Shuster’s A&P Notes Series Intro to A&P 1

CHAPTER 1 - THE HUMAN BODY

I. OVERVIEW OF ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

* ANATOMY - Study of structure of body parts and their relationship to each other (WHAT and WHERE things are).

- Often use dissections (= "to split") to look inside, or deep ("away from the surface")

* PHYSIOLOGY - Study of the function of fore mentioned parts (HOW things work).

* MORPHOLOGY - Study of how form affects function (not mentioned in book).

Anatomy: naming where things are, and describing what they look like

Physiology: how do they do what they do!

Morphology: how what their shape is determines what they do!

Principle of Complimentary Structure & Form:

Shuster’s A&P Notes Series Intro to A&P 2

A. TOPICS OF ANATOMY

1) "GROSS" or "MACROSCOPIC" - lg. structures, visible to naked eye (heart, lungs, etc.). More than 1 approach:

(a) Regional - structure in a region (abdominal, etc.).

(b) Systemic - structures associated w/ organ systems (respiratory, circulatory, etc.

- MOST COMMON!!

(c) Surface - internal structures as relate to outer skin

--often used to find blood vessels, etc for blood pressure, injections, etc.

2) "MICROSCOPIC" - need a microscope to see!

-slice a thin piece (= a SECTION) of tissue, stain it, look under microscope.

(a) CYTOLOGY = study of cells

(b) HISTOLOGY = study of TISSUE (= collection of cells).

3) "DEVELOPMENTAL" anatomy - study of the structural changes in an indiv. from conception ----->old age.DEVELOPMENT - all changes that occur from conception --> DeathEMBRYOLOGY - study of only those changes before birth.SENESCENCE - The process of aging

4) Also, "PATHOLOGICAL" (= structural changes caused by disease) and "RADIOGRAPHIC" (structures as seen in an X-ray).

Shuster’s A&P Notes Series Intro to A&P 3

B. TOPICS OF PHYSIOLOGY

- Most subdivisions consider "systemic approach" - organ systems (renal, neurophysiology {nervous system}, cardiovascular, etc.).

- Often, consider events on a cellular or molecular level----> the operation of a given organ depends on the operation of its different types of cells!!!!

* Also, physics & chemistry.

- Disease: an abnormal condition. There are several closely-related terms:

1. Pathology: The study of all diseases, and their causes, processes, development and consequences.* Basically, anything that goes wrong is a “pathology”.

2. Infection: The colonization of a host (in this case, a patient’s body) by a parasite. The type depends on what actually invades the body:

Bacterial (e.g.: strep throat, tetanus, most food poisoning, Lyme disease).Viral (colds, flu, viral meningitis, HIV)Fungal (ringworm, yeast infections, athlete’s foot)Macroparasites (“worms”, Elephantiasis from the filarial worm)

3. Developmental: The development of some organ or tissue does not occur correctly, for any number of reasons (accidently, some toxin present during development, etc.).

4. Genetic Disease: Pathology caused by a mutation in the genetic material. E.g.: many forms of diabetes, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia. More detail during the “genetics” section.

5. Autoimmune disease: Pathology caused when the immune system attacks its own body. E.g.: rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, some forms of diabetes, Grave’s disease (one type of hypothyroidism). More detail during the Immunity chapter.

6. Cancer: Often, the body’s own cells proliferate, forming a tumor. Most tumors are not cancerous. It is cancer if the cells metastasize, which means break off from the tumor and cause other cells to begin proliferating, also. Tumors are only cancerous if they metastasize.

7. “Other” – toxins, accidents (e.g.: broken bones), etc.

These categories are not mutually exclusive. Some autoimmune disorders have a genetic basis. Viruses can cause cancer, autoimmune disorders, etc. Developmental disorders can be caused by toxins, viruses, or have a genetic basis.

Shuster’s A&P Notes Series Intro to A&P 4

II. HIERARCHY OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION - a body is a series of increasingly complex levels (= a HIERARCHY); ea. consists of a collection of the members of the level below it. Each level has its own rules!!!!

Example: sand & mortar ------->bricks ------> wall -------> house -------> neighborhood ---------> community

See next page of notes for specifics!

Shuster’s A&P Notes Series Intro to A&P 5

SEE FIG IN TEXT FOR AN OVERVIEW OF THE ORGAN SYSTEMS

Shuster’s A&P Notes Series Intro to A&P 6

III. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

-Animal life has some commonalities----->functions that must be met!!

- Metabolism = Catabolism + Anabolism

* Anabolic Reaction = building; mostly done via the chemical process called dehydration synthesis* Catabolic reactions = breaking down; mostly done via the chemical process called hydrolysis

1) Structure & Maintenance of boundaries -- Form = function, & "inside vs. outside".

- Structure ("shape") is given by fibrous proteins. Remember that form = function!

- Boundary - Protect the cell from losing water and nutrients, protect against infection, etc.!!

* SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE MEMBRANE - boundary of cells, your integument. Things must be able to move in and out (can't be impermeable).

** INTEGUMENT-your skin. Protects against desiccation (water loss), invasion (bacteria, etc.), chemical damage, etc.

**cells have a "plasma membrane". But…the plasma membrane muyst be able to change its permeability:

* proteins are used for this! Protein channels open and close, letting substances in and out as needed. More detail in Cell Chapter!

Shuster’s A&P Notes Series Intro to A&P 7

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- Important Point: the boundary needs to be able to Change Its Permeability! Protein channels allow this.

2) Movement . - Let organism look for food & reproduction.

-Muscular + Skeletal systems. -Also: movement within the body!

