr.htmlHow sustainable are our choices?

www.darksky.orgInternational Dark Sky Association

www.environment-agency.gov.ukEnvironment Acency, UK

www.urbed.co.ukSustainable Urban Neighbourhood

www.greendesign.net/greenclipsNASA takes aim at hot roofs

www.eurofound.ieThe European Foundation for theImprovement of Living and WorkingConditions

OPET NETWORK:ORGANISATIONS FOR THE PROMOTION OF ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

The network of Organisations for the Promotion of Energy Technologies (OPET], supported by the European Commission, helps to disseminate new, clean andefficient energy technology solutions emerging from the research, development and demonstration activities of ENERGIE and its predecessor programmes. Theactivities of OPET Members across all member states, and of OPET Associates covering key world regions, include conferences, seminars, workshops, exhibitions,publications and other information and promotional actions aimed at stimulating the transfer and exploitation of improved energy technologies. Full details can beobtained through the OPET internet website address http://www.cordis.lu/opet/home.html

OPET

ADEME27, rue Louis Vicat75737 Paris, FranceManager: Mr Yves Lambert Contact: Ms Florence Clement Telephone: +33.1-47 65 20 41Facsimile: +33.1-46 45 52 36E-mail: florence.clement@ademe.fr

ASTER-CESENVia Morgagni 440122 Bologna, ItalyManager: Ms Leda Bologni Contact: Ms Verdiana Bandini Telephone: +39.051-236242Facsimile: +39.051-227803E-mail: opet@aster.it

BEOBEO c/o Projekttraeger Biologie, Energie, UmweltForschungszentrum Juelich GmbH52425 Julich, GermanyManager: Mr Norbert Schacht Contact: Mrs Gillian GlazeTelephone: +49.2461-615 928Facsimile: +49.2461-612 880E-mail: g.glaze@fz-juelich.de

BRECSUBucknalls Lane, GarstonWD2 7JR Watford, UKManager: Mr Mike Trim Contact: Mr Mike TrimTelephone: +44.1923-664 754Facsimile: +44.1923-664 097E-mail: trimm@bre.co.uk

CCEEstrada de Alfragide, Praceta 12720 Alfragide, PortugalManager: Mr Luis Silva Contact: Mr Diogo BeiraoTelephone: +351.1-4722818Facsimile: +351.1-4722898E-mail: dmre.cce@mail.telepac.pt

CLER28 rue Basfroi75011 Paris, FranceManager: Ms Liliane Battais Contact: Mr Richard Loyen Telephone: +33.1-4659 0444Facsimile: +33.1-4659 0392E-mail: cler@worldnet.fr

CMPTExploration HouseOffshore Technology Park Aberdeen AB23 8GXUnited KingdomManager: Mr Jonathan Shackleton Contact Ms Jane Kennedy Telephone: +44.870-608 3440Facsimile: +44.870-608 3480E-mail: j.kennedy@cmpt.com

CORAAltenkesselerstrasse 1766115 Saarbrucken, GermanyManager: Mr Michael Brand Contact: Mr Nicola Sacca Telephone: +49.681-976 2174Facsimile: +49.681-976 2175E-mail: sacca@sea.sb.uunet.de

CRES19 km Marathonos Ave190 09 Pikermi, GreeceManager: Ms Maria Kontoni Contact: Ms Maria Kontoni Telephone: +30.1-603 9900Facsimile: +30.1-603 9911E-mail: mkontoni@cres.gr

Cross Border OPET- Bavaria-AustriaWieshuberstr. 393059 Regensburg, GermanyManager: Mr Johann Fenzl Contact: Mr Toni Lautenschlaeger Telephone: +49.941-46419-0Facsimile: +49.941-46419-10E-mail: fenzl.zreu@t-online.de

ENEA-ISNOVACR CasacciaS Maria di Galeria00060 Roma, ItalyManager: Mr Francesco Ciampa Contact: Ms Wen Guo Telephone: +39.06-3048 4118Facsimile: +39.06-3048 4447E-mail:enea_opet@casaccia.enea.it

Energy Centre DenmarkDTIP.O. Box 1412630 Taastrup, DenmarkManager: Mr Poul Kristensen Contact: Cross Border OPETBavaria Mr Nils DaugaardTelephone: +45.43-507 080Facsimile: +45.43-507 088E-mail: ecd@teknolgisk.dk

ETSUHarwellDidcotOX11 0RA OxfordshireUnited KingdomManager: Ms Cathy Durston Contact: Ms Lorraine Watling Telephone: +44.1235-432 014Facsimile: +44.1235-433 434E-mail: lorraine.watling@aeat.co.uk

