APES

Chapter 8Biodiversity and Conservation

Biology

Different Levels of Diversity

• Species Diversity: Differences in genes… interbreeding is possible… Looking at Species and Subspecies levels

• Genetic Diversity: Differences in DNA composition of individuals w/in species or populations

• Ecosystem Diversity: the number and variety of ecosystems w/in an area

Our Planet of Life• Species: Biodiverstiy

– Numbers- relative numbers within an area; regionally, globally, etc.– Species Richness: number of species

• Taxonomy: King Plays Chess On Fat Guys Stomach

• Biodiversity exists BELOW Species:– Subspecies: populations that occur in different geographic areas and

differ from one another in some characteristic(s).• Formed by same process as speciation, but falls short of divergence that

creates new species– Canus lupus famillarus (dom dog), Canus lupus dingo (dingo)

» Polytypic = many subspecies vs monotypic = no subspecies

Subspecies: the level below a species• Subspecies = populations of species that occur in

different areas and differ slightly from each other– Divergence stops short of separating the species– Subspecies are denoted with a third part of the

scientific name

Siberian tiger = Panthera tigris altaica

Bengal tiger = Panthera tigris tigris

Bengal TigerPanthera tigris tigris

Siberian Tiger Panthera tigris altaica 

Indo-Chinese TigerPanthera tigris corbetti

Malayan TigerPanthera tigris jacksoni

South Chinese TigerPanthera tigris amoyensis

Sumatran TigerPanthera tigris sumatrae

Tigers

• You tube it ;)• You Tube: Planet in Peril• NY Times

Big Take Home Message:• Immigration, Emigration, Local Extinctions

may cause increases or decreases in local Species Richness numbers, however……………

• ONLY speciation and extinction can change Species Richness globally!!!

Genetic Diversity• Encompasses differences in DNA composition among

individuals w/in species and populations• Provides raw material for adaptation to local

environments– Subspecies w/in tigers: thin coat of the Bengal Tiger, vs

thick coat of the Siberian Tiger

• More genetic diversity, stronger the population• Populations w/little genetic diversity are vulnerable

to environmental change– Disease, inbreeding depression (offspring are weak and/or

defective)

Ecosystem Diversity

• Number and variety of ecosystems– Can also refer to biotic community types or

habitats w/in specified areas.• Can also refer to geographic arrangement of habitat,

community or ecosystem at landscape level if large area

Monoculture crop of corn vs. coral reef; reef will have much more diversity

Some Hold More than Others

• The number one species on Earth is?????– Insect

• What type of insect???????– Beetle……. 40% of all insects are beetles!!!!

• Different reasons for numbers– Allopatric speciation– Low extinction rate– Adaptive radiation

Insects outnumber all other species

Do we know all the #’s?• No• We can estimate: from 5-30 million different species• Many reasons for this

– Size: many are small and overlooked– Many have been classified wrong: dolphins– Exploration of certain areas is very poor

• Entomologist Terry Erwin found 163 beetle species living on one tree in C. Amer. 1982-used insecticide fog est. ~8,150,000 sp of beetle worldwide!!

Still Finding Species?• YES!!!• 2005 New Guinea:

– 40 Species of vertebrates, plants, butterflies in less than 1 month

– Same area, another 50 species from marine env!!

• Nov 1st 2012, 9 Brazillian Spiders!! Tarantula• Sept 15, 2012, New African Monkey Monkey• June 7th 2011, Madagascar critters!! Madagascar

Uneven Distribution

• Latitudinal Gradient: Species richness increases as you approach the equator:

• Plant productivity• Climate Stability

– These factors help ensure biodiversity- many different types of critters can co-exist here

– These are generally occupied by specialists: generalists occupy areas of varying change, but stable conditions allow for more specialized lifestyles

– For any area: diversity increases with increase in diverse habitats

Canada has 30–100 species of breeding birds, while Costa Rica has more than 600 species

Activity:• Biodiversity Extinction Pamphlet: Overharvest• Due Tuesday, November 20th, 2012

– Choose 7-10 endangered species that are monitored because they are used as a food/aphrodesiac/drug/trophy or medicine

– Create a pamphlet (of sorts) including;• Why its endangered, where it is located, what body part(s)

is used and how it is used (soup, powder, stuffed, etc.), fines if caught with it, any efforts to alleviate problem

• Your choice of medium, be sure to include sources!!

Is Biodiversity Important?

• Extinctions• Red List: updated list of sp. Facing high risk of

extinction. • 2012: 25% of mammals, 33% reef-building coral,

13% birds, 44% amphibians, 30% conifers. UNACCEPABLE!!!

