3AMPLE !0! 2ESEARCH 0APER

3AMPLE 4ITLE 0AGE

2UNNING ON %MPTY

2UNNING ON %MPTY

4HE %FFECTS OF &OOD $EPRIVATION ON

#ONCENTRATION AND 0ERSEVERANCE

4HOMAS $ELANCY AND !DAM 3OLBERG

$ORDT #OLLEGE

0LACEMANUSCRIPT

PAGE HEADERSONEHALFINCH FROMTHE TOP 0UTFIVE SPACESBETWEEN THEPAGE HEADERAND THE PAGE

NUMBER

&ULL TITLEAUTHORS ANDSCHOOL NAMEARE CENTEREDON THE PAGE

TYPED INUPPERCASE ANDLOWERCASE

4HE ABSTRACTSUMMARIZESTHE PROBLEMPARTICIPANTSHYPOTHESESMETHODSUSED

RESULTS ANDCONCLUSIONS

3AMPLE !BSTRACT

2UNNING ON %MPTY

!BSTRACT

4HIS STUDY EXAMINED THE EFFECTS OF SHORTTERM FOOD DEPRIVATION ON TWO

COGNITIVE ABILITIESCONCENTRATION AND PERSEVERANCE 5NDERGRADUATE

STUDENTS . WERE TESTED ON BOTH A CONCENTRATION TASK AND A

PERSEVERANCE TASK AFTER ONE OF THREE LEVELS OF FOOD DEPRIVATION NONE

HOURS OR HOURS 7E PREDICTED THAT FOOD DEPRIVATION WOULD IMPAIR BOTH

CONCENTRATION SCORES AND PERSEVERANCE TIME &OOD DEPRIVATION HAD NO

SIGNIFICANT EFFECT ON CONCENTRATION SCORES WHICH IS CONSISTENT WITH RECENT

RESEARCH ON THE EFFECTS OF FOOD DEPRIVATION 'REEN ET AL 'REEN

ET AL (OWEVER PARTICIPANTS IN THE HOUR DEPRIVATION GROUP

SPENT SIGNIFICANTLY LESS TIME ON THE PERSEVERANCE TASK THAN THOSE IN BOTH

THE CONTROL AND HOUR DEPRIVATION GROUPS SUGGESTING THAT SHORTTERM

DEPRIVATION MAY AFFECT SOME ASPECTS OF COGNITION AND NOT OTHERS

!N !0! 2ESEARCH 0APER -ODEL4HOMAS $ELANCY AND !DAM 3OLBERG WROTE THE FOLLOWING RESEARCH PAPER FOR

A PSYCHOLOGY CLASS !S YOU REVIEW THEIR PAPER READ THE SIDE NOTES AND EXAMINE THEFOLLOWING

L 4HE USE AND DOCUMENTATION OF THEIR NUMEROUS SOURCESL 4HE BACKGROUND THEY PROVIDE BEFORE GETTING INTO THEIR OWN STUDY RESULTSL 4HE SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE USED WHEN REPORTING THEIR RESULTS

4HEINTRODUCTIONSTATES THETOPIC ANDTHE MAIN

QUESTIONS TOBE EXPLORED

4HERESEARCHERS

SUPPLYBACKGROUNDINFORMATIONBY DISCUSSINGPAST RESEARCHON THE TOPIC

%XTENSIVEREFERENCINGESTABLISHESSUPPORTFOR THE

DISCUSSION

2UNNING ON %MPTY

2UNNING ON %MPTY 4HE %FFECTS OF &OOD $EPRIVATION

ON #ONCENTRATION AND 0ERSEVERANCE

-ANY THINGS INTERRUPT PEOPLES ABILITY TO FOCUS ON A TASK DISTRACTIONS

HEADACHES NOISY ENVIRONMENTS AND EVEN PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 4O