EVEEdificio Albia I planta 14, C. San Vicente, 848001 Bilbao, SpainManager: Mr Juan Reig Giner Contact: Mr Guillermo Basanez

Telephone: +34.94-423 5050Facsimile: +34.94-435 5600E-mail: jreig@eve.es

FAST2, P. le R. Morandi20121 Milan, ItalyManager: Ms Paola Gabaldi Contact: Ms Debora BaroneTelephone: +39.02-7601 5672Facsimile: +39.02-782485E-mail: paola.gabaldi@fast.mi.it

ICAENAvinguda Diagonal, 453 bis, atic08036 Barcelona, SpainManager: Mr Joan Josep Escobar Contact: Mr Joan Josep Escobar Telephone: +34.93-439 2800Facsimile: +34.93-419 7253E-mail: edificis@icaen.es

ICEUAuenstrasse 2504105 Leipzig, GermanyManager: Mr Jörg MatthiesContact: Mrs Petra Seidler /

Mrs Sabine MärkerTelephone: +49.341-980 4969Facsimile: +49.341-980 3486E-mail: krause@iceu.manner.de

ICIEVia Velletri, 3500198 Roma, ItalyManager: Mariella MelchiorriContact: Rossella CeccarelliTelephone: +39.06-854 9141

+39.06-854 3467Facsimile: +39.06-855 0250E-mail: icie.rm@rm.icie.it

IDAEPaseo de la Castellana 95,planta 2128046 Madrid, SpainManager:Mr José Donoso Alonso Contact:Ms Virginia Vivanco Cohn Telephone: +34.91-456 5024Facsimile: +34.91-555 1389E-mail: vvivanco@idae.es

IMPIVAPlaza Ayuntamiento, 646002 Valencia, SpainManager: José-Carlos Garcia Contact: Joaquin Ortola Telephone: +34.96-398 6336Facsimile: +34.96-398 6201E-mail:ximo.ortola@impiva.m400.gva.es

Institut WallonBoulevard Frère Orban 45000 Namur, BelgiumManager: Mr Francis Ghigny

Contact: Mr Xavier DubuissonTelephone: +32.81-250 480Facsimile: +32.81-250 490E-mail:xavier.dubuisson@iwallon.be

Irish Energy CentreGlasnevinDublin 9, IrelandManager: Ms Rita Ward Contact: Ms Rita Ward Telephone: +353.1-808 2073Facsimile: +353.1-837 2848E-mail: opetiec@irish-energy.ie

LDK7, Sp. Triantafyllou St.113 61 Athens, GreeceManager:Mr Leonidas Damianidis Contact: Ms Marianna Kondilidou Telephone: +30.1-856 3181Facsimile: +30.1-856 3180E-mail: ldkopet@mail.hol.gr

NIFES8 Woodside TerraceG3 7UY Glasgow, UKManager: Mr Andrew Hannah Contact: Mr John SmithTelephone: +44.141-332 4140Facsimile: +44.141-332 4255E-mail: glasgow@nifes.co.uk.

NovemSwentiboldstraat 21P.O. Box 176130 AA Sittard, NetherlandsManager: Mr Theo Haanen Contact: Mrs Antoinette Deckers Telephone: +31.46-420 2326Facsimile: +31.46-452 8260E-mail: A.Deckers@Novem.nlT.Haanen@Novem.nl

NVEP.O. Box 5091, Majorstua0301 Oslo, NorwayManager: Mr Roar W. FjeldContact: Mr Roar W. Fjeld Telephone: +47.22-959 083Facsimile: +47.22-959 099E-mail: rwf@nve.no

OPET AustriaLinke Wienzeile 181060 Vienna, AustriaManager: Mr Günter SimaderContact: Mr Günter SimaderTelephone: +43.1-586 1524

ext 21Facsimile: +43.1-586 9488E-mail: simader@eva.wsr.at

OPET EMSwedish National EnergyAdministration

These data are subject to possible change. For further information, please contact the above internet website address or Fax +32.2-296 6016

c/o Institutet för framtidsstudierBox 591S- 101 31 Stockholm, SwedenManager: Ms Sonja EwersteinContact: Mr Anders HaakerTelephone: +46.70-648 6919/

+46.85-452 0388Facsimile: +46.8-245 014E-mail: sonja.ewerstein@stem.se.

