ap euro history, ch 17

The Eighteenth The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Century: An Age of

EnlightenmentEnlightenmentAP European HistoryAP European History

Chapter 17 Chapter 17

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OverviewOverview The Scientific The Scientific

Revolution’s “natural Revolution’s “natural philosophers” effected philosophers” effected but a small elitebut a small elite

But a group of But a group of intellectuals used the intellectuals used the discoveries to discoveries to examine all aspects of examine all aspects of lifelife

VoltaireVoltaire

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VoltaireVoltaire

OverviewOverview

Paris was the Paris was the cultural capital of cultural capital of EuropeEurope

Parisian women Parisian women took a lead in took a lead in bringing together bringing together thinkers of many thinkers of many disciplines to cross-disciplines to cross-talk discoveries and talk discoveries and new philosophiesnew philosophies

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OverviewOverview

Marie-Therese de Geoffrin hosted Marie-Therese de Geoffrin hosted distinguished foreigners, distinguished foreigners, philosophers, and artistsphilosophers, and artists These gatherings stimulated wide-These gatherings stimulated wide-

ranging discussions and ideasranging discussions and ideas Ideas generated were so significant that Ideas generated were so significant that

historians refer to the 18historians refer to the 18thth century as century as the Age of Enlightenmentthe Age of Enlightenment

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Overview Overview

““Enlightenment” Enlightenment” included a included a rejection of rejection of traditional traditional ChristianityChristianity

Religious wars and Religious wars and intolerance of 16intolerance of 16thth and 17and 17thth centuries centuries alienated alienated intellectualsintellectuals

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OverviewOverview

Intellectuals and scientists of the 17Intellectuals and scientists of the 17thth century were open to new ideas of century were open to new ideas of science. Both saw science as exalting science. Both saw science as exalting God God

The 18The 18thth century intellectuals saw it century intellectuals saw it differentlydifferently Rejected Christian orthodoxy Rejected Christian orthodoxy and and

secularism emerged as dominant secularism emerged as dominant mentality in Western mentality ever since mentality in Western mentality ever since

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Overview Overview Reason and Reason and

materialism were materialism were beginning to replace beginning to replace faith and reasonfaith and reason

Although, there was Although, there was an outburst of an outburst of religious sensibility religious sensibility manifested in art and manifested in art and musicmusic Not all artistic and Not all artistic and

intellectual hearts were intellectual hearts were captured by secularismcaptured by secularism

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MontesquieuMontesquieu

Focus QuestionsFocus Questions

Who were the Who were the leading figures of leading figures of the Enlightenment, the Enlightenment, and what were and what were their main their main contributions? contributions?

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Diderot Diderot

Focus QuestionsFocus Questions

In what type of In what type of social environment social environment did the did the philosophes thrive, philosophes thrive, and what role did and what role did women play in that women play in that environment?environment?

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Rousseau Rousseau

Focus QuestionFocus Question

What innovations What innovations in art, music, and in art, music, and literature occurred literature occurred in the 18in the 18thth century? century?

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WollstonecraftWollstonecraft


How did popular culture differ form How did popular culture differ form high culture in the 18high culture in the 18thth century? century?

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How did popular religion differ from How did popular religion differ from institutional religion in the 18institutional religion in the 18thth century?century?

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Critical Thinking Critical Thinking Question Question

What is the What is the relationship relationship between the between the Scientific Scientific Revolution and the Revolution and the Enlightenment?Enlightenment?

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LockeLocke

The The EnlightenmentEnlightenment

OverviewOverview

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OverviewOverview

German philosopher German philosopher Emmanuel Kant Emmanuel Kant defined defined Enlightenment as Enlightenment as “man’s leaving his “man’s leaving his self-caused self-caused immaturity”immaturity”

Kant: “Dare to Kant: “Dare to know! Have the know! Have the courage to use your courage to use your own intelligence.”own intelligence.”

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Emmanuel Kant Emmanuel Kant

OverviewOverview

As laws were As laws were discovered discovered regulating nature, regulating nature, then laws could be then laws could be found to regulate found to regulate human societyhuman society

Buzz words: Buzz words: reason, natural reason, natural law, hope, law, hope, progressprogress

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OverviewOverview

Philosophes and Philosophes and scientists thought scientists thought that if only people that if only people could throw off the could throw off the shackles of old shackles of old beliefs, beliefs, particularly particularly religious, the religious, the world be a better world be a better placeplace

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OverviewOverview

If Newton can If Newton can discover the discover the natural laws of natural laws of science that science that govern the govern the universe, the laws universe, the laws of how to govern a of how to govern a society could be society could be discovered as welldiscovered as well

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The Paths to The Paths to EnlightenmentEnlightenment

Influenced by 17Influenced by 17thth century century thinkers, what changes occurred thinkers, what changes occurred with 18with 18thth century thinkers that century thinkers that

culminated in the Enlightenment?culminated in the Enlightenment?