SOME EXTENT PEOPLE CAN CONTROL THE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT MAKE IT

DIFFICULT TO FOCUS (OWEVER WHAT ABOUT INTERNAL FACTORS SUCH AS AN EMPTY

STOMACH #AN PEOPLE INCREASE THEIR ABILITY TO FOCUS SIMPLY BY EATING

REGULARLY

/NE THEORY THAT PROMPTED RESEARCH ON HOW FOOD INTAKE AFFECTS THE

AVERAGE PERSON WAS THE GLUCOSTATIC THEORY 3EVERAL RESEARCHERS IN THE

S AND S SUGGESTED THAT THE BRAIN REGULATES FOOD INTAKE IN ORDER

TO MAINTAIN A BLOODGLUCOSE SET POINT 4HE IDEA WAS THAT PEOPLE BECOME

HUNGRY WHEN THEIR BLOODGLUCOSE LEVELS DROP SIGNIFICANTLY BELOW THEIR SET

POINT AND THAT THEY BECOME SATISFIED AFTER EATING WHEN THEIR BLOODGLUCOSE

LEVELS RETURN TO THAT SET POINT 4HIS THEORY SEEMED LOGICAL BECAUSE GLUCOSE

IS THE BRAINS PRIMARY FUEL 0INEL 4HE EARLIEST INVESTIGATION OF THE

GENERAL EFFECTS OF FOOD DEPRIVATION FOUND THAT LONGTERM FOOD DEPRIVATION

HOURS AND LONGER WAS ASSOCIATED WITH SLUGGISHNESS DEPRESSION

IRRITABILITY REDUCED HEART RATE AND INABILITY TO CONCENTRATE +EYS "ROZEK

(ENSCHEL -ICKELSEN 4AYLOR !NOTHER STUDY FOUND THAT FASTING

FOR SEVERAL DAYS PRODUCED MUSCULAR WEAKNESS IRRITABILITY AND APATHY OR

DEPRESSION +OLLAR 3LATER 0ALMER $OCTER -ANDELL 3INCE THAT TIME

RESEARCH HAS FOCUSED MAINLY ON HOW NUTRITION AFFECTS COGNITION (OWEVER AS

'REEN %LLIMAN AND 2OGERS POINT OUT THE EFFECTS OF FOOD DEPRIVATION

ON COGNITION HAVE RECEIVED COMPARATIVELY LESS ATTENTION IN RECENT YEARS

#ENTER THETITLE ONE INCHFROM THE TOP$OUBLESPACETHROUGHOUT

2UNNING ON %MPTY

4HE RELATIVELY SPARSE RESEARCH ON FOOD DEPRIVATION HAS LEFT ROOM FOR

FURTHER RESEARCH &IRST MUCH OF THE RESEARCH HAS FOCUSED EITHER ON CHRONIC

STARVATION AT ONE END OF THE CONTINUUM OR ON MISSING A SINGLE MEAL AT THE

OTHER END 'REEN ET AL 3ECOND SOME OF THE FINDINGS HAVE BEEN

CONTRADICTORY /NE STUDY FOUND THAT SKIPPING BREAKFAST IMPAIRS CERTAIN

ASPECTS OF COGNITION SUCH AS PROBLEMSOLVING ABILITIES 0OLLITT ,EWIS

'ARZA 3HULMAN (OWEVER OTHER RESEARCH BY - 7 'REEN .

