architectural marvels in chandigarh

FOUNDER-TEACHER AND PRINCIPAL (RETD), CHANDIGARH COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE; Published over 600 articles in India and abroad

FOUNDER, FIRST FRIDAY FORUM; Seminarian, Panelist, and Public Speaker CO-FOUNDER, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF INTERIOR DESIGNERS; Editor IIID Journal EX-SENATOR, AND DEAN, FACULTY OF DESIGN & FINE ARTS, PANJAB UNIVERSITY (1984-

1996); Authored books on Art, Criticism, Poetry, Theology, and Literary Critique FOUNDER, DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC, PANJAB UNIVERSITY; Singer, Composer, Lyricist,

Musicologist, and Critic THREE DOCTORATES ON: CHANDIGARH; GURU NANAK’S JAPUJI; and GOLDEN TEMPLE,

Amritsar; Melded Mysticism with Creativity in Architecture and Planning IIA (INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS) GOLD MEDAL FOR LIFETIME CONTRIBUTION TO

ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION; Author of B Arch Scheme adopted nationally M ARCH ON CHANDIGARH’S ROCK GARDEN, THE UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND,

AUSTRALIA; Pioneer of Architectural Research & Architectural Journalism in India HONOURED AS VETERAN ARTIST BY AIFACS [ALL INDIA FINE ARTS & CRAFTS SOCIETY];

Practising Artist and Art Critic; Appointed National Art Adviser for India by the Italian National Academy

THE UNIVERSITY OF ROORKEE AWARD FOR INNOVATIVE ENGINEERING USES TAKHALLUS “TA’MEER CHANDIGARHI” FOR WRITING URDU POETRY

Dr SS Bhatti

PAPER TITLE: LE CORBUSIER’S

ARCHITECTURAL MARVELS IN CHANDIGARH: Form and Function

PAPER TITLE: LE CORBUSIER’S

ARCHITECTURAL MARVELS IN CHANDIGARH: Form and Function

LE CORBUSIER WITH PANDIT JAWAHARLAL NEHRU

PAPER TITLE: LE CORBUSIER’SPAPER TITLE: LE CORBUSIER’S ARCHITECTURAL MARVELS IN CHANDIGARH:ARCHITECTURAL MARVELS IN CHANDIGARH: Form and FunctionForm and Function Dr SS BhattiDr SS Bhatti

PREFACEPREFACE

Three of Modern Architecture’s most hallowed shrines exist in Chandigarh as a memorial to Le Corbusier’s creative genius as 20th- century’s Renaissance Man. They are the Swiss-born French architect’s Architectural Marvels. In designing them the Master Architect was given all the freedom to freeze fresh dreams of human creativity, thanks to the unswerving political support of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru—the first Prime Minister of Independent India.—the first Prime Minister of Independent India. The three structures, named below, together constitute a large part of the Chandigarh‘s Capitol Complex:- •The Legislative Assembly,•The Secretariat, and •The High Court Nothing of their scale, magnificence, or emotive power Le Corbusier ever built before or after them.


This study aims at showing, from firsthand observation and This study aims at showing, from firsthand observation and lived experience, the vision, philosophy, and creative majesty lived experience, the vision, philosophy, and creative majesty of Le Corbusier, and what significance they have in the history of Le Corbusier, and what significance they have in the history of Modern Architecture.of Modern Architecture.

STYLISTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF LE CORBUSIER’S ARCHITECTURESTYLISTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF LE CORBUSIER’S ARCHITECTURE

Primary forms, usually cubes, cuboids, and prisms, with Primary forms, usually cubes, cuboids, and prisms, with occasional intermixing of simple curvilinear shapes; occasional intermixing of simple curvilinear shapes;

Uncluttered surface with carefully-arranged fenestrations; and Uncluttered surface with carefully-arranged fenestrations; and The first two The first two “generated”“generated” by a “plan” worked out by an by a “plan” worked out by an

unrelenting selectivity aimed at what may be called an unrelenting selectivity aimed at what may be called an irreducible irreducible seed-formseed-form. These three elements would be . These three elements would be assimilated into creative expression by what the Master assimilated into creative expression by what the Master Architect called Architect called “geometric ordering of the regulating lines”.“geometric ordering of the regulating lines”.


LYRICAL EXPRESSIONLYRICAL EXPRESSION Le Corbusier’s Architecture is a lyrical expression of his “Five Le Corbusier’s Architecture is a lyrical expression of his “Five

Points of a New Architecture” developed in 1925: Points of a New Architecture” developed in 1925: “columns “columns ((pilotispilotis), ), free plan, long (free plan, long (ribbon) ribbon) window, free façade,window, free façade, and and roof-roof-garden.” garden.”

The Secretariat in Chandigarh employs all the afore-mentioned The Secretariat in Chandigarh employs all the afore-mentioned five points in a complete way, the ribbon-window replaced by five points in a complete way, the ribbon-window replaced by undulatory [or “musical”] glazing. The other two “edifices”—undulatory [or “musical”] glazing. The other two “edifices”—the Legislative Assembly and the High Court—do not have the the Legislative Assembly and the High Court—do not have the roof-garden nor has the use of roof-garden nor has the use of pilotis pilotis been made in them, as been made in them, as expounded by Le Corbusierexpounded by Le Corbusier in his Theory of Architectural in his Theory of Architectural Design. Design.


ART AS BE-ALL AND END-ALL IN ARCHITECTURAL CREATIVITYART AS BE-ALL AND END-ALL IN ARCHITECTURAL CREATIVITY

That Art was the be-all and end-all of Le Corbusier’s creative pursuits That Art was the be-all and end-all of Le Corbusier’s creative pursuits in Architecture is succinctly described by Maxwell Fry who was one of in Architecture is succinctly described by Maxwell Fry who was one of the three Senior Architects constituting the team assembled for the the three Senior Architects constituting the team assembled for the Chandigarh Capital Project in 1950. Chandigarh Capital Project in 1950.