• In the US over the last 500 yrs: 237 fauna, 30 flora– Bali Tiger: 40’s, Caspian Tiger: 70’s, Javan Tiger: 80’s

Biodiversity Loss and Extinction• When the last member of a species dies, the

species is thought to be EXTINCT• When a particular population disappears, but not

the entire species it is EXTIRPATION– This can lead to extinction

• Tigers have been extirpated, and are on their way to extinction

• Is this a natural process?– Of course; 99% of all sp that have ever lived are

extinct

Add Humans and You Get….

• Before humans, extinctions occurred at a relative pace– Background Rate of Extinction

• Typically it has an annual rate of one extinction per 1 – 10 million species

• In the past 440 million years, there have been 5 mass extinctions

• Each eliminated more than 1/5th of families, and @ least ½ of the species

6th Extinction is Upon Us

• 2 differences:– Humans have caused it– We will suffer as a result of it

Humans and Extinctions

Outlook• Scientists calculate that the current rate of

extinction (man induced) is 100-1,000 X that of the background extinction rate– 1 extinction per 1-10 million species

• Projected rate will increase 10 fold or more in future decades!!!

• Since 1970, 58 fish species, 9 bird species, and 1 mammal species have gone extinct.

• UNACCEPTABLE!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Activity

• Page 166-167: explain what IUCN is, what the RED LIST is, and what the 2007 report states.

• Page 167-168: what is the UNEP, and what does it measure

• Page 168-171: what are the major causes of biodiversity loss? Give exaples and details of each.

• EXTRA CREDIT!!!– Research and decide how much one Mountain Gorilla is

worth (hint: we are not talking about on the black mrkt; factor in his niche, trophic level,etc

Lets Review

• From yesterday, – What is IUCN?– How does the 2008 red-list differ from 2012?– What is UNEP?– What are the major causes of Biodiversity Loss?

• Living Planet Index: UNEP (United Nations Env Programme), summarizes trends in pop. Of 887 t. sp, 458 fw sp, 341 m sp– 1970-2005, Index fell by 28%.

• Most biodiversity on Tropical regions.

Causes of Biodiversity Loss• Reasons for biodiversity losses are

multifaceted, complex, and hard to determine.• Four primary causes of population decline are:

– Habitat alteration– Invasive species– Pollution– Overharvesting

• Global climate change now is the fifth cause.• Each factor is intensified by human population growth and resource

consumption.

Habitat Alteration• The greatest cause of biodiversity loss

– Farming simplifies communities– Grazing modifies grassland structure and species composition – Clearing forests removes resources that organisms need.– Hydroelectric dams turn rivers into upstream reservoirs and

affect floodplains downstream.– Urbanization and suburban sprawl reduce natural

communities.• A few species (i.e., pigeons, rats) benefit from changing habitats.

Less than 1% of North America’s Great Plains remains, and grassland bird populations have declined 82–99%.

Invasive Species• Introduction of non-native species to new environments

– Accidental: zebra mussels– Intentional: food crops

• Island species haven’t evolved defenses and are very vulnerable.– Invaders have no natural predators, competitors, or parasites.

• Cost billions of dollars in economic damage each year

Pollution• Harms organisms in many ways

– Air pollution degrades forest ecosystems.– Water pollution adversely affects fish and

amphibians.– Agricultural runoff harms terrestrial and aquatic

species.– The effects of oil and chemical spills on wildlife are

dramatic and well known.

• Although pollution is a substantial threat…– It tends to be cause less damage than habitat

alteration or invasive species.

Overharvesting

• Vulnerable species are large, few in number, long-lived, and have few young (K-selected species).– The Siberian tiger is hunted

without rules and regulations.– The early 1990s saw increased

tiger poaching because of powerful economic incentives.

– Many other species affected: Atlantic gray whale, sharks, gorillas

Today the oceans contain only 10% of the large animals they once did.

Climate Change

• Our manipulation of earth’s climate system is having global impacts on biodiversity.

• Emissions of greenhouse gases warm temperatures.– Modifies global weather patterns and increases the

frequency of extreme weather events– Increases stress on populations and forces organisms to

shift their geographic ranges

• Most animals and plants will not be able to cope.

Warming has had Greatest Effect in the Arctic

The polar bear has been listed on the U.S. endangered species list.

Biodiversity loss has causes and consequences

Benefits of Biodiversity

• Provides ecosystems services for free – Food– Fuel– Fiber– Shelter– Building materials– Purification for water and air– Stabilizes Earths climate– Controls pests and disease– Etc.

• Transplants– Elephants to America

Activity

• List the Remainder of “Benefits to Biodiversity” from Your Text

• Weighing the Issues: Single Species Conservation, pg. 180.