! %LLIMAN AND 0 * 2OGERS HAS FOUND THAT FOOD DEPRIVATION

RANGING FROM MISSING A SINGLE MEAL TO HOURS WITHOUT EATING DOES NOT

SIGNIFICANTLY IMPAIR COGNITION 4HIRD NOT ALL GROUPS OF PEOPLE HAVE BEEN

SUFFICIENTLY STUDIED 3TUDIES HAVE BEEN DONE ON n YEAROLDS 0OLLITT ET

AL OBESE SUBJECTS #RUMPTON 7INE $RENICK COLLEGEAGE

MEN AND WOMEN 'REEN ET AL AND MIDDLEAGE MALES

+OLLAR ET AL &OURTH NOT ALL COGNITIVE ASPECTS HAVE BEEN STUDIED

)N 'REEN %LLIMAN AND 2OGERS STUDIED SUSTAINED ATTENTION SIMPLE

REACTION TIME AND IMMEDIATE MEMORY IN THEY STUDIED ATTENTIONAL

BIAS AND IN THEY STUDIED SIMPLE REACTION TIME TWOFINGER TAPPING

RECOGNITION MEMORY AND FREE RECALL )N ANOTHER STUDY FOCUSED ON

REACTION TIME AND ACCURACY INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT AND PROBLEM SOLVING

0OLLITT ET AL

!CCORDING TO SOME RESEARCHERS MOST OF THE RESULTS SO FAR INDICATE THAT

COGNITIVE FUNCTION IS NOT AFFECTED SIGNIFICANTLY BY SHORTTERM FASTING 'REEN

ET AL P (OWEVER THIS CONCLUSION SEEMS PREMATURE DUE TO THE

RELATIVE LACK OF RESEARCH ON COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS SUCH AS CONCENTRATION AND

PERSEVERANCE 4O DATE NO STUDY HAS TESTED PERSEVERANCE DESPITE ITS

IMPORTANCE IN COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING )N FACT PERSEVERANCE MAY BE A BETTER

INDICATOR THAN ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN ASSESSING GROWTH IN LEARNING AND

THINKING ABILITIES AS PERSEVERANCE HELPS IN SOLVING COMPLEX PROBLEMS

#OSTA !NOTHER STUDY ALSO RECOGNIZED THAT PERSEVERANCE BETTER

LEARNING TECHNIQUES AND EFFORT ARE COGNITIONS WORTH STUDYING $!GOSTINO

4ESTING AS MANY ASPECTS OF COGNITION AS POSSIBLE IS KEY BECAUSE THE

NATURE OF THE TASK IS IMPORTANT WHEN INTERPRETING THE LINK BETWEEN FOOD

DEPRIVATION AND COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE 3MITH +ENDRICK