Maxwell Fry has observed thus:Maxwell Fry has observed thus:

““Corbusier said to me one day that he was interested only in Corbusier said to me one day that he was interested only in art. I felt this in his persistent withdrawal from what might be art. I felt this in his persistent withdrawal from what might be called vulgar contact, the ordinariness that makes up the bulk called vulgar contact, the ordinariness that makes up the bulk of mankind and is both its strength and weakness. The of mankind and is both its strength and weakness. The loneliness of the great artist shut off by the mere weight of the loneliness of the great artist shut off by the mere weight of the concentrated effort of creation has been spoken of by Conrad concentrated effort of creation has been spoken of by Conrad and many another…” and many another…”


LE CORBUSIER’S MONUMENTAL BUILDINGS OF THE CAPITOL COMPLEXLE CORBUSIER’S MONUMENTAL BUILDINGS OF THE CAPITOL COMPLEX

Le Corbusier’s Capitol Complex of buildings have the element of Le Corbusier’s Capitol Complex of buildings have the element of exaggerationexaggeration justifiably used to justifiably used to monumentalisemonumentalise the enormous power of the enormous power of governance they governance they symbolisesymbolise as the chief structures of the State as the chief structures of the State Government in parliamentary democracy. Government in parliamentary democracy.

Le Corbusier’s “the edifices”Le Corbusier’s “the edifices”——the Legislative Assembly, the the Legislative Assembly, the Secretariat, and the High Court—represent the epoch-making Secretariat, and the High Court—represent the epoch-making achievements of the Master Architect’s long and chequered career. achievements of the Master Architect’s long and chequered career.

These shuttered concrete structures employ Le Corbusier’s patent These shuttered concrete structures employ Le Corbusier’s patent architectural vocabulary: architectural vocabulary: flat-iron railings, water-spouts, flat-iron railings, water-spouts, brise-soleilbrise-soleil, , ramps, stairs, aerators, ramps, stairs, aerators, andand ondulatories.ondulatories.

And all the three have been And all the three have been sculpturedsculptured by means of a “romantic” by means of a “romantic” geometry. geometry.

They have been proportioned with the aid of the Master Architect’s They have been proportioned with the aid of the Master Architect’s Le Le ModulorModulor..

Proportion was the only authorised luxury attained by the application of Proportion was the only authorised luxury attained by the application of Modulor creating gracefulness and harmony—in the face of a stringent Modulor creating gracefulness and harmony—in the face of a stringent budget.budget.


THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLYTHE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY

The Legislative Assembly, or the The Legislative Assembly, or the “law-forming”“law-forming” edifice, has a 100m by 100m edifice, has a 100m by 100m square plan, a perfect shape expressing stateliness, stability, and grandeur. square plan, a perfect shape expressing stateliness, stability, and grandeur. The hyperbolic paraboloid, the pyramid, and the lift-tower add a touch of visual The hyperbolic paraboloid, the pyramid, and the lift-tower add a touch of visual movement which is sure-footed, graceful, and dignified.movement which is sure-footed, graceful, and dignified.

Of all the buildings of the Capitol Complex, the Legislative Assembly is the Of all the buildings of the Capitol Complex, the Legislative Assembly is the most intricate in plan. Part of this complexity arises from the elaborate most intricate in plan. Part of this complexity arises from the elaborate provision for separate circulation and accommodation of all groups of provision for separate circulation and accommodation of all groups of prospective users of the building. prospective users of the building.

It is for the 180 members of the Legislative Assembly that the majestic It is for the 180 members of the Legislative Assembly that the majestic experience of spatial sequences furnished by the experience of spatial sequences furnished by the ForumForum area is designed. area is designed.

The delegates enter the Assembly from the parking lot through an unobtrusive The delegates enter the Assembly from the parking lot through an unobtrusive door at the basement level and then a reception area with polished stone door at the basement level and then a reception area with polished stone flooring, illuminated by a glass-wall erected behind a flooring, illuminated by a glass-wall erected behind a brise-soleilbrise-soleil screen. screen.


THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLYTHE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY In the Legislative Assembly, the two main halls—the lower house and In the Legislative Assembly, the two main halls—the lower house and

the upper house—represented, respectively, by a the upper house—represented, respectively, by a hyperbolic paraboloidhyperbolic paraboloid and a and a pyramidpyramid are suspended in a grid of triple-height space are suspended in a grid of triple-height space mysteriously lit up by conoid roof-lights. mysteriously lit up by conoid roof-lights.

These major elements also slash through the cuboid form of the These major elements also slash through the cuboid form of the Assembly and its horizontal roof-line as powerful geometric shapes. Assembly and its horizontal roof-line as powerful geometric shapes. The repetitive The repetitive brise-soleil brise-soleil is relieved by a flat expanse of concrete and is relieved by a flat expanse of concrete and punctured by a horizontal walkway. punctured by a horizontal walkway.

Within the building, columns, ramps, lifts, and lighting troughs Within the building, columns, ramps, lifts, and lighting troughs interpenetrate in a violent way suggesting, if unintentionally, interpenetrate in a violent way suggesting, if unintentionally, the the fireworks which the legislators would display in debating over issues of fireworks which the legislators would display in debating over issues of politicalpolitical import.import. The use of Le Modulor has, indeed, The use of Le Modulor has, indeed, harmonisedharmonised the the relationships among the constituting forms. And there is plenty of free relationships among the constituting forms. And there is plenty of free space within which to suspend these forms—truncating none, and space within which to suspend these forms—truncating none, and without any compromises.without any compromises.