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The Popularization of The Popularization of ScienceScience

Spread of scientific information was Spread of scientific information was not direct from scientist to people. not direct from scientist to people. Books were tough to read—written by Books were tough to read—written by

the best brains of the time—and tough the best brains of the time—and tough to get (no Borders)to get (no Borders)

Much was done through education by Much was done through education by “popularizers” or philosophes “popularizers” or philosophes themselvesthemselves

The link to the people of the The link to the people of the scientific discoveries the philosophesscientific discoveries the philosophes

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Bernard de Bernard de Fontenelle, Fontenelle, Secretary of the Secretary of the French Royal French Royal Academy from 1691 Academy from 1691 to 1741, wrote books to 1741, wrote books on discoverieson discoveries

Fontenelle Fontenelle possessed vast possessed vast knowledge of knowledge of discoveriesdiscoveries

Bernard de Bernard de FontenelleFontenelle04/13/23 21John 3:16


Fontenelle was very Fontenelle was very witty and witty and scientifically wisescientifically wise

His book, His book, Plurality of Plurality of Worlds, Worlds, two people two people discussing discussing discoveries discoveries Conversation Conversation

between lady between lady aristocrat and loveraristocrat and lover

““Tell me”, she Tell me”, she exclaims, “about exclaims, “about these stars of yours” these stars of yours”

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The Popularization of The Popularization of Science Science

Fontenelle showed that Fontenelle showed that science need not be the science need not be the monopoly of experts, monopoly of experts, but part of literaturebut part of literature

He downplayed the He downplayed the religious side of religious side of scientistsscientists

He was a “skeptic” He was a “skeptic” about religion and about religion and portrayed churches as portrayed churches as enemies of scientific enemies of scientific progressprogress

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A New SkepticismA New Skepticism As scientific As scientific

discoveries spread, discoveries spread, more men and more men and women questioned women questioned long-held religious long-held religious truths and valuestruths and values

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A New SkepticismA New Skepticism Skepticism and Skepticism and

secularism was secularism was evident in the works evident in the works of Pierre Bayle of Pierre Bayle (1647-1706)(1647-1706) Attacked religious Attacked religious

intolerance, intolerance, superstition, and superstition, and dogmatismdogmatism

Compelling people to Compelling people to believe a certain set believe a certain set of religious ideas was of religious ideas was wrong—as Louis XIV wrong—as Louis XIV was doing at that time was doing at that time Pierre Bayle Pierre Bayle

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A New Skepticism (cont)A New Skepticism (cont) Bayle believed Bayle believed

that individual that individual conscious should conscious should determine one’s determine one’s actionaction

the existence of the existence of many religions many religions would benefit would benefit rather than harm a rather than harm a statestate

the Bible should not the Bible should not be exempt from be exempt from criticism criticism Pierre BaylePierre Bayle

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A New SkepticismA New Skepticism In Bayle’s most famous work, In Bayle’s most famous work, Historical Historical

and Critical Dictionary, and Critical Dictionary, he wrote of King he wrote of King David in a very different wayDavid in a very different way David was portrayed as a sensual, cruel, David was portrayed as a sensual, cruel,

treacherous, and evil mantreacherous, and evil man The “Dictionary” attacked traditional religious The “Dictionary” attacked traditional religious

practices and heroespractices and heroes One critic of One critic of Dictionary Dictionary called it the called it the

“Bible of the eighteenth century”“Bible of the eighteenth century”

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The Impact of Travel The Impact of Travel LiteratureLiterature

Skepticism about religion and Skepticism about religion and European culture was nourished by European culture was nourished by travel reportstravel reports Traders, missionaries, medical Traders, missionaries, medical

practitioner, and explorers—all wrote practitioner, and explorers—all wrote travel bookstravel books

Geographical discoveries, e.g. Tahiti, Geographical discoveries, e.g. Tahiti, New Zealand, and Australia by James New Zealand, and Australia by James CookCook

Aroused much enthusiasmAroused much enthusiasm04/13/23 28John 3:16

The Impact of Travel The Impact of Travel Literature Literature

Exotic peoples, Exotic peoples, such as natives such as natives from Tahiti, from Tahiti, presented an presented an image of “natural image of “natural man”man”

The idea of the The idea of the “noble savage” “noble savage” would impact the would impact the work of some work of some philosophesphilosophes

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The Impact of Travel The Impact of Travel LiteratureLiterature