• Testing Comp. q’s, 1-3, Seeking Solutions, 1 & 2

Biodiversity benefits: maintain ecosystem function

• Biodiversity increases the stability and resilience of communities and ecosystems.– Decreased biodiversity reduces a natural system’s

ability to function and provide services to our society.

• The loss of a species affects ecosystems differently. – Extinction of a keystone species may cause other

species to decline or disappear.

Biodiversity Benefits: Enhanced Food• Genetic diversity in crops is

enormously valuable.– Turkey’s wheat crops

received $50 billion worth of disease resistance from wild wheat.

• New potential food crops are waiting to be used.– Serendipity berry produces a

sweetener 3,000 times sweeter than sugar.

– Salt tolerant grasses can be irrigated with seawater.

Drugs & Medicines

• Each year pharmaceutical products owing their origin to wild species generate up to $150 billion in sales.– The rosy periwinkle

produces compounds that treat Hodgkin's disease and leukemia.

Economic benefits• Biodiversity provides a source of income through tourism.

– Ecotourism: people visit natural areas, creating economic opportunity for residents living near those areas

– Costa Rica: rainforests– Australia: Great Barrier Reef– Belize: reefs, caves, and rainforests

• A powerful incentive to preserve natural areas and reduce impacts on the landscape and species

• But too many visitors to natural areas can degrade the outdoor experience and disturb wildlife

People Value Nature

• Biophilia: connections that humans subconsciously seek with life– Our affinity for parks and wildlife– Keeping of pets– High value of real estate with

views of natural lands• Nature deficit disorder: alienation

from the natural environment– May be behind the emotional and

physical problems of the young

Do we have ethical obligations to other species?

• Many feel that living organisms have an innate right to exist.– Biodiversity conservation is justified on ethical

grounds.– “If tigers aren’t worth saving, then what are we all

about? What is worth saving?”

• Despite our ethical convictions, and biodiversity’s many benefits, the future of biodiversity remains far from secure.

Conservation Biology

APESComplete Ch 8

Why did it Arise?

• ………. We have begun to turn in our role from local conqueror to global steward.– E.O. Wilson: Naturalist, 1994

• Conservation Biology: scientific discipline devoted to understanding the factors, forces and processes that influence loss, protection, and restoration of biological diversity

Disciplines W/In the Field

• Conservation Geneticists– How small can a pop become, how much genetic

variation it can lose before problems such as inbreeding depression

• Minimum viable population size

Island Biogeography Theory

Distance EffectThe farther from a continent, fewer species can locate and inhabit it. Thus, the more remote the island, the lower the immigration rate

Target SizeThe larger the Island the more room for immigrants

Differential ExtinctionThe larger the island, the less likely organisms are to go extinct; larger areas allow for larger populations, who are less vulnerable to extinctions

Island Biogeography Thoery

• explore_island_biogeogrphy_START

Why does this matter?

• The Island Biogeography Theory shows:– Larger islands show more equilibrium than smaller

ones due to factors such a more habitats, resources, etc.

• Area Effect

– This data holds true for fragmented areas• Forests fragmented by logging

– Diversity is lost quickly, starting with large animals 1st

–Usually your top predators» Few numbers to begin with

What about Endangered Species?

• Endangered Species Act (1973)– Govt and private industry cannot destroy endangered

species or their habitat• Orange River Power Plant in Lee County

– Forbids trade in products made from end sp.

• 2008: 1,046 in US Endangered, 307 Threatened

Issues

• Manatees in Florida• Spotted Owl in Pacific NW• Florida Panther in Florida• Gopher Tortoise in Florida

What can we do?• Captive Breeding and Reintroduction

– Pros– Cons

• Cloning?– Pros– Cons

• Umbrella Species: If this critter is in the area, the area becomes protected ;)– Flagship species:

• Pandas• Panthers• Bald eagles

Despite opposition, the ESA has had successes

• Peregrine falcons, brown pelicans, bald eagles, and others have recovered and are no longer listed as endangered.

• Intensive management has stabilized other species.– The red-cockaded woodpecker– 40% of declining populations are now stable.

• These successes occur despite underfunding of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service.– Recently, political forces have attempted to weaken the ESA.– In 2006, 5,700 U.S. scientists wrote letters of protest to

Congress.

The ESA is controversial

• Most Americans support protecting endangered species.• Opponents feel that the ESA values endangered organisms

more than the livelihood of people.– Private land use will be restricted if an endangered species

is present.– “Shoot, shovel, and shut up”: landowners conceal the

presence of endangered species on their land• But the ESA has stopped few development projects.

