APA style & Ethics

Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology

Announcements

Exam 1: Coming up soon (Monday, Sept 14) Chapters 1,2,3,5,8 Syllabus has a link to terms for review

CITI ethics assignment is posted (see link on syllabus) Not due until week 5, but since ethics is covered on Exam 1, I

recommend checking it out sooner rather than later

Reading and Writing with Style (APA)

The Literature Why review it? What is it? How do you read it? How do you write it?

Misconceptions about Scientific writing

Writing the paper is the routine part of the research process Forces you to commit to your

evidence and conclusions

Just the facts The facts are just part of the

argument that the author is making

What you say is all that is important, how you say it isn’t important Good writing leads to higher chance

of accomplishing your goals

Goals of a research article

What are the goals of a research article? For the reader to:

Know about the research Understand what was done

Allow further testing & replication Be convinced by the research (hopefully)

Standardization of research report format APA style Organization and content reflects the logical thinking in

scientific investigation Standardization helps with clarity

Read with a critical eye Write with clarity in mind

Why a structured format?

To ease communication of what was done Forces a minimal amount of information Provides a logical framework (for argument) Provides consistent format within a discipline

• People know what to expect• Where to find the information in the article

Allows readers to cross-reference your sources easily

The ultimate resource for APA style is the 6th edition APA Publication manual

But also check out chpt 8 of your textbook and pgs 86-93 of your lab manual

Many webpages too (http://apastyle.org/)

Major goal: Clarity

Communicate with clarity

Major goal: Clarity

Communicate with clarity

Major goal: Clarity

Communicate with clarity Write for the reader

• Think about your audience, what do they already know, what don’t they know

Avoid overstatements• Be conservative in your claims

Emphasize the positive• Focus on how the data supports a theory not just on

how it refutes another theory

Major goal: Clarity

Communicate with clarity Avoid

• Jargon when possible• Slang and colloquialisms• Sexist and biased language

Try to be concise • Don’t use a whole paragraph when two sentences will do• Longer papers don’t mean better papers• Eliminate unnecessary redundancy• Use simple words (sentences) rather than complicated

words (sentences)

Major goal: Clarity

Use concrete words and examples Check your work!

• Read it over, make sure that you say what you mean to say

Use a consistent format (APA style)• It helps your reader understand your arguments and

the sources they’re built on. • It also helps you keep track of your sources as you

build arguments

Communicate with clarity

APA style: Parts of a research report

• Title Page

Adolescent Depression 1

Running Head: ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION

Adolescent Depression and Attachment

Ima G. Student and Soyam Eye

Purdue University

• Abstract

Adolescent Depression 2

We explored attachment in a family context by applying family systems principles to the investigation of multiple attachment relationships within families. This study focused on maternal adult attachment with respect to family of origin experiences. We examined associations between maternal adult attachment and three levels of family functioning including individual maternal depression symptoms, dyadic marital satisfaction and family unit functioning. We found that attachment security with respect to particular relationships was differentially associated with different levels of family functioning.

• Body

• References• Authors Notes• Footnotes• Tables• Figure Captions• Figures

Adolescent Depression 29

References

Barnett, P. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (1988). Psychosocial functioning and depression: Distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 104. Beck, A. T. (1978). Beck Depression Inventory. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Benoit, D., Vidovic, D., & Roman, J. (1991, April). Transmission of attachment across three generations. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., & Barton, M. L. (1989). Maternal attachment disturbances in failure to thrive. Infant Mental Health Journal, 3, 185-202. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., Boucher, C., & Minde, K. (1989). Sleep disorders in early childhood: Association with insecure maternal attachment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 86-93.

The basic parts of a research article:

The anatomy of a research article

The basic parts of a research article: Title and authors - gives you a general idea of

the topic and specifically who did it Abstract - short summary of the article

Title Page

Running Head: ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION 1

Adolescent Depression and Attachment

Ima G. Student and Soyam Eye

Topnotch University

Published title pages will look a bit different, but you’ll find these pieces of information. Typically the body of the article will begin as well.

Title should be maximally informative while short

(10 to 12 words recommended)

Running head – will go on each page of published article,

no more than 50 characters

Affiliation – where the bulk of

the research was done

Order of Authorship sometimes

carries meaning

Abstract

Abstract: Short summary of entire paper• 150-250 words (varies by journal)• The problem/issue• The method• The results• The major conclusions

Recommendation: write this after you’ve finished the rest of the paper

Good first contact, but remember that it is short on detail Shows up in PsycInfo Gets skimmed before reading the article

Body

Hourglass shape

BackgroundLiterature Review

Start broad

Body

Hourglass shape

Statement of purposeSpecific hypotheses (at least at conceptual level)

Narrow focus

Body

Hourglass shape

- Methods- Results

Most focused

Body

Hourglass shape

DiscussionConclusionsImplications

Broaden

Body

Introduction - gives the reader the background that they need Issue and Background

• What is it? Why is it interesting/important? Literature Review

• What has been done? What theories are out there? Statement of purpose

• What are you going to do and why? Specific hypotheses (at least at conceptual level)

• What do you predict will happen in your research?

The basic parts of a research article:

Body

Introduction - gives the reader the background that they need

Writing checklist• Be cohesive

• Be relevant (why are the reviewed studies relevant?)• Work on the transitions (make the flow logical)

Reading checklist1) What is the author's goal?2) What are the hypotheses?3) If you had designed the study, how would YOU have done it?

The basic parts of a research article:

Method - tells the reader exactly what was done Enough detail that the reader could actually replicate the

study. Subsections:

Participants - who were the data collected from How many, where they were selected from, any special

selection requirements, details about those who didn’t complete the experiment

Apparatus/ Materials - what was used to conduct the study Design

Suggested if you have a complex experimental design, often combined with Materials section

Procedure What did each participant do? Other details, including the

operational levels of your IV(s) and DV(s), counterbalancing, etc.