* Proteins are used for this!

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3) Control Activity and Responsiveness (or, irritability) - life's machinery must react to changes!

- Life must REGULATE (turn things on and off!)

* Proteins: neurotransmitters, hormones, etc.

-Ability to sense change (= STIMULI or STIMULUS) in environment, and respond to changes!

* External and internal stimuli.

* Nervous system uses lots of proteins!

4. Growth, Repair, & Reproduction - life must continue, grow and fix itself!

Why put these 3 together? Same thing! All growth & repair = reproduction of cells.- Growth = increased number of cells!- Repair = Cells get damaged and are replaced by making more cells- Bodies die: have offspring; cellular basis- These processes use spindle fibers and other proteins

Shuster’s A&P Notes Series Intro to A&P 10

5. Digestion - need nutrients.

* Proteins are used for this! Digestive enzymes, etc.

6. Respiration - moving gases in and out.

- Animal cells need oxygen gas to make ATP.

- During metabolism, cells make CO2 which is toxic (it is an acid). Must be disposed of!

Example of a protein used in this process: hemoglobin

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7. Excretion - removing EXCRETIA (= wastes) from the body.

- Metabolism produces substances that, if found in too high concentration ([ ]), are poisonous.

* Ammonia - produced from protein digestion - excreted thru urinary tract.* Carbon Dioxide - waste produced in cells-excreted thru lungs.* Feces - not all taken in is digestible - excreted thru digestive tract.

Many proteins used in this process!

Shuster’s A&P Notes Series Intro to A&P 12

IV. SURVIVAL NEEDS

- needed to sustain life (i.e., what they need to make proteins, or "do metabolism"):

1. Nutrients -taken in thru the diet; used for energy + cell building.

* Animal cells: glucose is main energy molecule, which is a carbohydrate.-plant foods have lots of Carbohydrates (used for short-term fuel)

* Also, fats are main storage form of energy, with other functions (insulation, etc.).* Proteins needed ... because we have to make proteins!

-animal-based foods have a lot of protein (building cell structure) + fat (long term energy, insulation and building cell structure)

* Vitamins & Minerals (chemical reactions in cells, oxygen transport in blood).

2. Oxygen (O 2 ) and Atmospheric Pressure

-all the chemical reactions which act to release energy from food are of a certain class known as OXIDATIVE REACTIONS (= require O2)

-20% of air = O2

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4. Water

- 60-80% of body weight. Most abundant chemical in body.

-provides environment for chemical reactions. Also, gives the fluid base of body secretions + excretions. IN OTHER WORDS, it is used to dissolve stuff.

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- water is lost to body thru evaporation from lungs + skin, & in body secretions.

5. Temperature Maintenance

- Body temp. = 98oF (=37oC)*if too low, metabolic reactions = too slow (rate of chemical reactions depend on temperature).*if too high, proteins lose their shape (will see in detail later) = DENATURIZATION of proteins.

- Most internal heat = generated by muscle activity.*shivering in the cold

Summary:Life's needs include:Nutrient levelsWaste levels (as we will see, most are ACIDS)Oxygen levelsWater levelsTemperature

We will see in the next section that the body works to maintain these variables.

Shuster’s A&P Notes Series Intro to A&P 15

V) HOMEOSTASIS

-we will see that most of the functions required to maintain life require that conditions w/in the body are maintained w/in fairly narrow limits.

-HOMEOSTASIS = "the state of being"=the body maintains homeostasis (stable internal conditions)* NOTE: this does not imply that conditions never change----> DYNAMIC STATE OF EQUILIBRIUM

* To do this, must constantly monitor water, O2, etc. levels and adjust to any changes.

A) Some terms :

VARIABLE - factor being regulatedSTIMULUS - a change, any change in the variable.SENSOR - something that monitors the variable for stimuli.RECEPTOR - a sensor that monitors the environment and detects a change (= STIMULI) in the variable.CONTROL CENTER - determines the SET POINT (=level or range) of the variable.EFFECTOR - does the response (OUTPUT) to the stimulus.

* EFFERENT = "away"* AFFERENT = "towards"

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-EXAMPLE: thermostat controlling room temperature

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-HYPOTHALAMUS = area in brain that acts as your bodies "thermostat" B) Positive vs. Negative Feedback Loops

-Furnace example = a FEEDBACK LOOP*specifically, = a NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOP = the loop acts to decreased or shut off.

1) NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOPS (NFL's)-Loop causes a change that decreases initial stimulus!

*e.g.: blood glucose levels

**Glucose = a sugar = energy source for cells; used to make ATP.**Normal blood level approx. 90 milligr/100 ml blood.

Specifically for glucose:

Recall:

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**GLUCAGON = hormone w/opposite effect = "un-store" sugars if blood level drops.

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2)

POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOPS (PFL's)-any change in environment is ACCENTUATED!

* PFL's = any change causes a response in the same direction!

**cascade effect!

*e.g.: childbirth & labor

Baby moves Increase pressure on cervix of uterus Special receptors pick up stimulus, send signal to brain which then releases OXYTOCIN (hormone). Oxytocin is transported to uterus by bloodstream, acts to increase contraction of muscles

Oxytocin cause uterine contractions ("squeezing") Push baby more. Baby starts to move out.

*e.g.: blood clotting

NOTE: WE WILL REVIEW BODY ORIENTATION, PLANES OF THE BODY AND CAVITIES IN LAB. HOWEVER, STUDENT IS RESPONSIBLE OF THESE SECTIONS IN THE LECTURE BOOK.