The literature also The literature also demonstrated there demonstrated there were highly were highly developed cultures developed cultures in other parts of the in other parts of the worldworld China and China and

Confucian morality Confucian morality were singled outwere singled out

Europeans began to Europeans began to evaluate their evaluate their culture compared to culture compared to othersothers ConfuciusConfucius

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The Impact of Travel The Impact of Travel Literature Literature

Certainties about European Certainties about European practices gave way to “cultural practices gave way to “cultural relativism”relativism” Accompanied by religious skepticismAccompanied by religious skepticism The Christian perception of God was The Christian perception of God was

one of manyone of many “…“…Every day they see a new religion, Every day they see a new religion,

new customs, and new ritesnew customs, and new rites

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The Legacy of Locke and The Legacy of Locke and NewtonNewton

The intellectual inspiration for the The intellectual inspiration for the Enlightenment were Locke and Enlightenment were Locke and NewtonNewton

Intellectuals believed that by Intellectuals believed that by following Newton’s laws of following Newton’s laws of reasoning, they could discover the reasoning, they could discover the natural laws that governed politics, natural laws that governed politics, economics, justice, religion, and arteconomics, justice, religion, and art

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Newton frequently singled outNewton frequently singled out ““the greatest and rarest genius that the greatest and rarest genius that

ever rose for the ornament and ever rose for the ornament and instruction of the species”instruction of the species”

“ “God said, ‘Let Newton be, and all is God said, ‘Let Newton be, and all is light’”light’”

Philosophes enchanted by Newton’s Philosophes enchanted by Newton’s world machineworld machine

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The Legacy of Locke and The Legacy of Locke and Newton Newton

John Locke’s theory John Locke’s theory of knowledge of knowledge especially influenced especially influenced the philosophesthe philosophes Wrote, Wrote, Essay Essay

Concerning Human Concerning Human Understanding Understanding (1690)(1690)

Denied Descates Denied Descates belief in innate ideas belief in innate ideas

John Locke John Locke

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Lock denied Lock denied Descartes’ belief in Descartes’ belief in innate ideas. innate ideas. Locke argued that Locke argued that every person was every person was born with a tabula born with a tabula rasa, a blank mindrasa, a blank mind

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Our mind is Our mind is developed from our developed from our environment, not environment, not from heredity; from from heredity; from reason, not from faithreason, not from faith

People molded People molded through experiences through experiences they received they received through their senses through their senses from their from their surrounding worldsurrounding world John LockeJohn Locke

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The Legacy of Locke and The Legacy of Locke and Newton Newton

By changing the environment, peoples By changing the environment, peoples and societies can be changedand societies can be changed

Reason enabled enlightened people to Reason enabled enlightened people to discover natural laws to which all discover natural laws to which all institutions should conforminstitutions should conform

The philosophes were enamored with The philosophes were enamored with Locke and Newton. Taken together, Locke and Newton. Taken together, their ideas seem to offer the hope of a their ideas seem to offer the hope of a “brave new world” built on reason“brave new world” built on reason

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The Philosophes and The Philosophes and Their IdeasTheir Ideas

Philosophes were intellectuals and not all Philosophes were intellectuals and not all philosophersphilosophers Literary people, professors, journalists, Literary people, professors, journalists,

statesmen, economists, political scientists, and statesmen, economists, political scientists, and social reformerssocial reformers

Came from the nobility and middle class, some Came from the nobility and middle class, some poorpoor

International and cosmopolitan movementInternational and cosmopolitan movement Dominated by French culture and Paris Dominated by French culture and Paris

considered the capital of the Enlightenment considered the capital of the Enlightenment

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The Philosophes and Their The Philosophes and Their Ideas Ideas

Philosophes had different Philosophes had different circumstances, but the many common circumstances, but the many common threadsthreads The role of philosophy was the change The role of philosophy was the change

the world, not just discuss itthe world, not just discuss it Reason was scientific method, an appeal Reason was scientific method, an appeal

to facts and experiencesto facts and experiences Rational criticism was to be applied to Rational criticism was to be applied to

everything, including religion and politicseverything, including religion and politics

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The Philosophes and Their The Philosophes and Their Ideas Ideas

Philosophes worked in environment Philosophes worked in environment where they were not free to write where they were not free to write anythinganything

State censors were ever presentState censors were ever present Seizure of books and imprisonment Seizure of books and imprisonment

of authors, publishers and sellers of authors, publishers and sellers was very possible was very possible

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The Philosophes and Their The Philosophes and Their Ideas (cont)Ideas (cont)

Philosophes found ways around Philosophes found ways around censorshipcensorship Pseudonyms, anonymously, or abroadPseudonyms, anonymously, or abroad Double meanings, e.g., talk about Double meanings, e.g., talk about