#LEARTRANSITIONS

GUIDE READERSTHROUGH THERESEARCHERSREASONING

4HERESEARCHERSEXPLAIN HOWTHEIR STUDYWILL ADD TO

PAST RESEARCHON THE TOPIC

4HERESEARCHERSSUPPORT THEIRDECISION TOFOCUS ON

CONCENTRATIONAND

PERSEVERANCE

2UNNING ON %MPTY

4HEREFORE THE CURRENT STUDY HELPS US UNDERSTAND HOW SHORTTERM FOOD

DEPRIVATION AFFECTS CONCENTRATION ON AND PERSEVERANCE WITH A DIFFICULT TASK

3PECIFICALLY PARTICIPANTS DEPRIVED OF FOOD FOR HOURS WERE EXPECTED TO

PERFORM WORSE ON A CONCENTRATION TEST AND A PERSEVERANCE TASK THAN THOSE

DEPRIVED FOR HOURS WHO IN TURN WERE PREDICTED TO PERFORM WORSE THAN

THOSE WHO WERE NOT DEPRIVED OF FOOD

-ETHOD

0ARTICIPANTS

0ARTICIPANTS INCLUDED UNDERGRADUATESTUDENT VOLUNTEERS

FEMALES MALES SOME OF WHOM RECEIVED A SMALL AMOUNT OF EXTRA CREDIT

IN A COLLEGE COURSE 4HE MEAN COLLEGE GRADE POINT AVERAGE '0! WAS

0OTENTIAL PARTICIPANTS WERE EXCLUDED IF THEY WERE DIETING MENSTRUATING

OR TAKING SPECIAL MEDICATION 4HOSE WHO WERE STRUGGLING WITH OR HAD

STRUGGLED WITH AN EATING DISORDER WERE EXCLUDED AS WERE POTENTIAL

PARTICIPANTS ADDICTED TO NICOTINE OR CAFFEINE

-ATERIALS

#ONCENTRATION SPEED AND ACCURACY WERE MEASURED USING AN ONLINE

NUMBERSMATCHING TEST WWWPSYCHTESTSCOMTESTSIQCONCENTRATIONHTML

THAT CONSISTED OF LINES OF NUMBERS EACH )N MINUTES PARTICIPANTS

WERE REQUIRED TO FIND PAIRS OF NUMBERS IN EACH LINE THAT ADDED UP TO

3CORES WERE CALCULATED AS THE PERCENTAGE OF CORRECTLY IDENTIFIED PAIRS OUT OF

A POSSIBLE 0ERSEVERANCE WAS MEASURED WITH A PUZZLE THAT CONTAINED

FIVE OCTAGONSEACH OF WHICH INCLUDED A STENCIL OF A SPECIFIC OBJECT SUCH

AS AN ANIMAL OR A FLOWER 4HE OCTAGONS WERE TO BE PLACED ON TOP OF

EACH OTHER IN A SPECIFIC WAY TO MAKE THE SILHOUETTE OF A RABBIT (OWEVER

THREE OF THE SHAPES WERE SLIGHTLY ALTERED SO THAT THE TASK WAS IMPOSSIBLE

0ERSEVERANCE SCORES WERE CALCULATED AS THE NUMBER OF MINUTES THAT A

PARTICIPANT SPENT ON THE PUZZLE TASK BEFORE GIVING UP

0ROCEDURE

!T AN INITIAL MEETING PARTICIPANTS GAVE INFORMED CONSENT %ACH

CONSENT FORM CONTAINED AN ASSIGNED IDENTIFICATION NUMBER AND REQUESTED

THE PARTICIPANTS '0! 3TUDENTS WERE THEN INFORMED THAT THEY WOULD BE

NOTIFIED BY EMAIL AND TELEPHONE ABOUT THEIR ASSIGNMENT TO ONE OF THE

4HERESEARCHERSSTATE THEIR

INITIALHYPOTHESES

(EADINGS ANDSUBHEADINGSSHOW THEPAPERS

ORGANIZATION

4HEEXPERIMENTSMETHOD ISDESCRIBEDUSING THETERMS ANDACRONYMS OFTHE DISCIPLINE

0ASSIVE VOICEIS USED TOEMPHASIZE

THEEXPERIMENTNOT THE

RESEARCHERSOTHERWISEACTIVE VOICEIS USED

2UNNING ON %MPTY

THREE EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS .EXT STUDENTS WERE GIVEN AN INSTRUCTION

SHEET 4HESE WRITTEN INSTRUCTIONS WHICH WE ALSO READ ALOUD EXPLAINED

THE EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS CLARIFIED GUIDELINES FOR THE FOOD DEPRIVATION

PERIOD AND SPECIFIED THE TIME AND LOCATION OF TESTING

0ARTICIPANTS WERE RANDOMLY ASSIGNED TO ONE OF THESE CONDITIONS

USING A MATCHEDTRIPLETS DESIGN BASED ON THE '0!S COLLECTED AT THE

INITIAL MEETING 4HIS DESIGN WAS USED TO CONTROL INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

IN COGNITIVE ABILITY 4WO DAYS AFTER THE INITIAL MEETING PARTICIPANTS WERE

INFORMED OF THEIR GROUP ASSIGNMENT AND ITS CONDITION AND REMINDED THAT

IF THEY WERE IN A FOODDEPRIVED GROUP THEY SHOULD NOT EAT ANYTHING AFTER

AM THE NEXT DAY 0ARTICIPANTS FROM THE CONTROL GROUP WERE TESTED AT

PM IN A DESIGNATED COMPUTER LAB ON THE DAY THE DEPRIVATION STARTED

4HOSE IN THE HOUR GROUP WERE TESTED AT PM ON THAT SAME DAY

4HOSE IN THE HOUR GROUP WERE TESTED AT AM ON THE FOLLOWING DAY

!T THEIR ASSIGNED TIME PARTICIPANTS ARRIVED AT A COMPUTER LAB

FOR TESTING %ACH PARTICIPANT WAS GIVEN WRITTEN TESTING INSTRUCTIONS

WHICH WERE ALSO READ ALOUD 4HE ONLINE CONCENTRATION TEST HAD ALREADY

BEEN LOADED ON THE COMPUTERS FOR PARTICIPANTS BEFORE THEY ARRIVED FOR

TESTING SO SHORTLY AFTER THEY ARRIVED THEY PROCEEDED TO COMPLETE THE

TEST )MMEDIATELY AFTER ALL PARTICIPANTS HAD COMPLETED THE TEST AND THEIR

SCORES WERE RECORDED PARTICIPANTS WERE EACH GIVEN THE SILHOUETTE PUZZLE

AND INSTRUCTED HOW TO PROCEED )N ADDITION THEY WERE TOLD THAT THEY

WOULD HAVE AN UNLIMITED AMOUNT OF TIME TO COMPLETE THE TASK AND

THEY WERE NOT TO TELL ANY OTHER PARTICIPANT WHETHER THEY HAD COMPLETED

THE PUZZLE OR SIMPLY GIVEN UP 4HIS PROCEDURE WAS FOLLOWED TO PREVENT

THE GROUP INFLUENCE OF SOME PARTICIPANTS SEEING OTHERS GIVE UP !NY

PARTICIPANT STILL WORKING ON THE PUZZLE AFTER MINUTES WAS STOPPED TO

KEEP THE TIME OF THE STUDY MANAGEABLE )MMEDIATELY AFTER EACH PARTICIPANT

STOPPED WORKING ON THE PUZZLE HESHE GAVE DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