– Habitat conservation plans and safe harbor agreements: landowners can harm species if they improve habitat for the species in other places

International Level

• CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species)– Protects trade in ES body parts

• Convention on Biological Diversity– Conserve biodiversity– Use biodiversity in a sustainable manner– Ensure the fair distribution of biodiversity's benefits

• To date, 188 nations have signed on. US did NOT

• Conservation International– Hotspots are located and focused upon

Hotspot: area with 1500 endemic plant species, and must have already lost @ 70% of its habitat due to man. 34 totalThese areas used to make up 15.7% of the planet; now it is only 2.3%! Unacceptable This area is home to 50% of the worlds plant sp, 42% of terrestrial vertebrate sp.

Think Globally, Act Locally ;)

• Community Based Conservation; making conservation beneficial to local people – Ecotourism– Park rangers– Parks and recreation areas

Conclusion

• Human induced habitat alteration, invasive species, pollution, overharvesting of biotic resources, and climate change are primary reasons for biodiversity loss.

• Human society can not function without biodiversity’s benefits

• We must care!!!

Activity

• Testing Comprehension Q’s: 6-10• Calculating Ecological Footprints, 1-4 and data

table – Above 2 due tomorrow

• Go to my web-page and follow the links for the Endangered Species Assignment– Due Tuesday, November 27th, 2012

• Review Tomorrow• Exam Next Day

QUESTION: Review

Which level is NOT included in the concept of biodiversity?

a) Speciesb) Geneticsc) Ecosystemsd) All of the above are included in this concept.

QUESTION: ReviewWhat happens when a species experiences “inbreeding depression”?

a) The species becomes too large for the resource baseb) Genetically similar parents mate and produce inferior

offspringc) Genetically similar parents mate and produce superior

offspringd) The number and variety of species increasese) An ecosystem’s biodiversity increases

QUESTION: ReviewAccording to the concept of “latitudinal gradient,” which of the following happens?

a) Species richness increases toward the equatorb) Species richness decreases toward the equatorc) Species richness decreases over timed) Countries like Canada have many more species than

expectede) People in warmer climates protect species better than

people in colder climates

QUESTION: ReviewWhich of the following statements is FALSE?

a) Very small species are often overlooked.b) Remote areas may have unidentified species.c) We have identified almost all species on Earth.d) There are more insect species than any other type

of species.e) Ecotones often have high biodiversity.

QUESTION: ReviewWhich of the following is the major cause of extinction?

a) Invasive speciesb) Pollutionc) Habitat lossd) Overharvestinge) These are pretty much equal in causing extinction.

QUESTION: Review

Biodiversity does all of the following EXCEPT:

a) Provide ecosystem servicesb) Decrease food securityc) Maintain ecosystem functiond) Provide aesthetic benefitse) Provide economic benefits

QUESTION: ReviewAccording to the theory of island biogeography, which island would have the LOWEST species richness?

a) A large island, close to the mainlandb) A large island, far from the mainlandc) A small island, close to the mainlandd) A small island, far from the mainlande) None of these; islands don’t really have species

QUESTION: ReviewA “biodiversity hotspot” is:

a) An area located near the equatorb) An area that supports few, but large, speciesc) An area that contains naturally high numbers of

peopled) An area that contains a large number of

endemic speciese) An area where the wealthy can go on vacation

QUESTION: Review

Which statement about the U.S. Endangered Species Act is FALSE?

a) It forbids the government, but not private citizens, from harming endangered species.

b) It lists endangered and threatened species.c) It is designed to prevent extinction.d) It is designed to enable populations to increase.e) It is designed to stabilize declining populations.

QUESTION: Weighing the IssuesIf a pharmaceutical company produces a medicine from a plant found in Costa Rica that will earn millions of dollars, who should reap the financial benefits?

a) The company, because it had to pay millions of dollars to discover and produce the drug

b) Costa Rica, because it had the plant that produced the drugc) Taxpayers, because they fund lots of research through their tax

dollarsd) Native people in Costa Rica, because the company would not have

found the drug without their helpe) The native people, the company, and Costa Rica, because all

played a vital part in the drug’s discovery and development

QUESTION: Weighing the IssuesHave you ever personally experienced evidence of the biophilia hypothesis?

a) Yes, I frequently feel a connection to other living things and nature

b) Yes, sometimes, on a particularly lovely dayc) Maybe, but I’m not sured) No, because I don’t get to experience nature often

enough e) Definitely not, unless I was going to earn money

from using nature

QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data

Where would ecotourists go to view the maximum species richness on these islands?

a) Redondab) Montserratc) Puerto Ricod) Hispaniola

e) Jamaica

QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data

Which biome lost the most area by 1950? Which biome lost the most area in recent decades?

a) Temperate grassland, tropical dry forest

b) Desert, savannac) Chaparral, tundrad) Temperate

grassland, desert