Persians and mean FrenchPersians and mean French Publish secretly or in manuscript form Publish secretly or in manuscript form

to avoid censorsto avoid censors Burned books often made them more Burned books often made them more

popularpopular

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The Philosophes and Their The Philosophes and Their Ideas (cont)Ideas (cont)

Although bound together by common Although bound together by common bonds, philosophes often disagreedbonds, philosophes often disagreed Each succeeding generation became Each succeeding generation became

more radicalmore radical A few people tended to dominate the A few people tended to dominate the

landscapelandscape Three French giants stood outThree French giants stood out

Montesquieu, Voltaire, and DiderotMontesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot

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Montesquieu and Political Montesquieu and Political ThoughtThought

Charles de Secondat, the Baron de Charles de Secondat, the Baron de MontesquieuMontesquieu From French nobilityFrom French nobility Received a classical education then studied Received a classical education then studied

lawlaw His first book, “Persian Letters”His first book, “Persian Letters”

Two Persians traveling in Paris and Two Persians traveling in Paris and criticizing French institutions, especially criticizing French institutions, especially Catholic Church and French monarchyCatholic Church and French monarchy

Much of French Enlightenment: attack on Much of French Enlightenment: attack on traditional religion, advocating religious traditional religion, advocating religious toleration, denunciation of slavery, use of toleration, denunciation of slavery, use of reason to liberate humans beingsreason to liberate humans beings

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Montesquieu and Political Montesquieu and Political Thought (cont)Thought (cont)

Montesquieu’s most famous work, Montesquieu’s most famous work, “The Spirit of the Laws”“The Spirit of the Laws” Published in 1748Published in 1748 Comparative study of governments in Comparative study of governments in

which he attempted to apply the which he attempted to apply the scientific method to the social and scientific method to the social and political arena to ascertain the “natural political arena to ascertain the “natural laws” governing the social relationships laws” governing the social relationships of human beings of human beings

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Montesquieu and Political Montesquieu and Political Thought Thought

““The Spirit of the Laws” distinguished three The Spirit of the Laws” distinguished three basic kinds of governmentsbasic kinds of governments Republics, suitable for small states and based on Republics, suitable for small states and based on

citizen involvementcitizen involvement Monarchy, appropriate for the middle-size states Monarchy, appropriate for the middle-size states

and grounded in the ruling class’s adherence to and grounded in the ruling class’s adherence to lawlaw

Despotism, apt for large empires and dependent Despotism, apt for large empires and dependent on fear to inspire obedienceon fear to inspire obedience

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Praised England’s constitution which led to Praised England’s constitution which led to his most lasting contribution to political his most lasting contribution to political thought, the importance of checks and thought, the importance of checks and balances created through the “separation of balances created through the “separation of Powers”Powers” England had separate executive, legislative, and England had separate executive, legislative, and

judicial powersjudicial powers Limited control of each otherLimited control of each other Served as greatest freedom and security for a stateServed as greatest freedom and security for a state

He wanted the nobility of France to play and He wanted the nobility of France to play and active role in the running of the French active role in the running of the French governmentgovernment

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Translation of Montesquieu’s work Translation of Montesquieu’s work ensured it was read by American ensured it was read by American philosophes who incorporated much philosophes who incorporated much into the U.S. Constitution into the U.S. Constitution Benjamin FranklinBenjamin Franklin James MadisonJames Madison John AdamsJohn Adams Alexander HamiltonAlexander Hamilton Thomas JeffersonThomas Jefferson

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Voltaire and the Voltaire and the EnlightenmentEnlightenment

Francois-Marie Arouet known as Francois-Marie Arouet known as VoltaireVoltaire

Greatest figure of the EnlightenmentGreatest figure of the Enlightenment Classical education in Jesuit schoolClassical education in Jesuit school Hailed as successor to Racine for his Hailed as successor to Racine for his

tragedy CEdipe and his epic on King IVtragedy CEdipe and his epic on King IV Well liked by Parisian intellectuals, a Well liked by Parisian intellectuals, a

quarrel with a nobleman forced him quarrel with a nobleman forced him abroad to England for 2 years abroad to England for 2 years

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Voltaire and the Voltaire and the Enlightenment Enlightenment

Very impressed with EnglandVery impressed with England His “Philosophic Letters on the English” His “Philosophic Letters on the English”

(1733) (1733) Expressed deep admiration for EnglishExpressed deep admiration for English Liked freedom of press, political freedom, and Liked freedom of press, political freedom, and

religious toleration….”there are thirty religious toleration….”there are thirty religions and they live together peacefully and religions and they live together peacefully and happilyhappily