AND COMPLETED A FEW MANIPULATIONCHECK ITEMS 7E THEN DEBRIEFED AND

DISMISSED EACH PARTICIPANT OUTSIDE OF THE LAB

!TTENTION ISSHOWN TOTHE CONTROLFEATURES

4HEEXPERIMENT ISLAID OUT STEP

BY STEPWITH TIMETRANSITIONSLIKE hTHENvAND hNEXTv

2UNNING ON %MPTY

2ESULTS

0ERSEVERANCE DATA FROM ONE CONTROLGROUP PARTICIPANT WERE

ELIMINATED BECAUSE SHE HAD TO LEAVE THE SESSION EARLY #ONCENTRATION DATA

FROM ANOTHER CONTROLGROUP PARTICIPANT WERE DROPPED BECAUSE HE DID NOT

COMPLETE THE TEST CORRECTLY 4HREE MANIPULATIONCHECK QUESTIONS INDICATED

THAT EACH PARTICIPANT CORRECTLY PERCEIVED HIS OR HER DEPRIVATION CONDITION

AND HAD FOLLOWED THE RULES FOR IT 4HE AVERAGE CONCENTRATION SCORE WAS

3$ WHICH WAS VERY GOOD CONSIDERING THAT ANYTHING OVER

PERCENT IS LABELED hGOODv OR hABOVE AVERAGEv 4HE AVERAGE TIME SPENT

ON THE PUZZLE WAS MINUTES 3$ WITH A MAXIMUM OF

MINUTES ALLOWED

7E PREDICTED THAT PARTICIPANTS IN THE HOUR DEPRIVATION GROUP

WOULD PERFORM WORSE ON THE CONCENTRATION TEST AND THE PERSEVERANCE TASK

THAN THOSE IN THE HOUR GROUP WHO IN TURN WOULD PERFORM WORSE THAN

THOSE IN THE CONTROL GROUP ! ONEWAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE !./6!