The informal place of conversation and rest, the The informal place of conversation and rest, the ForumForum, was meant for , was meant for the legislators to pause and formulate opinions between meetings. This the legislators to pause and formulate opinions between meetings. This is perhaps the only public forum which Le Corbusier was lucky enough is perhaps the only public forum which Le Corbusier was lucky enough to build. Its appropriate dignity, freedom from convention, reposeful to build. Its appropriate dignity, freedom from convention, reposeful cuboid mass, and powerful hyperbolic paraboloid and pyramid, cuboid mass, and powerful hyperbolic paraboloid and pyramid, combined with an austere aesthetic, prevent the Legislative Assembly combined with an austere aesthetic, prevent the Legislative Assembly from being pompous.from being pompous.


THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLYTHE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY The The ForumForum is architecturally exciting but it dwarfs human presence. It is architecturally exciting but it dwarfs human presence. It

is quite another matter, though, that the POLITICIANS do not seem to is quite another matter, though, that the POLITICIANS do not seem to be affected by the majestic gigantism. be affected by the majestic gigantism.

Drawn as they are from a colossal mass of democracy, they Drawn as they are from a colossal mass of democracy, they accomplish it by virtue of their thick-skinned callousness which is accomplish it by virtue of their thick-skinned callousness which is virtually impenetrable.virtually impenetrable.

The shape of the powerful hyperbolic paraboloid was actually The shape of the powerful hyperbolic paraboloid was actually suggested by the suggested by the cooling towerscooling towers which Le Corbusier had seen in which Le Corbusier had seen in Ahmedabad. Apparently, the two functions have nothing in common, Ahmedabad. Apparently, the two functions have nothing in common, and yet the symbol of the Legislative Assembly has come to stay. and yet the symbol of the Legislative Assembly has come to stay.

Perhaps, there is some subtle link between a cooling tower and a Perhaps, there is some subtle link between a cooling tower and a house for the legislators. house for the legislators.

Nobody needs cooling more than the politicians if they are to be kept Nobody needs cooling more than the politicians if they are to be kept cool-headed in the ultimate interests of the masses they represent in a cool-headed in the ultimate interests of the masses they represent in a parliamentary democracy.parliamentary democracy. At any rate, the present design—despite At any rate, the present design—despite some obvious faults—is masterly and many times better than Le some obvious faults—is masterly and many times better than Le Corbusier’s earlier somewhat commonplace sketches for the Corbusier’s earlier somewhat commonplace sketches for the Legislative Assembly.Legislative Assembly.


THE SECRETARIATTHE SECRETARIAT

The SecretariatThe Secretariat, , or the or the “law-executing”“law-executing” edifice, is an enormous structure placed edifice, is an enormous structure placed in a striking position at a right angle to the Shivalik Hills, which is Chandigarh’s in a striking position at a right angle to the Shivalik Hills, which is Chandigarh’s most magnificent natural landmark.most magnificent natural landmark.

The Secretariat façade is a sensitively-modulated screen of sun-breaks, with The Secretariat façade is a sensitively-modulated screen of sun-breaks, with vast areas of repeated pattern, to which life has been brought with the use of vast areas of repeated pattern, to which life has been brought with the use of balconied projections, recesses, large windows, double heights, and so on. balconied projections, recesses, large windows, double heights, and so on.

The skyline The skyline is is lyricisedlyricised with terrace-restaurant, ramp-volume, loggia or view- with terrace-restaurant, ramp-volume, loggia or view-stand, lift-towers, etc. stand, lift-towers, etc.

The horizontal bands are carried onto the end-elevation to obviate, what Frank The horizontal bands are carried onto the end-elevation to obviate, what Frank Lloyd Wright would have called its Lloyd Wright would have called its boxinessboxiness, and to give a visual clue to the , and to give a visual clue to the emphatic horizontality of the building. emphatic horizontality of the building.

A careful look at the Secretariat will reveal Le Corbusier’s mastery at what I call A careful look at the Secretariat will reveal Le Corbusier’s mastery at what I call aesthetic detailingaesthetic detailing,, exploiting the visual elements of point, line, shape, and their exploiting the visual elements of point, line, shape, and their juxtaposition.juxtaposition.



With its great size (254 metres long and 42 metres high: these are the With its great size (254 metres long and 42 metres high: these are the actualactual dimensions, and not what Le Corbusier has mentioned in his dimensions, and not what Le Corbusier has mentioned in his note), the Secretariat assumes the aspect of a massive wall enclosing note), the Secretariat assumes the aspect of a massive wall enclosing the Capitol Complex on the north-west. the Capitol Complex on the north-west.

The building is composed of six, 8-storey blocks separated by The building is composed of six, 8-storey blocks separated by expansion joints. The central pavilion, Block-4, contains the offices of expansion joints. The central pavilion, Block-4, contains the offices of the ministers. These have been defined on the façade by a distinctive the ministers. These have been defined on the façade by a distinctive brise-soleilbrise-soleil of deeply sculptured, two-storeyed high porticos.of deeply sculptured, two-storeyed high porticos.

Almost 800-feet-long, the Secretariat must be one of the longest Almost 800-feet-long, the Secretariat must be one of the longest bureaucracies in the world. The building is an enormous mass of a bureaucracies in the world. The building is an enormous mass of a rectangular prism, which stands as a giant wall to enclose the space rectangular prism, which stands as a giant wall to enclose the space of the Capitol Complex on its north-western side.of the Capitol Complex on its north-western side.

One plausible reason why Le Corbusier was led to place the One plausible reason why Le Corbusier was led to place the Secretariat building on this side of the Capitol Complex is that he had Secretariat building on this side of the Capitol Complex is that he had wanted wanted “the edifice”“the edifice” to be viewed from the promenade of the Sukhna to be viewed from the promenade of the Sukhna Lake with a vast sheet of shimmering water in the foreground. Lake with a vast sheet of shimmering water in the foreground.


THE SECRETARIATTHE SECRETARIAT Needless to say that this aim could not have been Needless to say that this aim could not have been

accomplished if this “longest bureaucracy” were to be sited on accomplished if this “longest bureaucracy” were to be sited on the south-eastern end of the Capitol Complex. the south-eastern end of the Capitol Complex.