Indirectly, he criticized France, especially Indirectly, he criticized France, especially absolute royalty, lack of religious toleration, absolute royalty, lack of religious toleration, and freedom of thought and freedom of thought

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Voltaire returned to France but, at Voltaire returned to France but, at this point, had to live near the this point, had to live near the eastern border for securityeastern border for security

Lived with his mistress the marquise Lived with his mistress the marquise de Chateletde Chatelet An early philosophe, she had published An early philosophe, she had published

a translation of Newton’s “Principia”a translation of Newton’s “Principia” The two collaborated about a book on The two collaborated about a book on

the natural philosophy of Newton the natural philosophy of Newton

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Eventually settled on magnificent estate Eventually settled on magnificent estate in Ferney, in France near the Swiss in Ferney, in France near the Swiss borderborder Had become wealthy through writing, Had become wealthy through writing,

investments, and inheritanceinvestments, and inheritance Had the leisure time to write pamphlets, Had the leisure time to write pamphlets,

novels, plays, letters, and historiesnovels, plays, letters, and histories He was especially well known for his He was especially well known for his

criticism of traditional religion and criticism of traditional religion and strong support of religious toleration strong support of religious toleration

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Used prestige and skills as a polemicist Used prestige and skills as a polemicist to fight cases of intolerance in Franceto fight cases of intolerance in France

Most famous case: Jean CalasMost famous case: Jean Calas Accused of murdering his son to stop him Accused of murdering his son to stop him

from becoming Catholicfrom becoming Catholic Tortured to confess, he soon diedTortured to confess, he soon died Voltaire, through his writings, forced a Voltaire, through his writings, forced a

retrial in which Calas was exonerated. His retrial in which Calas was exonerated. His son had committed suicide son had committed suicide

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Calas’ family paid an indemnity and Calas’ family paid an indemnity and Voltaire’s appeals for moderation seemed Voltaire’s appeals for moderation seemed more reasonablemore reasonable

He wrote, “Treatise of Toleration”He wrote, “Treatise of Toleration” Reminded people that religious toleration had Reminded people that religious toleration had

created no problems for England or Hollandcreated no problems for England or Holland Reminded governments “all men are brothers Reminded governments “all men are brothers

under God” under God” Voltaire, “Crush the infamous thing.”Voltaire, “Crush the infamous thing.”

Religious intolerance, fanaticism, and Religious intolerance, fanaticism, and superstition superstition

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Accepted DeismAccepted Deism Accepted by most philosophesAccepted by most philosophes Built on the Newtonian world machine theoryBuilt on the Newtonian world machine theory The mechanic—God—created the universe The mechanic—God—created the universe God had no direct involvement in the world God had no direct involvement in the world

and let it run according to its own natural and let it run according to its own natural lawslaws

God did not extend grace nor answer prayersGod did not extend grace nor answer prayers Jesus might be a “good fellow,” as Voltaire Jesus might be a “good fellow,” as Voltaire

called Him but he was not divine as called Him but he was not divine as Christianity claimedChristianity claimed

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Voltaire said, “In Voltaire said, “In the opinion that the opinion that there is a God, there is a God, there are there are difficulties, but in difficulties, but in the contrary the contrary opinion there are opinion there are absurdities.” absurdities.”

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VoltaireVoltaire

Diderot and the Diderot and the EncyclopediaEncyclopedia

Son of skilled Son of skilled craftsman form craftsman form eastern Franceeastern France

Freelance writer—Freelance writer—many languages many languages and subjectsand subjects

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DiderotDiderot


Condemned Condemned Christianity as Christianity as fanatical and fanatical and unreasonable—unreasonable—considered it the considered it the worst religionworst religion ““the most absurd the most absurd

and…atrocious in and…atrocious in its dogma” its dogma”

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DiderotDiderot


Most famous work Most famous work was his was his “Encyclopedia” or “Encyclopedia” or “Classified “Classified Dictionary of the Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Sciences, Arts, and Trades.” Called it, Trades.” Called it, “the great work of “the great work of his life”his life”

Diderot Diderot

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DiderotDiderot

Diderot and the Diderot and the Encyclopedia (cont)Encyclopedia (cont)

The purpose of the encyclopedia was to The purpose of the encyclopedia was to “change the general way of thinking”“change the general way of thinking” Became a weapon against the old French Became a weapon against the old French

societysociety Attacked religious superstition and promoted Attacked religious superstition and promoted

tolerationtoleration Sought social, legal, and political Sought social, legal, and political

improvementsimprovements Sought more cosmopolitan, tolerant, humane, Sought more cosmopolitan, tolerant, humane,

and reasonable societyand reasonable society Ideas of the Enlightenment spread even Ideas of the Enlightenment spread even

further further 04/13/23 59John 3:16

The New “Science of The New “Science of Man”Man”

Newton’s scientific methods were thought Newton’s scientific methods were thought to be useful to address the natural laws of to be useful to address the natural laws of social man social man

Could the scientific process be used to Could the scientific process be used to solve the inherent problems and solve the inherent problems and challenges of society?challenges of society?