SHOWED NO SIGNIFICANT EFFECT OF DEPRIVATION CONDITION ON CONCENTRATION

& P SEE &IGURE !NOTHER ONEWAY !./6! INDICATED

&IGURE

.O DEPRIVATION HOUR DEPRIVATION HOUR DEPRIVATION

$EPRIVATION #ONDITION

-EANSCOREONCONCENTRATIONTEST

4HE WRITERSSUMMARIZE

THEIR FINDINGSINCLUDINGPROBLEMS

ENCOUNTERED

h3EE &IGUREv SENDS

READERS TO AFIGURE GRAPHPHOTOGRAPHCHART ORDRAWING

CONTAINED INTHE PAPER

!LL FIGURESAND

ILLUSTRATIONSOTHER THANTABLES ARENUMBEREDIN THE ORDERTHAT THEYARE FIRST

MENTIONED INTHE TEXT

2UNNING ON %MPTY

A SIGNIFICANT EFFECT OF DEPRIVATION CONDITION ON PERSEVERANCE TIME

& P 0OSTHOC 4UKEY TESTS INDICATED THAT THE HOUR

DEPRIVATION GROUP - 3$ SPENT SIGNIFICANTLY LESS TIME

ON THE PERSEVERANCE TASK THAN EITHER THE CONTROL GROUP - 3$

OR THE HOUR GROUP - 3$ WITH NO SIGNIFICANT

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE LATTER TWO GROUPS SEE &IGURE .O SIGNIFICANT

EFFECT WAS FOUND FOR GENDER EITHER GENERALLY OR WITH SPECIFIC DEPRIVATION

CONDITIONS &S 5NEXPECTEDLY FOOD DEPRIVATION HAD NO SIGNIFICANT

EFFECT ON CONCENTRATION SCORES /VERALL WE FOUND SUPPORT FOR OUR

HYPOTHESIS THAT HOURS OF FOOD DEPRIVATION WOULD SIGNIFICANTLY IMPAIR

PERSEVERANCE WHEN COMPARED TO NO DEPRIVATION 5NEXPECTEDLY HOURS

OF FOOD DEPRIVATION DID NOT SIGNIFICANTLY AFFECT PERSEVERANCE RELATIVE TO THE

CONTROL GROUP !LSO UNEXPECTEDLY FOOD DEPRIVATION DID NOT SIGNIFICANTLY

AFFECT CONCENTRATION SCORES

$ISCUSSION

4HE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY WAS TO TEST HOW DIFFERENT LEVELS OF FOOD

DEPRIVATION AFFECT CONCENTRATION ON AND PERSEVERANCE WITH DIFFICULT TASKS

-EANSCOREONPERSEVERANCETEST

&IGURE

.O DEPRIVATION HOUR DEPRIVATION HOUR DEPRIVATION

$EPRIVATION #ONDITION

4HERESEARCHERSRESTATE THEIRHYPOTHESESAND THE

RESULTS ANDGO ON TOINTERPRET

THOSE RESULTS

2UNNING ON %MPTY

7E PREDICTED THAT THE LONGER PEOPLE HAD BEEN DEPRIVED OF FOOD THE LOWER

THEY WOULD SCORE ON THE CONCENTRATION TASK AND THE LESS TIME THEY WOULD

SPEND ON THE PERSEVERANCE TASK )N THIS STUDY THOSE DEPRIVED OF FOOD DID

GIVE UP MORE QUICKLY ON THE PUZZLE BUT ONLY IN THE HOUR GROUP 4HUS

THE HYPOTHESIS WAS PARTIALLY SUPPORTED FOR THE PERSEVERANCE TASK (OWEVER

CONCENTRATION WAS FOUND TO BE UNAFFECTED BY FOOD DEPRIVATION AND THUS

THE HYPOTHESIS WAS NOT SUPPORTED FOR THAT TASK

4HE FINDINGS OF THIS STUDY ARE CONSISTENT WITH THOSE OF 'REEN ET AL

WHERE SHORTTERM FOOD DEPRIVATION DID NOT AFFECT SOME ASPECTS

OF COGNITION INCLUDING ATTENTIONAL FOCUS 4AKEN TOGETHER THESE FINDINGS

SUGGEST THAT CONCENTRATION IS NOT SIGNIFICANTLY IMPAIRED BY SHORTTERM

FOOD DEPRIVATION 4HE FINDINGS ON PERSEVERANCE HOWEVER ARE NOT AS EASILY

EXPLAINED 7E SURMISE THAT THE PARTICIPANTS IN THE HOUR GROUP GAVE UP

MORE QUICKLY ON THE PERSEVERANCE TASK BECAUSE OF THEIR HUNGER PRODUCED

BY THE FOOD DEPRIVATION "UT WHY THEN DID THOSE IN THE HOUR GROUP

FAIL TO YIELD THE SAME EFFECT 7E POSTULATE THAT THIS RESULT CAN BE EXPLAINED