But a significant, if abstruse, design criterion for the present But a significant, if abstruse, design criterion for the present siting of the Secretariat might have been determined by the siting of the Secretariat might have been determined by the manner in which many people, used to reading the scripts of manner in which many people, used to reading the scripts of various languages in a certain way, tend to view objects in various languages in a certain way, tend to view objects in space regarding it as a 3-dimensional sheet of paper. Their space regarding it as a 3-dimensional sheet of paper. Their reading habits “condition” them to “read” a group of buildings reading habits “condition” them to “read” a group of buildings from left to right as from left to right as naturallynaturally as they would read the script of as they would read the script of their language. their language.

Thus, placement of the Secretariat, as the heaviest mass on the Thus, placement of the Secretariat, as the heaviest mass on the left side of the Capitol Complex, has implicitly helped to left side of the Capitol Complex, has implicitly helped to appreciate its overall composition as a “natural” (and, appreciate its overall composition as a “natural” (and, therefore, well-balanced) organisation of buildings in therefore, well-balanced) organisation of buildings in architectural space. architectural space.



In a similar way, the siting of the Secretariat at a right angle to the In a similar way, the siting of the Secretariat at a right angle to the Shivalik Hills testifies to Le Corbusier’s mastery of scale and of Shivalik Hills testifies to Le Corbusier’s mastery of scale and of integrating man-made objects with natural elements in one organic integrating man-made objects with natural elements in one organic whole. whole.

He has ingeniously made his grand architectural composition of He has ingeniously made his grand architectural composition of the Capitol Complex an integral part of the beautiful backdrop of the Capitol Complex an integral part of the beautiful backdrop of the giant natural feature: the Shivalik Hills.the giant natural feature: the Shivalik Hills.

The rectilinearity of the geometric shape is given a great lateral The rectilinearity of the geometric shape is given a great lateral thrust by the horizontal lines of the thrust by the horizontal lines of the brise-soleil brise-soleil screen. The building screen. The building mass has been broken up by such devices as double-height mass has been broken up by such devices as double-height spaces, the loggia or a view-stand, the ramp-volume, the terrace-spaces, the loggia or a view-stand, the ramp-volume, the terrace-restaurant, lift- and stair-towers, etc. restaurant, lift- and stair-towers, etc.

But perhaps the most important single element which But perhaps the most important single element which accomplishes this aim of relieving the monotony of repeated accomplishes this aim of relieving the monotony of repeated pattern is its change in the pattern is its change in the brise-soleilbrise-soleil screen in the area reserved screen in the area reserved for the ministers, the Chief Minister, and the Governor. for the ministers, the Chief Minister, and the Governor.



Not only does this method liven up the visual appeal of the Not only does this method liven up the visual appeal of the enormous façade but also provides a focal point for the main enormous façade but also provides a focal point for the main entrance. entrance. The repeated pattern is what gives the building its The repeated pattern is what gives the building its expressive visual power while the variations in it only heighten expressive visual power while the variations in it only heighten its mythic potency.its mythic potency.

Without the now-familiar roof-top elements of Corbusian Without the now-familiar roof-top elements of Corbusian architecture, the Secretariat building would have had a bald architecture, the Secretariat building would have had a bald skyline. skyline.

The strategically-placed terrace-restaurant has been connected The strategically-placed terrace-restaurant has been connected with a strong triangular volume to act as a unifying element in with a strong triangular volume to act as a unifying element in the total architectural composition. the total architectural composition.

The visual tension created by this diagonal line in a The visual tension created by this diagonal line in a basic basic designdesign exercise of horizontals and verticals is what holds exercise of horizontals and verticals is what holds together the disparate elements deployed in their organisations. together the disparate elements deployed in their organisations.



It is this aspect, rather than the functional efficiency of the building, It is this aspect, rather than the functional efficiency of the building, which deserves notice. which deserves notice.

The problems of function andThe problems of function and performance were relegated to a performance were relegated to a secondary considerationsecondary consideration, which can now be appreciated in all , which can now be appreciated in all works of Le Corbusier, in the pursuit of works of Le Corbusier, in the pursuit of monumentalitymonumentality with which with which the master architect sought to invest “the edifices” of the Capitol the master architect sought to invest “the edifices” of the Capitol Complex.Complex.

Considered in this light, Considered in this light, Albert Mayer’s remarksAlbert Mayer’s remarks, that he found the , that he found the Secretariat “crude and chunky”, considering the “huge blob”, Secretariat “crude and chunky”, considering the “huge blob”, containing the ramp “ugly and misshapen”, are somewhat self-containing the ramp “ugly and misshapen”, are somewhat self-opinionated. opinionated.

So also are the observations of So also are the observations of Maxwell FryMaxwell Fry concerning the concerning the Secretariat façade treatment that “…one may wonder whether this Secretariat façade treatment that “…one may wonder whether this is how the monotony of a repeated pattern should be broken up, is how the monotony of a repeated pattern should be broken up, and whether also the mark of distinction given to the higher ranks and whether also the mark of distinction given to the higher ranks of government is not after all somewhat perfunctory.” of government is not after all somewhat perfunctory.”



While it may While it may notnot be possible to defend the functional be possible to defend the functional inadequacies of the Secretariat, inadequacies of the Secretariat, it can be stated with certainty it can be stated with certainty that its architectural expression shows Le Corbusier’s that its architectural expression shows Le Corbusier’s ““Mastery of FormMastery of Form” as a finality of artistic ingeniousness. ” as a finality of artistic ingeniousness.

Few office buildings in the world would be able to match the Few office buildings in the world would be able to match the fluid grace and aesthetic enchantment of the Secretariat fluid grace and aesthetic enchantment of the Secretariat building. building.