Eighteenth century movement called the Eighteenth century movement called the “science of man” or the “social sciences”“science of man” or the “social sciences”

Philosophes arrived at natural laws they Philosophes arrived at natural laws they believed to be universal believed to be universal

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The New “Science of Man” The New “Science of Man” (cont)(cont)

Scottish philosopher David Hume Scottish philosopher David Hume thought that a science of man was thought that a science of man was possiblepossible

““A Pioneering social scientist”A Pioneering social scientist” Wrote Wrote “Treatise on Human Nature”“Treatise on Human Nature”

Experimental method of reasoning with Experimental method of reasoning with reference to moral subjectsreference to moral subjects

Observation and reflection grounded in Observation and reflection grounded in “systemized common sense” made “systemized common sense” made conceivable a science of man conceivable a science of man

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The New The New “Science of Man”“Science of Man” The Physiocrats and Adam SmithThe Physiocrats and Adam Smith

Founders of economicsFounders of economics Physiocrat leader was Francois Quesnay, French court Physiocrat leader was Francois Quesnay, French court

physicianphysician Claimed they could discover natural economic lawsClaimed they could discover natural economic laws LandLand constituted only source of wealth, constituted only source of wealth, their first their first

principleprinciple Agriculture was only means to increase wealth—all Agriculture was only means to increase wealth—all

other activities were sterile and unproductiveother activities were sterile and unproductive Revenues should come from a single tax on the landRevenues should come from a single tax on the land Rejected mercantilismRejected mercantilism, , their second principletheir second principle, and , and

the idea of money—gold and silverthe idea of money—gold and silver

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The New “Science of Man” The New “Science of Man” The The second principlesecond principle of the physiocrats of the physiocrats

was the rejection of mercantilismwas the rejection of mercantilism Emphasized the natural economic forces Emphasized the natural economic forces

of the of the supply and demandsupply and demand Individuals should pursue their own Individuals should pursue their own

economic self interests—all society will economic self interests—all society will benefitbenefit

Government should leave the system alone. Government should leave the system alone. Don’t regulateDon’t regulate

Doctrine became known as Doctrine became known as laissez-fairelaissez-faire (noninterference—let people do as they (noninterference—let people do as they choose)choose)

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The New “Science of Man” The New “Science of Man”

Scottish Scottish philosopher philosopher Adam Adam SmithSmith Best statement of Best statement of

laissez-fairelaissez-faire Made in 1776Made in 1776

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Adam SmithAdam Smith


Wrote Wrote The Wealth of NationsThe Wealth of Nations Three basic principles of economics, Three basic principles of economics,

including an attack on mercantilismincluding an attack on mercantilism First principle--condemned the use of First principle--condemned the use of

tariffstariffs. Better to purchase a product . Better to purchase a product from another nation rather than try to from another nation rather than try to produce it if the other nation produces produce it if the other nation produces it cheaper it cheaper

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The New “Science of Man The New “Science of Man

Second principleSecond principle, , labor theory of labor theory of valuevalue Gold and silver do Gold and silver do

notnot constitute true constitute true wealthwealth

Labor of individualsLabor of individuals—farmers, artisans, —farmers, artisans, merchants, etc., merchants, etc., constitute the constitute the true true wealth wealth of nationsof nations

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Third Principle, Third Principle, Government Government should not should not interfere with interfere with economic economic managementmanagement

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The New “Science of Man” The New “Science of Man”

Adam Smith Adam Smith Principle three (contPrinciple three (cont)—government )—government

only has three jobsonly has three jobs To protect society from invasionTo protect society from invasion To defend individuals from injustice and To defend individuals from injustice and

oppressionoppression To keep up certain public works, such To keep up certain public works, such

as roads and canals, that private as roads and canals, that private individuals could not affordindividuals could not afford

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Between the Between the Physiocrats and Physiocrats and Adam Smith, they Adam Smith, they laid the foundation laid the foundation of 19th century of 19th century economic economic liberalism liberalism Government: stay Government: stay

outout Economic liberty Economic liberty

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The Later EnlightenmentThe Later Enlightenment

By the 1760s, new By the 1760s, new group of group of philisophes philisophes emergedemerged Grew up in the Grew up in the