BY THE CONCEPT OF hLEARNED INDUSTRIOUSNESSv WHEREIN PARTICIPANTS WHO

PERFORM ONE DIFFICULT TASK DO BETTER ON A SUBSEQUENT TASK THAN THE

PARTICIPANTS WHO NEVER TOOK THE INITIAL TASK %ISENBERGER ,EONARD

(ICKMAN 3TROMME ,IPPMAN "ECAUSE PARTICIPANTS

HAD SUCCESSFULLY COMPLETED HOURS OF FASTING ALREADY THEIR TENDENCY

TO PERSEVERE HAD ALREADY BEEN INCREASED IF ONLY TEMPORARILY !NOTHER

POSSIBLE EXPLANATION IS THAT THE MOTIVATIONAL STATE OF A PARTICIPANT MAY BE

A SIGNIFICANT DETERMINANT OF BEHAVIOR UNDER TESTING 3AUGSTAD 4HIS

IDEA MAY ALSO EXPLAIN THE SHORT PERSEVERANCE TIMES IN THE HOUR GROUP

BECAUSE THESE PARTICIPANTS TOOK THE TESTS AT PM A PRIME TIME OF THE

NIGHT FOR CONDUCTING BUSINESS AND SOCIALIZING ON A COLLEGE CAMPUS THEY

MAY HAVE BEEN LESS MOTIVATED TO TAKE THE TIME TO WORK ON THE PUZZLE

2ESEARCH ON FOOD DEPRIVATION AND COGNITION COULD CONTINUE IN SEVERAL

DIRECTIONS &IRST OTHER ASPECTS OF COGNITION MAY BE AFFECTED BY SHORTTERM

FOOD DEPRIVATION SUCH AS READING COMPREHENSION OR MOTIVATION 7ITH

RESPECT TO THIS LATTER TOPIC SOME STUDENTS IN THIS STUDY REPORTED DECREASED

MOTIVATION TO COMPLETE THE TASKS BECAUSE OF A DESIRE TO EAT IMMEDIATELY

4HE WRITERSSPECULATEON POSSIBLEEXPLANATIONS

FOR THEUNEXPECTEDRESULTS

2UNNING ON %MPTY

AFTER THE TESTING )N ADDITION THE TIME OF DAY WHEN THE RESPECTIVE GROUPS

TOOK THE TESTS MAY HAVE INFLUENCED THE RESULTS THOSE IN THE HOUR

GROUP TOOK THE TESTS IN THE MORNING AND MAY HAVE BEEN FRESHER AND MORE

RELAXED THAN THOSE IN THE HOUR GROUP WHO TOOK THE TESTS AT NIGHT

0ERHAPS THEN THE MOTIVATION LEVEL OF FOODDEPRIVED PARTICIPANTS COULD

BE EFFECTIVELY TESTED 3ECOND LONGERTERM FOOD DEPRIVATION PERIODS SUCH

AS THOSE EXPERIENCED BY PEOPLE FASTING FOR RELIGIOUS REASONS COULD BE

EXPLORED )T IS POSSIBLE THAT COGNITIVE FUNCTION FLUCTUATES OVER THE DURATION

OF DEPRIVATION 3TUDIES COULD ASK HOW LONG A PERSON CAN REMAIN FOCUSED

DESPITE A LACK OF NUTRITION 4HIRD AND PERHAPS MOST FASCINATING STUDIES

COULD EXPLORE HOW FOOD DEPRIVATION AFFECTS LEARNED INDUSTRIOUSNESS !S

STATED ABOVE ONE POSSIBLE EXPLANATION FOR THE BETTER PERSEVERANCE TIMES

IN THE HOUR GROUP COULD BE THAT THEY SPONTANEOUSLY IMPROVED THEIR

PERSEVERANCE FACULTIES BY SIMPLY FORCING THEMSELVES NOT TO EAT FOR

HOURS 4HEREFORE RESEARCH COULD STUDY HOW FOOD DEPRIVATION AFFECTS THE

ACQUISITION OF PERSEVERANCE

)N CONCLUSION THE RESULTS OF THIS STUDY PROVIDE SOME FASCINATING

INSIGHTS INTO THE COGNITIVE AND PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SKIPPING MEALS

#ONTRARY TO WHAT WE PREDICTED A PERSON MAY INDEED BE VERY CAPABLE OF

CONCENTRATING AFTER NOT EATING FOR MANY HOURS /N THE OTHER HAND IF ONE

IS TAKING A LONG TEST OR WORKING LONG HOURS AT A TEDIOUS TASK THAT REQUIRES

PERSEVERANCE ONE MAY BE HINDERED BY NOT EATING FOR A SHORT TIME AS

SHOWN BY THE HOUR GROUPS PERFORMANCE ON THE PERSEVERANCE TASK

-ANY PEOPLESTUDENTS WORKING MOTHERS AND THOSE INTERESTED IN FASTING