If Le Corbusier ever succeeded in elevating the mundane and If Le Corbusier ever succeeded in elevating the mundane and the prosaic to the level of the extraordinary and the poetic, it the prosaic to the level of the extraordinary and the poetic, it was in this was in this one one building—the Secretariat of Chandigarh.building—the Secretariat of Chandigarh.

The Secretariat is not a functional building which is also a The Secretariat is not a functional building which is also a sculpture. Much to the contrary, it is rather a functional sculpture. Much to the contrary, it is rather a functional Sculpture which is also a building—and an incomparable Sculpture which is also a building—and an incomparable masterpiece at that!masterpiece at that!


THE HIGH COURTTHE HIGH COURT Le Corbusier has stated his design intentions/criteria in the Le Corbusier has stated his design intentions/criteria in the

case of the High Courtcase of the High Court as follows:-as follows:-

““The High-Court palace completed since 1955 contains eight law-The High-Court palace completed since 1955 contains eight law-courts of 8m x 12m, the High-Court itself being of 12m formed of two courts of 8m x 12m, the High-Court itself being of 12m formed of two obliques from the top towards the ground. The two obliques are raised obliques from the top towards the ground. The two obliques are raised towards the exterior, inclined towards the middle, forming in this way towards the exterior, inclined towards the middle, forming in this way a turned-up umbrella over the justice-courts which are kept in the a turned-up umbrella over the justice-courts which are kept in the shade. A system of warped vaults leans to one side on eleven circular shade. A system of warped vaults leans to one side on eleven circular arches in the middle and on a magistral horizontal at the East and the arches in the middle and on a magistral horizontal at the East and the West. “The elevations are provided with a sun-control: concrete West. “The elevations are provided with a sun-control: concrete “brise-soleil”. The vertical profile of the courts elevation is “brise-soleil”. The vertical profile of the courts elevation is unexpected, giving shade. The strongly outlined general effect is unexpected, giving shade. The strongly outlined general effect is reflected, lying in a perfect mirror which doubles at 10% thereflected, lying in a perfect mirror which doubles at 10% the show.”show.”


THE HIGH COURTTHE HIGH COURT The parasol, or the inverted-umbrella, roof of the High Court is a replica The parasol, or the inverted-umbrella, roof of the High Court is a replica

of the sky-vault, symbolising the equable protection that law provides of the sky-vault, symbolising the equable protection that law provides to all citizens without discrimination. to all citizens without discrimination.

This This “law-interpreting”“law-interpreting” edifice is a sculpture of great symbolic and edifice is a sculpture of great symbolic and emotive power.emotive power.

Although noble in conception, majestic in scale, and evocative in detail, Although noble in conception, majestic in scale, and evocative in detail, the High Court had to suffer a series of additions and alterations due to the High Court had to suffer a series of additions and alterations due to a lack of functional foresight. a lack of functional foresight.

A sun-and-rain shade had to be added at ground level because the A sun-and-rain shade had to be added at ground level because the courts were overheating, and rain would lash into the interiors. Enough courts were overheating, and rain would lash into the interiors. Enough courts were not provided, nor a system of easy expansion planned. courts were not provided, nor a system of easy expansion planned. Thus, additional courts were built, relegated to the back of the “edifice” Thus, additional courts were built, relegated to the back of the “edifice” both functionally and visually. both functionally and visually.

The judges themselves started to disfigure the architecture by parking The judges themselves started to disfigure the architecture by parking their cars under the giant entrance portalstheir cars under the giant entrance portals. They did not like to park . They did not like to park their vehicles with the rest of the people, especially those under trial. their vehicles with the rest of the people, especially those under trial. Since this was a genuine reason—security, aloofness, insularity—to Since this was a genuine reason—security, aloofness, insularity—to begin violation of the design intentions of the master architect, it has begin violation of the design intentions of the master architect, it has now become a matter of routine and an integral part of the prevalent now become a matter of routine and an integral part of the prevalent system!system!


THE HIGH COURTTHE HIGH COURT It is reported that Le Corbusier once had to pull up the Chief It is reported that Le Corbusier once had to pull up the Chief

Justice of the High Court for parking his car in the three-Justice of the High Court for parking his car in the three-pillared entrance saying that if a seniormost judge breaks the pillared entrance saying that if a seniormost judge breaks the law, how he could expect the lay public to be law-abiding. law, how he could expect the lay public to be law-abiding.

But this did not work, obviously because the Master Architect But this did not work, obviously because the Master Architect had himself oversighted certain very basic functional had himself oversighted certain very basic functional requirements in his architectural design.requirements in his architectural design.

The judges had to switch the operation of the courts around, The judges had to switch the operation of the courts around, placing themselves against the brilliant light. How could they placing themselves against the brilliant light. How could they tell if the accused were lying if they could never see his face tell if the accused were lying if they could never see his face due to glare? due to glare?

These functional shortcomings were typical of much of Le These functional shortcomings were typical of much of Le Corbusier’s work in Chandigarh. Corbusier’s work in Chandigarh.

These can probably be attributed to two things: one, his These can probably be attributed to two things: one, his advanced age (he was in his mid-sixties), and two, he spent advanced age (he was in his mid-sixties), and two, he spent much time in Paris while work was still in progress on the much time in Paris while work was still in progress on the Chandigarh Capital Project.Chandigarh Capital Project.


THE HIGH COURTTHE HIGH COURT He delegated a large part of this work to Pierre Jeanneret who He delegated a large part of this work to Pierre Jeanneret who

undoubtedly deserves credit wherever the workmanship shows a high undoubtedly deserves credit wherever the workmanship shows a high quality in spite of the primitive technology which was available at that quality in spite of the primitive technology which was available at that time in India.time in India.