OPET FinlandTechnology Development CentreTekesP.O. Box 69, Malminkatu 340101 Helsinki, FinlandManager: Ms Marjatta Aarniala Contact: Ms Marjatta Aarniala Telephone: +358.10-521 5736Facsimile: +358.10-521 5908E-mail: marjatta.aarniala@tekes.fi

OPET IsraelTel-Aviv University69978 Tel Aviv, IsraelManager: Mr Yair Sharan Contact: Mr Yair SharanTelephone: +972.3-640 7573Facsimile: +972.3-641 0193E-mail: sharany@post.tau.ac.il

OPET LuxembourgAvenue des Terres Rouges 14004 Esch-sur-AlzetteLuxembourgManager: Mr Jean Offermann(Agence de l’Energie] Contact: Mr Ralf Goldmann

[Luxcontrol] Telephone: +352.547-711 282Facsimile: +352.547-711 266E-mail: goldmann@luxcontrol.com

OPET BothniaNorrlandsgatan 13, Box 443901 09 Umea - Blaviksskolan910 60 Asele - SwedenManager: Ms France GouletTelephone: +46.90-163 709Facsimile: +46.90-193 719Contact: Mr Anders Lidholm Telephone: +46.941-108 33Facsimile: +46.70-632 5588E-mail: opet.venet@swipnet.se

OrkustofnunGrensasvegi 9IS-108 Reykjavik, IcelandManager: Mr Einar Tjörvi Eliasson Contact: Mr Einar Tjörvi Eliasson Telephone: +354.569 6105Facsimile: +354.568 8896E-mail: ete@os.is

CEEETA-PARTEXRua Gustavo de Matos Sequeira,28-1. Dt.1200-215 Lisboa, PortugalManager: Mr Aníbal Fernandes Contact: Mr Aníbal Fernandes Telephone: +351.1-395 6019Facsimile: +351.1-395 2490E-mail: ceeeta@ceeeta.pt

RARE50 rue Gustave Delory59800 Lille, FranceManager: Mr Pierre Sachse Contact: Mr Jean-Michel Poupart Telephone: +33.3-20 88 64 30Facsimile: +33.3-20 88 64 40E-mail: are@nordnet.fr

SODEANIsaac Newton s/nPabellón de Portugal - EdificoSODEAN41092 Sevilla, SpainManager:Mr Juan Antonio Barragán RicoContact:Ms Maria Luisa Borra Marcos Telephone: +34.95-446 0966Facsimile: +34.95-446 0628E-mail: mborra.sodean@sadiel.es

SOGESCorso Turati 4910128 Turin, ItalyManager:Mr Antonio Maria Barbero Contact: Mr Fernando Garzello Telephone: +39.011-319 0833

+39.011-318 6492Facsimile: +39.011-319 0292E-mail: opet@grupposoges.it

VTCBoeretang 2002400 Mol, BelgiumManager:Mr Hubert van den Bergh Contact: Ms Greet Vanuytsel Telephone: +32.14-335 822Facsimile: +32.14-321 185E-mail: opetvtc@vito.be

Wales OPET CymruDyfi EcoParcMachynllethSY20 8AX PowysUnited KingdomManager: Ms Janet Sanders Contact: Mr Rod Edwards Telephone: +44.1654-705 000Facsimile: +44.1654-703 000E-mail: opetdulas@gn.apc.org

Black Sea Regional EnergyCentre (BSREC]8, Triaditza Str.1040 Sofia, BulgariaManager: Dr L. RadulovContact: Dr L. RadulovTelephone: +359.2-980 6854Facsimile: +359.2-980 6855E-mail: ecsynkk@bsrec.bg

EC BREC - LEI FEMOPETc/o EC BREC/IBMERWarsaw Officeul. Rakowiecka 3202-532 Warsaw, PolandManager: Mr Krzysztof GierulskiContact: Mr Krzysztof GierulskiTelephone: +48.22-484 832Facsimile: +48.22-484 832E-mail: grewis@ibmer.waw.pl

Energy Centre Bratislavac/o SEI-EABajkalská 2782799 Bratislava, SlovakiaManager: Mr Michael WildContact: Mr Michael WildTelephone: +421.7-582 48 472Facsimile: +421.7-582 48 470E-mail: ecbratislava@ibm.net

Energy Centre HungaryKönyves Kálmán Körút 76H-1087 Budapest, HungaryManager: Mr Andras SzalókiContact: Mr Zoltan CsepigaTelephone: +36.1-313 4824/

+36.1-313 7837Facsimile: +36.1-303 9065E-mail: Andras.szalóki @energycentre.hu

Estonia FEMOPETEstonian Energy Research InstitutePaldiski mnt.1EE0001 Tallinn, EstoniaManager: Mr Villu VaresContact: Mr Rene TonnissonTelephone: +372.245 0303Facsimile: +372.631 1570E-mail: femopet@femopet.ee

FEMOPET LEI - LithuaniaLithuanian Energy Institute3 Breslaujos Str.3035 Kaunas, LithuaniaManager: Mr Romualdas SkemasContact: Mr Sigitas BartkusTelephone: +370.7-351 403Facsimile: +370.7-351 271E-mail: bartkus@isag.lei.lt