TO MENTION A FEWHAVE TO DEAL WITH SHORTTERM FOOD DEPRIVATION

INTENTIONAL OR UNINTENTIONAL 4HIS RESEARCH AND OTHER RESEARCH TO FOLLOW

WILL CONTRIBUTE TO KNOWLEDGE OF THE DISADVANTAGESAND POSSIBLE

ADVANTAGESOF SKIPPING MEALS 4HE MIXED RESULTS OF THIS STUDY SUGGEST

THAT WE HAVE MUCH MORE TO LEARN ABOUT SHORTTERM FOOD DEPRIVATION

4HECONCLUSIONSUMMARIZES

THEOUTCOMESSTRESSES THEEXPERIMENTSVALUE ANDANTICIPATESFURTHER

ADVANCES ONTHE TOPIC

2UNNING ON %MPTY

2EFERENCES

#OSTA ! , 4HINKING (OW DO WE KNOW STUDENTS ARE GETTING BETTER

AT IT 2OEPER 2EVIEW n

#RUMPTON % 7INE $ " $RENICK % * 3TARVATION 3TRESS

OR SATISFACTION *OURNAL OF THE !MERICAN -EDICAL !SSOCIATION

n

$!GOSTINO # ! & 4ESTING A SOCIALCOGNITIVE MODEL OF

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION$ISSERTATION !BSTRACTS )NTERNATIONAL 3ECTION

! (UMANITIES 3OCIAL 3CIENCES

%ISENBERGER 2 ,EONARD * - %FFECTS OF CONCEPTUAL TASK

DIFFICULTY ON GENERALIZED PERSISTENCE !MERICAN *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY

n

'REEN - 7 %LLIMAN . ! 2OGERS 0 * ,ACK OF EFFECT OF

SHORTTERM FASTING ON COGNITIVE FUNCTION *OURNAL OF 0SYCHIATRIC

2ESEARCH n

'REEN - 7 %LLIMAN . ! 2OGERS 0 * (UNGER CALORIC

PRELOADING AND THE SELECTIVE PROCESSING OF FOOD AND BODY SHAPE

WORDS "RITISH *OURNAL OF #LINICAL 0SYCHOLOGY n

'REEN - 7 %LLIMAN . ! 2OGERS 0 * 4HE STUDY EFFECTS OF

FOOD DEPRIVATION AND INCENTIVE MOTIVATION ON BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS

AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION 0SYCHOPHARMACOLOGY n

(ICKMAN + , 3TROMME # ,IPPMAN , ' ,EARNED

INDUSTRIOUSNESS 2EPLICATION IN PRINCIPLE *OURNAL OF 'ENERAL

0SYCHOLOGY n

+EYS ! "ROZEK * (ENSCHEL ! -ICKELSEN / 4AYLOR ( ,

4HE BIOLOGY OF HUMAN STARVATION 6OL -INNEAPOLIS 5NIVERSITY OF

-INNESOTA 0RESS

+OLLAR % * 3LATER ' 2 0ALMER * / $OCTER 2 & -ANDELL ! *

-EASUREMENT OF STRESS IN FASTING MAN !RCHIVES OF 'ENERAL

0SYCHOLOGY n

0INEL * 0 "IOPSYCHOLOGY TH ED "OSTON !LLYN AND "ACON

!LL WORKSREFERRED TOIN THE PAPERAPPEAR ON

THE REFERENCEPAGE LISTEDALPHABETICALLYBY AUTHOROR TITLE

%ACH ENTRYFOLLOWS !0!GUIDELINESFOR LISTINGAUTHORSDATES

TITLES ANDPUBLISHINGINFORMATION

#APITALIZATIONPUNCTUATIONAND HANGINGINDENTATION

ARE CONSISTENTWITH !0!FORMAT

2UNNING ON %MPTY

0OLLITT % ,EWIS . , 'ARZA # 3HULMAN 2 * n &ASTING

AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION *OURNAL OF 0SYCHIATRIC 2ESEARCH n

3AUGSTAD 0 %FFECT OF FOOD DEPRIVATION ON PERCEPTIONCOGNITION

! COMMENT ;#OMMENT ON THE ARTICLE BY $AVID , 7OLITZKY=

0SYCHOLOGICAL "ULLETIN n

3MITH ! 0 +ENDRICK ! - -EALS AND PERFORMANCE )N ! 0

3MITH $ - *ONES %DS (ANDBOOK OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE 6OL

(EALTH AND PERFORMANCE PP n 3AN $IEGO !CADEMIC 0RESS

3MITH ! 0 +ENDRICK ! - -ABEN ! , %FFECTS OF BREAKFAST

AND CAFFEINE ON PERFORMANCE AND MOOD IN THE LATE MORNING AND

AFTER LUNCH .EUROPSYCHOBIOLOGY n