EnlightenmentEnlightenment Went beyond the Went beyond the

original grouporiginal group

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The Later EnlightenmentThe Later Enlightenment Movement beyond the beliefs of Movement beyond the beliefs of

predecessorspredecessors Baron Paul d’ HolbackBaron Paul d’ Holback, German aristocrat , German aristocrat

who settled in Pariswho settled in Paris Doctrine of strict atheism and materialismDoctrine of strict atheism and materialism Wrote Wrote System of NatureSystem of Nature

Everything in universe is matter and motionEverything in universe is matter and motion Humans are machines and God is only in the mindHumans are machines and God is only in the mind People need only reason to live in the worldPeople need only reason to live in the world Please ourselves because we must live with each Please ourselves because we must live with each

otherother

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Baron Paul d’Holback…Baron Paul d’Holback… ““Let us persuade men to be just, Let us persuade men to be just,

beneficent, moderate, sociable; not beneficent, moderate, sociable; not because the gods demand it, but because the gods demand it, but because they must please men”because they must please men”

Most intellectuals remained deists, Most intellectuals remained deists, as they the effect of atheism on as they the effect of atheism on society society

04/13/23 72John 3:16


Marie-Jean de Marie-Jean de CondorcetCondorcet, French , French philosophephilosophe Victim of turmoil of Victim of turmoil of

French RevolutionFrench Revolution Wrote his chief Wrote his chief

work while in work while in hiding during the hiding during the Reign of TerrorReign of Terror

04/13/23 73John 3:16

The later EnlightenmentThe later Enlightenment

Marie-Jean de Condorcet wrote Marie-Jean de Condorcet wrote The The Progress of the Human MindProgress of the Human Mind Humans had progressed through 9 historical Humans had progressed through 9 historical

stages stages With science and reason, humans will enter With science and reason, humans will enter

tenth tenth Tenth stage would be one of perfection. Tenth stage would be one of perfection.

“There is no limit to the perfecting of the “There is no limit to the perfecting of the powers of man”powers of man”

Shortly after composing his work, he died in Shortly after composing his work, he died in a French revolutionary prison a French revolutionary prison

04/13/23 74John 3:16

Rousseau and the Social Rousseau and the Social ContractContract

Jean-Jacques Jean-Jacques Rousseau, born in Rousseau, born in GenevaGeneva

As youth, As youth, wandered France wandered France and Italy doing and Italy doing jobsjobs

04/13/23 75John 3:16

Jean-Jacques Jean-Jacques Rousseau Rousseau


Later, studied Later, studied classics and music classics and music A paid lover of an A paid lover of an

older womanolder woman Eventually made his Eventually made his

way to Parisway to Paris Introduced to Introduced to

philosophes in Parisphilosophes in Paris

04/13/23 76John 3:16

Jean-Jacques Jean-Jacques Rousseau Rousseau

Rousseau and the Social Rousseau and the Social Contract Contract

Rousseau’s Rousseau’s political beliefs in political beliefs in two major works, two major works, Discourse on theDiscourse on the Origins of the Origins of the Inequality of Inequality of MankindMankind and and The The Social ContractSocial Contract

04/13/23 77John 3:16

Jean-Jacques Jean-Jacques RousseauRousseau


Discourse…Discourse… Humans were happy in their primitive Humans were happy in their primitive

state—no laws, judges, equality--but state—no laws, judges, equality--but then they made changesthen they made changes

To preserve private property, people To preserve private property, people adopted laws and governmentsadopted laws and governments

“…“…rushed headlong not to liberty but rushed headlong not to liberty but into chains”into chains”

Government is an evil, but a necessary Government is an evil, but a necessary oneone

04/13/23 78John 3:16


He wrote, He wrote, The Social ContractThe Social Contract Tried to harmonize Tried to harmonize individual libertyindividual liberty with with

government authoritygovernment authority Society agrees to be Society agrees to be governed by their governed by their

general will general will Individuals compelled to abide by the Individuals compelled to abide by the

general willgeneral will People should be forced to be freePeople should be forced to be free General will is community’s highest General will is community’s highest

aspirationsaspirations What is good for all is good for each individualWhat is good for all is good for each individual

04/13/23 79John 3:16


““This means nothing less than that This means nothing less than that he will be forced to be free”he will be forced to be free” What was best for all was best for the What was best for all was best for the

individualindividual True freedom is True freedom is adherence to laws that adherence to laws that

one has imposed on oneself one has imposed on oneself

04/13/23 80John 3:16


The creation of laws could never be The creation of laws could never be delegated to a parliamentary institution—delegated to a parliamentary institution—or legislatureor legislature

““Any law which the people has not Any law which the people has not ratified in person is void; it is not law at ratified in person is void; it is not law at all”all”

“…“…as soon as Members are elected, the as soon as Members are elected, the people is enslaved; it is nothing.”people is enslaved; it is nothing.”

