The Crimean War1853-1856

• Why?Religious Issues

OE gave France/RC control of some Christian sites in Holy Land

Rus. occupied OE provinces of Moldavia & Walachia in order to “protect” Orthodox Christians

Russia Warm Water Port

Russia Vs. Ottoman Empire

• Sided w/ OE28 March 1854 – Declared war on Rus.

• Why?Naval & commercial interests in Med.Napoleon III – help raise popularity @

home

• Austria & Prussia = neutral

Russia Vs. France & Great Britain

Outcomes

• Both sides = poorly equipped and commanded

• Sept. 1855 Rus. fortress (Sevastopol) fell to Fr. & GB

A War of Firsts• Medical Treatment

– High death rate (1 in 6) due to unsanitary conditions

• Cholera• Typhus• Dysentery

– Florence Nightingale + 38 nurses volunteered

– Fought deplorable hospital conditions

– Result: better sanitation & fewer deaths

Florence Nightingale, British Heroine

Nightingale Nurses of Crimean War

A war of Firsts

• Journalism• Photo-journalism

– First war photos ever

Roger Fenton (GB) – First War Photographer

Allied Camp at Sevastopol

The tombs of the generals on Cathcart's Hill

Cossack Bay, Balaklava.

A British Officer

British Hussar(Calvary)

British Officers

FrenchSoldiers

FrenchGeneralBosquetGiving Orders

Ottoman Soldiers

Treaty of Paris - 1856

• Ended Crimean War• Required Russia to:

Surrender territoryRecognize neutrality of Black SeaRenounce claims of protection over

Christians in OE

• Shattered Russia’s mighty image

Outcomes Post-Treaty

• Concert of Europe shatteredNations more willing to fight to

overthrow existing orders than to fight to defend them

• Austria asserted more influence w/in the Germ. Federation

• Prussia unhappy with a secondary role (behind Austria) in Germ.

Consequences

• Europe = unstable apx. 25 years

• Without the Concert, each nation thought it was only restrained by limits of itsmilitary power diplomatic influence

Italian unification

1858-1870

Beginnings of Nationalism

• Napoleon – united many states under 1 gov’t

• COV – Split Italian states w/ no regard for

national groups– Placed under control of large empires:

• Austria• France

Secret Societies

Italian artists, writers, thinkers became interested in celebrating Italy’s cultural traditions

Others formed secret societies to work for political change

Some even plotted to overthrow the Austrian government in Italy

Mazzini & Young Italy

1831: Giuseppe Mazzini, launched a nationalist group called Young Italy to fight for unification of the Italian states

Mazzini had been exiled but smuggled patriotic pamphlets into Italy

Young Italy attracted tens of thousands of Italians to the cause of unification

Secret Societies

• Carbonari– Secret society inspired by Fr Rev– Members: mid-class, intellectuals– Anti-RC Church

• Pope excommunicated them

– Pro-Unification

The Path Toward Unity

• As nationalism grew, some Italians led unsuccessful rebellions

• Then, two men rose to lead a successful movement to unify Italy…

Count Cavour• Camilio di Cavour• Sardinia• Founded the

nationalist newspaper, Il Risorgimento - or “resurgence”

Kingdom of Sardinia

• 1852: Cavour = Prime Minister• Rebuilt economy w/ goal of

unification (monarchy)• Strategic alliance w/ France

– Sardinia supported France in war with Russia & gave them the provinces of Savoy & Nice

– In turn, France supported Sardinia in its war against Austria - (successful liberation)

Garibaldi & the Red Shirts

• Mazzini = “heart”• Cavour = “brain”• Garibaldi = “sword”

Garibaldi

• Young Italy member (1833)• At Cavour’s request, fought against

Austria (1854)• Result: Gained Lombardy from

Austria

The Red Shirts• Red Shirts = Garibaldi’s followers

• By July 1860 - gained control of Sicily

• By September - conquered Naples

• Garibaldi wanted a republic, but …

• Kingdom of Two Sicilies Sardinian king Victor Emmanuel II

Unification

• 1861: territories held elections, all agreed to unification

• Holdouts were Venetia, still belonging to Austria; Papal States, under French troops supporting pope

• 1866: Prussia defeated Austria, gave Venetia to Italy

• 1870: Prussia forced French to w/d from Rome

• 1870: completed unification under King Victor Emmanuel II

Cavour

VictorEmmanue

l II

Garibaldi

German Unification

1871

Zollverein

• Von Metternich – Opposed united Germany

• Prussia leader• Zollverein: economic union

– Eliminated tariffs among German states

• Politically fragmented

Otto von Bismarck

• Prussian Junker• 1862 – chancellor to

Kaiser* Wilhelm I

*Kaiser = king

Bismarck’s loyalty

• Not a German nationalist

• Loyal to the Hohenzollerns – the Prussian royal family

Old Blood and Iron

• Strong military = important

• Wanted more $ military• Parliament - “no”• Famous “Blood and Iron”

speech

Bismarck (cont.)