The basic parts of a research article:

Body

Method - tells the reader exactly what was done Reading checklist

1 a) Is your method better than theirs? b) Does the authors method actually test the hypotheses? c) What are the independent, dependent, and control

variables? 2) Based on what the authors did, what results do YOU expect?

• Writing checklist• Is it clear why the procedures were selected?• Are any assumptions explicit and defended?• Is the level of detail sufficient for replication?

The basic parts of a research article :

Body

Body

Results (state the results but don’t interpret them here) Verbal statement of results Tables and figures

• These get referred to in the text, but actually get put into their own sections at the end of the manuscript

Statistical Outcomes• Means, standard deviations, t-tests, ANOVAs, correlations, etc.

The basic parts of a research article:

Body

Results (state the results but don’t interpret them here) Reading checklist

1) Did the author get unexpected results?

2 a) How does the author interpret the results?

b) How would YOU interpret the results?

c) What implications would YOU draw from these results?

• Writing checklist• Is it clear how the hypotheses are tested by the analyses?• Would a graph or table help clarify the results?• What questions might the reader still have, and how could

I answer them in this section?

The basic parts of a research article:

Body

Discussion (interpret the results) Relationship between purpose and results Theoretical (or methodological) contribution Implications Future directions (optional) Reading checklist

1 a) Does YOUR interpretation or the authors' interpretation best represent the data?

b) Do you or the author draw the most sensible implications and conclusions?

• Writing checklist• Have you stated your most convincing argument?

• Do the conclusions follow straightforwardly from the results?

The rest

References Author’s name Year Title of work Publication information

• Journal• Issue• Pages

Adolescent Depression 29 References

Barnett, P. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (1988). Psychosocial functioning and depression: Distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 104. Beck, A. T. (1978). Beck Depression Inventory. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Benoit, D., Vidovic, D., & Roman, J. (1991, April). Transmission of attachment across three generations. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., & Barton, M. L. (1989). Maternal attachment disturbances in failure to thrive. Infant Mental Health Journal, 3, 185-202. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., Boucher, C., & Minde, K. (1989). Sleep disorders in early childhood: Association with insecure maternal attachment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 86-93.

When something odd comes up, don’t guess. Look it up!

The rest

References Authors Notes (new guidelines put these on

title page) Footnotes Tables Figures and figure captions

Figures and tables

These are used to supplement the text.

To make a point clearer for the reader.

Typically used for: The design Examples of stimuli Patterns of results

Ethics

Ethics – people should be treated as ends not means

Ethical Responsibilities in Research

Two basic categories of ethical concerns: Need to consider the rights of our participants in our

research Need to behave ethically as scientists and

practitioners

Consider ethics at each step What measurement techniques will be used? How are participants selected? What methods may be used on the participant population? What design is appropriate? How are the data analyzed? How are the results reported?

Ethical Responsibilities in Research

Using humans in research

For the most part the researcher has the power• You know what is going to be

done to the participants• Participants may feel like

they have to do it

Institutional Review Board IRB Criteria

• Minimize risk• Benefits > Risks• Equal opportunity sampling• Informed consent• Documentation of consent• Data monitoring• Privacy & Confidentiality

Monitoring of ethics

A. Beneficence & Non-maleficence• Protection from harm, Cost/Benefits analysis, Confidentiality

B. Fidelity & Responsibility• Uphold professional and scientific standards of contact

C. Integrity• Honesty and accuracy in science

D. Justice• Freedom from coercion

E. Respect for people’s rights and dignity• Basic courtesy, Informed consent, Debriefing, Avoid

deception

APA’s code of ethicshttp://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx

Informed consent

Information to allow a person to decide if they want to participate Basic purpose of the study Participation is voluntary Risks involved Benefits involved Rights to refuse or terminate participation

Assent - guardians if participants are not competent• e.g., children, developmentally disabled people

Using deception in research

Passive deception Withholding information about the study

Active deception Deliberately misleading participants

Using deception in research

Avoid it when possible Alternatives to deception

• Role-playing

When not possible to avoid Make sure that you are up front with all possible risks Potential results must be worth it Must debrief participants as soon as possible (either

right after participation or as soon as project is over)

Costs/Benefits analysis

Costs: all potential risks to the participants Physical harm Psychological harm Loss of confidentiality

Benefits: the “good” outcomes Direct benefits to participants Benefits to knowledge base Benefits to world at large

Scientific Integrity

Fraud prevention Replication – repeat a research study to validate

results Peer Review – critical analysis of research by peers

in the same area Plagiarism – taking credit for another’s work or ideas

• Avoided by citing the ideas or words of others

Ethical responsibility to science

Dirty tricks (this will get you thrown out) Questionable tricks (these are a little

fuzzier, but be wary) Neat tricks (accepted as okay, and

sometimes necessary)

Ethics in Science Quiz

Ethical responsibility to science

Fabrication of results Little or no attempt to minimize demand biases Reformulating your theory as you go Falsifying credentials Plagiarism Little or no attempt to minimize confounds Deliberately hiding (significant) errors in published work Little or no attempt to minimize demand characteristics

DT

DTDTQT

QT

DTQT

NT

Dirty tricks Questionable

tricks Neat tricks

Ethics in Science Quiz

Ethical responsibility to science

Throwing out data

Reorganizing order of report of experiments Violations of underlying statistical assumptions Strategic graphing of the data Duplicate publications (presented as new) Selective reporting of the results Leaving out some bad experiments (not bad results)

QT or DT

QTQT

QT

NT

NT

DT

Dirty tricks Questionable

tricks Neat tricks

depends reason for throwing out

Ethics in Science Quiz