The main façade of the High Court is oriented towards north-west. It The main façade of the High Court is oriented towards north-west. It thus does not receive direct sunlight until late in the day i.e. long after thus does not receive direct sunlight until late in the day i.e. long after the hours during which the High Court is normally in session. The light the hours during which the High Court is normally in session. The light which enters the court-rooms during the morning and the early which enters the court-rooms during the morning and the early afternoon is essentially reflected glare. It is diffused by the sun-breaks, afternoon is essentially reflected glare. It is diffused by the sun-breaks, and also by curtains within the chambers. Even so, as pointed out and also by curtains within the chambers. Even so, as pointed out before, some judges had to move their benches to avoid strong glare. before, some judges had to move their benches to avoid strong glare. On the rear façade of the building, which houses most of the offices, On the rear façade of the building, which houses most of the offices, and has a south-eastern exposure, the and has a south-eastern exposure, the brise-soleilbrise-soleil is put to a severe is put to a severe functional test.functional test.

The exposed concrete surfaces inside the courtrooms produced an The exposed concrete surfaces inside the courtrooms produced an acoustical problem. It was thus found necessary to introduce a sound-acoustical problem. It was thus found necessary to introduce a sound-absorptive surface. Le Corbusier’s solution was the creation of a series absorptive surface. Le Corbusier’s solution was the creation of a series of large tapestries to cover the interior walls behind the judges’ of large tapestries to cover the interior walls behind the judges’ benches. benches.

The design of these tapestries was composed by Le Corbusier of The design of these tapestries was composed by Le Corbusier of independent elements based on his Modulor in such a manner that, independent elements based on his Modulor in such a manner that, although the designs were done in Paris, precise directions for their although the designs were done in Paris, precise directions for their execution could be telegraphed to Chandigarh.execution could be telegraphed to Chandigarh.


THE HIGH COURTTHE HIGH COURT Quite an ingenious way of solving a self-created problem!Quite an ingenious way of solving a self-created problem! Grandness of vision, prompted by an urge for Grandness of vision, prompted by an urge for monumentalitymonumentality by by

ignoring the imperatives of utility, cannot be justified by mere ignoring the imperatives of utility, cannot be justified by mere polemics or the power of “absolute” authority. polemics or the power of “absolute” authority.

The ultimate justification of such “edifices” would perhaps come The ultimate justification of such “edifices” would perhaps come when they go into ruins to become, as Henri Moorewhen they go into ruins to become, as Henri Moore believed, pure believed, pure sculpture sculpture ——an architecture which is the (un) conscious, (in) correct an architecture which is the (un) conscious, (in) correct and (un) magnificent interplay of volumes (dis) assembled under and (un) magnificent interplay of volumes (dis) assembled under (sun) light!(sun) light!

Among the constraints within which Le Corbusier was obliged to Among the constraints within which Le Corbusier was obliged to design “the edifices”, the most important single factor was design “the edifices”, the most important single factor was economy—“an extremely low budget” that did not permit economy—“an extremely low budget” that did not permit “sumptuous expenditures”. “sumptuous expenditures”.

A note of lament is discernible in his reaction to the challenge so A note of lament is discernible in his reaction to the challenge so created, when he writes: “The Assembly” has been temporarily created, when he writes: “The Assembly” has been temporarily opened (6 April) for a month’s session. The acoustic devices and opened (6 April) for a month’s session. The acoustic devices and the electronic of sonorisation did not figure for the ceremony. the electronic of sonorisation did not figure for the ceremony. Why Why was the building opened so soon? Politics have their exigencies!was the building opened so soon? Politics have their exigencies!


THE UNREALISED FOURTH EDIFICETHE UNREALISED FOURTH EDIFICE

The fourth one of “the edifices” was to have been the The fourth one of “the edifices” was to have been the Governor’s Governor’s PalacePalace, a crowning feature of the Capitol Complex, at the summit of , a crowning feature of the Capitol Complex, at the summit of the town’s major arterial road, V2-Vertical, the town’s major arterial road, V2-Vertical, Jan MargJan Marg [People’s [People’s Avenue]Avenue]..

But this project was abandoned because “the building of a pretentious But this project was abandoned because “the building of a pretentious governor’s palace within the Capitol Complex itself was symbolically governor’s palace within the Capitol Complex itself was symbolically unsuitable for a democracy.” unsuitable for a democracy.”

As an alternative to the proposed Governor’s Palace, Le Corbusier is As an alternative to the proposed Governor’s Palace, Le Corbusier is reported to have proposed what he called a reported to have proposed what he called a “Museum of Knowledge”“Museum of Knowledge”, , presumably because the absence of such a structure at the apex of presumably because the absence of such a structure at the apex of the Capitol Complex would damage its architectural composition as the Capitol Complex would damage its architectural composition as envisaged by him.envisaged by him.

The “Museum of Knowledge” would have been unique because this The “Museum of Knowledge” would have been unique because this was the only building for which the architect himself had provided the was the only building for which the architect himself had provided the programme.programme.

Although this project has not so far been realised on ground, it must Although this project has not so far been realised on ground, it must be said to the credit of Le Corbusier that he had anticipated the use of be said to the credit of Le Corbusier that he had anticipated the use of electronic equipment as an aid of scientific decision-making electronic equipment as an aid of scientific decision-making concerning legislative affairs, which have hitherto been left to the concerning legislative affairs, which have hitherto been left to the whims and caprices of politicians. whims and caprices of politicians.

PAPER TITLE: LE CORBUSIER’SPAPER TITLE: LE CORBUSIER’S ARCHITECTURAL MARVELS IN CHANDIGARH:ARCHITECTURAL MARVELS IN CHANDIGARH:

Form and FunctionForm and Function Dr SS BhattiDr SS Bhatti

THE UNREALISED FOURTH EDIFICETHE UNREALISED FOURTH EDIFICE The other structures, which would be included in the Capitol Complex, were The other structures, which would be included in the Capitol Complex, were

called called “the monuments”“the monuments”, symbolising as they did a high preoccupation of a , symbolising as they did a high preoccupation of a constructor. But they are not included in this paper being of secondary constructor. But they are not included in this paper being of secondary importance. However, a brief account of the “Open Hand” monument should importance. However, a brief account of the “Open Hand” monument should be in order because this icon has been adopted as the official emblem of be in order because this icon has been adopted as the official emblem of Chandigarh. Chandigarh.