“Germany does not look to Prussia’s liberalism, but to her power…The great questions of the day are not to be decided by speeches and majority resolutions – that was the mistake of 1848 and 1849 – but by blood and iron!”

Realpolitik

• Strong will• Powerful manipulator• Master of “Realpolitik”

– politics of reality– based on practical matters, not theory or

ethics

• Often resulted in ruthless decisions

Bismarck’s wars

1864: Schleswig & Holstein

• Allied w/ Austria• Seized from

Denmark• Split:

– Austria Holstein– Prussia

Schleswig

1866: Austro-Prussian War

• Prussia + Italy attacked Austria

• “Seven Weeks War” – Prussia won

• Peace of Prague of 1866– annexed Holstein + other

German states– Banned A from Germ

affairs– P did NOT seek any A

territory (Realpolitik – why?)

1870: Franco-Prussian War

• Growing rivalry between:– France (Napoleon III)– Prussia (Wilhelm I & Bismarck)

• Relative of Wilhelm offered Spanish throne

• France protested• Bismarck rallied Germans (all

Germans)

Ems Dispatch

• Bismarck released altered telegram

• Wilhelm “insulted” French ambassador

• Napoleon III (France) declared war on Prussia

“On to Berlin!”

• France attacked Prussia

• Prussia – military superiority - won

• Napoleon III surrendered (POW)

Germany Unifies• January 18,1871• German

Confederation made official

• Bismarck + 600 German princes, nobles, and generals gathered at Versailles

• Wilhelm I of Prussia = Kaiser of the Second German Empire

Treaty of Frankfurt of 1871

• Peace treaty - May 1871• France

– Paid huge indemnities (occupied by Prussia until paid)

– Gave up Alsace & Lorraine

• All that was left were bitter feelings and the desire for revenge…

Bismarck’s Kulturkampf:Anti-Catholic Program

• Take education & marriage out of clergy;s hands civil marriages only recognized

• The Jesuits are expelled from Germany.

• The education of Catholic priests = under supervision of German gov’t

Bismarck & Pope Leo XIII

Kaiser Wilhelm IIr. 1888-1918

“Dropping the Pilot”

• 1890• Wilhelm II

dismisses Bismarck

• Wilhelm I – puppet gov’t (Bismarck in control)

• Wilhelm II – wanted to rule on his own

Eastern EuropeLate 19th Century

Austria

Austria

• Tensions btwn Austria & Hungary = great (Hungarian War of Independence of 1848)

• 1866: Austria – lost A-P War– excluded from Germany– very vulnerable/weak

• Magyars posed a serious threat

Nationalities of the Austrian Empire

The Compromise of 1867

• The Dual Monarchy• Austria + Hungary = Austro-

Hungarian Empire

How It worked

• Austrian empire divided in half• Hungary gained autonomy but joined

w/ Austria by– One king (Franz Josef I)– Finance Ministry– Defense Min– Foreign affairs Min

Emperor Franz Josef Ir. 1848-1916

Troubles

• Austria– Poles– Czechs– Slavs

• Hungary– Croatians– Romanians

• Mixed ethnicities nationalism divisive & slowly weakened A-H Empire

19th C. Russia

Nicholas I r. 1825 - 1855

• Autocracy• Orthodoxy• Nationalism

Alexander IIr. 1855-1881

• Attempted to liberalize & modernize Russia

• Emancipation Manifesto(1861) – abolished serfdom– Nobility opposed– "It is better to abolish

serfdom from above than to wait for the time when it will begin to abolish itself from below.”

Other Reforms

• Created Zemstvos – local elected counsels that provided:– Roads – Schools– Medical service

• Elections = wealthy

Other Reforms (cont.)

• Improved municipal government• Universal military training (1874)• Encouraged expansion

– Industry– Railway network

• Still, some were unhappy…

Haters

• Liberals/Radicals wanted:– Parliamentary democracy– Freedom of expression

• Peasants– Disappointed w/ Ag. reforms– Paid more for land than worth– Not taken care of

Secret Societies

• Illegal to criticize Tsar• Land & Liberty – reform group

– Demanded land be given to peasants– Some members wanted to use violence

• Assassination attempt

Narodnaya volya

• People’s Will• Faction of Land & Liberty• Wanted constitution • Favored violence/terrorism• Many unsuccessful attempts on

Tsar’s life

Okhrana

• Result: development of a special section of the Russian police force to deal w/ internal security

• Under cover agents • Often joined rev. groups to spy on

them

Assassination of Alexander II

• 1 March 1881

• St. Petersburg

• 2 explosions• People’s Will

The Deceased Alexander II

The People’s Will• Plotters arrested, tried & executed• (actual assassin had died in explosion)

Alexander III

• Inherited throne from father

• More later…