FEMOPET Poland KAPE-BAPE-GRAPEc/o KAPEul. Nowogrodzka 35/41 XII p.PL-00-950 Warsaw, PolandManager: Ms Marina CoeyContact: Ms Marina CoeyTelephone: +48.22-622 2794Facsimile: +48.22-622 4392E-mail: kape4@pol.pl

FEMOPET SloveniaJozef Stefan InstituteEnergy Efficiency CentreJamova 39SLO-1000 Ljubljana, SloveniaManager: Mr Boris SelanContact: Mr Tomaz FaturTelephone: +386.61-188 5210Facsimile: +386.61-161 2335E-mail: tomaz.fatur@ijs.si

Latvia FEMOPETc/o B.V. EKODOMA LtdZentenes Street 12-491069 Riga, LatviaManager: Ms Dagnija BlumbergaContact: Ms Dagnija BlumbergaTelephone: +371.721-05 97/

241 98 53Facsimile: +371.721-05 97/

241 98 53E-mail: ekodoma@mail.bkc.lv

OMIKKNational Technical InformationCentre and LibraryMuzeum Utca 17H-1088 Budapest, HungaryManager: Mr Gyula NyergesContact: Mr Gyula NyergesTelephone: +36.1-266 3123Facsimile: +36.1-338 2702E-mail: nyerges@omk.omikk.hu

FEMOPET Romania ENERO8, Energeticienilor Blvd.3, Bucharest 79619, RomaniaManager: Mr Alexandru FlorescuContact: Mr Christian TintareanuTelephone: +401.322 0917Facsimile: +401.322 2790E-mail: crit@mail.gsci.vsat.ro

Sofia Energy Centre Ltd51, James Boucher Blvd.1407 Sofia, BulgariaManager: Ms Violetta GrosevaContact: Ms Violetta GrosevaTelephone: +359.2-962 5158Facsimile: +359.2-681 461E-mail: ecencentre@enpro.bg

Technology Centre AS CRRozvojova 135165 02 Prague 6, Czech RepublicManager: Mr Karel KlusacekContact: Mr Radan PanacekTelephone: +420.2-203 90203Facsimile: +420.2-325 630E-mail: klusacek@tc.cas.cz

FEMOPET CyprusAndreas Araouzos, 61421 Nicosia, CyprusManager: Mr. Solon Kassinis Contact: Mr. Solon KassinisTelephone: +357.2-867140/

+357.2-305797Facsimile: +357.2-375120/

+357.2-305159E-mail: mcienerg@cytanet.com.cy

These data are subject to possible change. For further information, please contact the above internet website address or Fax +32.2-296 6016

FEMOPET

The overall objective of the European Union’s energy policy is to help ensure a sustainable energysystem for Europe’s citizens and businesses, by supporting and promoting secure energy supplies ofhigh service quality at competitive prices and in an environmentally compatible way. The EuropeanCommission Directorate-General Energy & Transport initiates, coordinates and manages energypolicy actions at transnational level in the fields of solid fuels, oil and gas, electricity, nuclear energy,renewable energy sources and the efficient use of energy. The most important actions concernmaintaining and enhancing security of energy supply and international cooperation, strengthening theintegrity of energy markets and promoting sustainable development in the energy field.

A central policy instrument is support and promotion of energy research, technological developmentand demonstration (RTD), principally through the ENERGIE sub-programme (jointly managed with theDirectorate-General Research) within the theme “Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development”under the European Union’s Fifth Framework Programme for RTD. This contributes to sustainabledevelopment by focusing on key activities crucial for social well-being and economic competitivenessin Europe.

Other programmes managed by Directorate-General Energy & Transport, such as SAVE, ALTENERand SYNERGY, focus on accelerating the market uptake of cleaner and more efficient energy systemsthrough legal, administrative, promotional and structural change measures on a trans-regional basis.As part of the wider Energy Framework Programme, they logically complement and reinforce theimpacts of ENERGIE.

The internet website address for the Fifth Framework Programme ishttp://www.cordis.lu/fp5/home.html

Further information on Directorate-General Energy & Transport activities is available at the internetwebsite addresshttp://europa.eu.int/en/comm/dg17/dg17home.htm

This maxibrochure is available for downloading as a pdf file at the internet website addresshttp://erg.ucd.ie/erg_downloads.html

The European CommissionEnergy & Transport Directorate-General200 Rue de la LoiB-1049 BrusselsBelgium

Faxsimile: +32.2-295 0577E-mail: info@bxl.dg17.cec.be

NOTICE TO THE READER

Extensive information on the European Union is available through the EUROPA serviceat internet website address http://europa.eu.int/