According to Le Corbusier, the According to Le Corbusier, the “Open Hand”“Open Hand” is is““Open to receiveOpen to receive““Open to giveOpen to give““which is the ineluctable destiny of the Mechanical civilisation which today, which is the ineluctable destiny of the Mechanical civilisation which today,

making use of its machines in a dangerous way, forgets that its open hand making use of its machines in a dangerous way, forgets that its open hand shall be filled with consumer goods. And these objects shall go to find their shall be filled with consumer goods. And these objects shall go to find their necessary objective even if the whole world were against it.necessary objective even if the whole world were against it.

““This consideration is not a political one, but it is a sign of the spirit, the spirit This consideration is not a political one, but it is a sign of the spirit, the spirit straining towards harmony—the harmonisation of the second Mechanical Era, straining towards harmony—the harmonisation of the second Mechanical Era, turning the page on the first era of a hundred years which has just upset the turning the page on the first era of a hundred years which has just upset the world and provoked the actual disorder.world and provoked the actual disorder.

““In 1952-53, it was called “the Monument of Chandigarh.”In 1952-53, it was called “the Monument of Chandigarh.” ” ”


THE UNREALISED FOURTH EDIFICETHE UNREALISED FOURTH EDIFICE Although different interpretations have been given of the Open Hand symbolism Although different interpretations have been given of the Open Hand symbolism

yet, when viewed in the context of India’s cultural heritage, yet, when viewed in the context of India’s cultural heritage, it seems to symbolise it seems to symbolise the timeless catholicity and warm-hearted hospitality of her people.the timeless catholicity and warm-hearted hospitality of her people.

The Chandigarh Capitol Complex buildings not only aptly substantiate Le The Chandigarh Capitol Complex buildings not only aptly substantiate Le Corbusier’s celebrated and meaningful definition the Corbusier’s celebrated and meaningful definition the “architecture is the “architecture is the masterly, correct and magnificent play of forms inmasterly, correct and magnificent play of forms in light”light” but also powerfully but also powerfully express the poetry and aesthetic of modern Building Design, which projects the express the poetry and aesthetic of modern Building Design, which projects the three major arts of Sculpture, Painting, and Architecture as three major arts of Sculpture, Painting, and Architecture as synergeticsynergetic forces of forces of significant creativity. significant creativity.

Other elements of Corbusian Architecture—free plan, pillar foundation (Other elements of Corbusian Architecture—free plan, pillar foundation (pilotis), pilotis), glass-wall with integral sun-breaks (glass-wall with integral sun-breaks (brise-soleil)brise-soleil), and roof-garden have been , and roof-garden have been used with incomparable ingenuity in the Secretariat building. used with incomparable ingenuity in the Secretariat building.

Although this structure is quite obviously a development of the ideas and Although this structure is quite obviously a development of the ideas and aesthetics embodied in Le Corbusier’s Marseille Block, the latter appears to be a aesthetics embodied in Le Corbusier’s Marseille Block, the latter appears to be a bland squib compared to the lyrical poetry of the Secretariat at Chandigarh.bland squib compared to the lyrical poetry of the Secretariat at Chandigarh.

With his continued predilection for Sculpture, Le Corbusier, quite early in his With his continued predilection for Sculpture, Le Corbusier, quite early in his career, took to reinforced cement concrete with avid fascination for its plastic career, took to reinforced cement concrete with avid fascination for its plastic quality, with which he was later to give to Modern Architecture the purest of quality, with which he was later to give to Modern Architecture the purest of lyrical expression.lyrical expression.

The Chandigarh Capitol Complex buildings are such paragons of visual melody The Chandigarh Capitol Complex buildings are such paragons of visual melody as lend credence to Goethe’s axiom: as lend credence to Goethe’s axiom: “Architecture is frozen music”.“Architecture is frozen music”.


ASSESSMENTASSESSMENT Maxwell Fry rightly observed that Le Corbusier was interested only in Maxwell Fry rightly observed that Le Corbusier was interested only in

Art. This he could feel in the Master Architect’s Art. This he could feel in the Master Architect’s “persistent withdrawal “persistent withdrawal from what might be called vulgar contact, the ordinariness that make from what might be called vulgar contact, the ordinariness that make up the bulk of mankind and is both its strength and weakness.”up the bulk of mankind and is both its strength and weakness.”

Impelled by such urges, Le Corbusier sought to raise an alternative Impelled by such urges, Le Corbusier sought to raise an alternative world of artistic images, invested with “plastic integrity”, that would world of artistic images, invested with “plastic integrity”, that would be as tantalisingly rich and make-believe as the real one, be as tantalisingly rich and make-believe as the real one, “having all “having all the coherence one expects except conventional reference”the coherence one expects except conventional reference”..

Le Corbusier’s work at Chandigarh, therefore, represents the Le Corbusier’s work at Chandigarh, therefore, represents the culmination of this plastic integrity as well as his new “heavyweight culmination of this plastic integrity as well as his new “heavyweight aesthetic”, notwithstanding some obvious formal and functional aesthetic”, notwithstanding some obvious formal and functional shortcomings!shortcomings!

Considered in this light, the Capitol Complex is too dispersed both for Considered in this light, the Capitol Complex is too dispersed both for the users to walk from one building to another, and to appreciate the the users to walk from one building to another, and to appreciate the juxtaposition of “the edifices” and “the monuments”, except as distant juxtaposition of “the edifices” and “the monuments”, except as distant vistas. vistas.

In spite of the fact that it has been In spite of the fact that it has been over-praisedover-praised by the American by the American architect, Paul Rudolph, as architect, Paul Rudolph, as “…the only grouping of the 20thtcentury of “…the only grouping of the 20thtcentury of which I know that makes any sense whatsoever, undoubtedly the which I know that makes any sense whatsoever, undoubtedly the century’s greatest”,century’s greatest”, the Capitol Complex does not cease to suffer from the Capitol Complex does not cease to suffer from an uncomfortable looseness of its architectural composition.an uncomfortable looseness of its architectural composition.


ASSESSMENTASSESSMENT This shortcoming has occurred probably as a result of Le This shortcoming has occurred probably as a result of Le

Corbusier’s meglomaniacal preference for grandeur and Corbusier’s meglomaniacal preference for grandeur and extravagance. extravagance. Charles Jencks is thus right when he observes Charles Jencks is thus right when he observes thatthat

““The intention was to create an acropolis of monuments which The intention was to create an acropolis of monuments which would radiate out its presence for miles, even to the distant would radiate out its presence for miles, even to the distant Himalayas, and while this intention may have been realised, it Himalayas, and while this intention may have been realised, it has resulted in an over-monotonous fixation on each monument, has resulted in an over-monotonous fixation on each monument, unlike the Athenian acropolis where the buildings are much more unlike the Athenian acropolis where the buildings are much more intensely related and can thus be experienced together.”intensely related and can thus be experienced together.”

Perhaps, the ineffable loneliness of the great artist in Le Perhaps, the ineffable loneliness of the great artist in Le Corbusier shut him off by the sheer weight of concentrated birth-Corbusier shut him off by the sheer weight of concentrated birth-pangs of creation to a splendid seclusion that would tolerate the pangs of creation to a splendid seclusion that would tolerate the presence of no living being for the sake of the marvellous event! presence of no living being for the sake of the marvellous event!

In the light of the foregoing position, In the light of the foregoing position, it seems difficult to it seems difficult to disbelieve that Le Corbusier could have done anything else than disbelieve that Le Corbusier could have done anything else than approach the problem of the Capitol Complex with an approach the problem of the Capitol Complex with an overwhelming artistic indifference to the functional requirements overwhelming artistic indifference to the functional requirements of the project.of the project.


ASSESSMENTASSESSMENT Therefore, when in late-1950, Le Corbusier was offered the Therefore, when in late-1950, Le Corbusier was offered the

design of the Capitol buildings on a master plan developed by design of the Capitol buildings on a master plan developed by Albert Mayer, Albert Mayer, he quickly replanned the whole capital as earlyhe quickly replanned the whole capital as early as February 1951as February 1951, so that he could devote his undivided , so that he could devote his undivided attention to the design of the Capitol Complex, and its group of attention to the design of the Capitol Complex, and its group of monumental buildings, forming the culmination not only of his monumental buildings, forming the culmination not only of his own Master Plan for Chandigarh but also of his own Master Plan for Chandigarh but also of his oeuvreoeuvre..

In such a frame of mind, ruffled by the anxiety of old age and In such a frame of mind, ruffled by the anxiety of old age and coupled with the excitement of having finally got the coupled with the excitement of having finally got the opportunity of his life to realise his revolutionary ideas, it was opportunity of his life to realise his revolutionary ideas, it was impossible for him to create anything other than what he impossible for him to create anything other than what he succeeded in creating—succeeded in creating—grandiose, self-consciously awe-grandiose, self-consciously awe-inspiring, unprecedentedly monumental, and artistically free inspiring, unprecedentedly monumental, and artistically free from any conventional reference. from any conventional reference.

Understandably, therefore, there could be neither room nor Understandably, therefore, there could be neither room nor time for consideration of life’s mundane compulsions time for consideration of life’s mundane compulsions enmeshed in workaday existence.enmeshed in workaday existence.


THE UPSHOTTHE UPSHOT In conclusion, it may be remarked that Le Corbusier’s Architecture is by and large In conclusion, it may be remarked that Le Corbusier’s Architecture is by and large

utilitarian Sculpture of great originality and visual appeal. As a work of Art, it has few utilitarian Sculpture of great originality and visual appeal. As a work of Art, it has few parallels in the world—and possesses stunning emotive power and expressiveness. But as parallels in the world—and possesses stunning emotive power and expressiveness. But as an object of utility, it has all the limitations of Sculpture meant to be inhabited by human an object of utility, it has all the limitations of Sculpture meant to be inhabited by human beings. beings.

The strongest stylistic of Le Corbusier’s Architecture is that it has no historical precedents.The strongest stylistic of Le Corbusier’s Architecture is that it has no historical precedents. Although it is certain that Le Corbusier Although it is certain that Le Corbusier “never stopped moving and absorbing new ideas”“never stopped moving and absorbing new ideas” , ,

one finds it difficult to reconcile with the irresolvable contradictions which exist in the one finds it difficult to reconcile with the irresolvable contradictions which exist in the Master Architect’s written word and realised work, such as are codified in his own pithy Master Architect’s written word and realised work, such as are codified in his own pithy dictum dictum “Life is right, the Architect“Life is right, the Architect wrong”wrong” vis-à-vis the shortcomings which one cannot vis-à-vis the shortcomings which one cannot ignore in his climactic ignore in his climactic magnum opusmagnum opus—the Capitol Complex of Chandigarh.—the Capitol Complex of Chandigarh.

To To copycopy Le Corbusier is easy. Le Corbusier is easy. To To continuecontinue his Legacy is difficult. his Legacy is difficult. But to But to extendextend his magnificent Creativity is well-nigh impossible. his magnificent Creativity is well-nigh impossible. His Architecture is His Architecture is ARTART——the Great Mother Artthe Great Mother Art——as as Frank Lloyd WrightFrank Lloyd Wright would have would have

put it. put it. And And ARTART is a is a creationcreation of inspiration, not an of inspiration, not an imitationimitation of Form! of Form!

TTHHAANNKK YYOOUU

architectural marvels in chandigarh

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