The ultimate statement of The ultimate statement of participatory participatory democracy democracy

04/13/23 81John 3:16


He wrote, He wrote, Emile Emile Important work on Important work on educationeducation Education should foster children’s Education should foster children’s natural natural

instinctsinstincts Saw a necessary balance between Saw a necessary balance between feelings feelings

and reasonand reason Importance of Importance of promptings of the heartpromptings of the heart Precursor of the intellectual movement called Precursor of the intellectual movement called

Romanticism—Romanticism—emphasis on the heart, that emphasis on the heart, that dominated Europe at the beginning of the dominated Europe at the beginning of the nineteenth centurynineteenth century

04/13/23 82John 3:16


Rousseau: did he Rousseau: did he practice what he practice what he preaches?preaches? His children sent to His children sent to

foundling homesfoundling homes Viewed women as Viewed women as

naturally differentnaturally different

04/13/23 83John 3:16


Rousseau…Rousseau… “…“…She needs a soft sedentary life to She needs a soft sedentary life to

suckle her babies.”suckle her babies.” In In EmileEmile, Sophie, Emile’s intended wife , Sophie, Emile’s intended wife

was educated to be a wife and mother by was educated to be a wife and mother by learning obedience and nurturing skills learning obedience and nurturing skills to provide loving care to her husband to provide loving care to her husband and childrenand children

Made ideas of gender an important Made ideas of gender an important issueissue

04/13/23 84John 3:16


Rousseau was described in three Rousseau was described in three ways:ways: The father of The father of romanticismromanticism A prophet of A prophet of democracydemocracy An apologist for An apologist for totalitarianismtotalitarianism

Which was he? Which was he?

04/13/23 85John 3:16

The “Woman’s Question” in The “Woman’s Question” in the Enlightenmentthe Enlightenment

Men framed debate of value and Men framed debate of value and nature of womennature of women

Many male intellectuals argued the Many male intellectuals argued the nature of women made them inferior nature of women made them inferior to mento men Based on “natural” biological Based on “natural” biological

differencesdifferences Some male writers critical of Some male writers critical of

women’s intellectwomen’s intellect

04/13/23 86John 3:16

The “Woman’s Question” The “Woman’s Question” in the Enlightenmentin the Enlightenment

Two intellectual Two intellectual men asserted men asserted women were “not women were “not all that different” all that different” (Diderot), and (Diderot), and “capable of all men “capable of all men are” intellectually are” intellectually (Voltaire) (Voltaire)

04/13/23 87John 3:16

Denis DiderotDenis Diderot

The “Woman’s Question” in The “Woman’s Question” in the Enlightenment the Enlightenment

Some women writers made suggestions Some women writers made suggestions Mary Astell, daughter of wealthy Mary Astell, daughter of wealthy

English coal merchant, wrote, English coal merchant, wrote, A A Serious Proposal to the LadiesSerious Proposal to the Ladies Women needed to become better educatedWomen needed to become better educated (of critical men) “…excuse me, if I be as (of critical men) “…excuse me, if I be as

partial to my own sex as they are to partial to my own sex as they are to theirs….”theirs….”

04/13/23 88John 3:16


Mary Astell Mary Astell She wrote, She wrote, Some Reflections upon Some Reflections upon

MarriageMarriage Argued for the equality of the sexes in Argued for the equality of the sexes in

marriagemarriage ““If absolute sovereignty be not If absolute sovereignty be not

necessary in a state, how comes it to be necessary in a state, how comes it to be so in a family”so in a family”

04/13/23 89John 3:16


Mary Astell: Mary Astell: Some Reflections Some Reflections Upon MarriageUpon Marriage “…“…if arbitrary power is evil…it ought if arbitrary power is evil…it ought

not be practiced anywhere”not be practiced anywhere” ……if all men are born free, how is it that if all men are born free, how is it that

all women are born slaves?”all women are born slaves?”

04/13/23 90John 3:16


Mary Mary WollstonecraftWollstonecraft, an , an English writerEnglish writer Viewed by many as Viewed by many as

the founder of the founder of modern modern European European feminismfeminism

04/13/23 91John 3:16

Mary Mary WollstonecraftWollstonecraft

The Woman’s Question The Woman’s Question in the Enlightenmentin the Enlightenment

Mary WollstonecraftMary Wollstonecraft Wrote,Wrote,Vindication of the Rights of Vindication of the Rights of

WomanWoman Subjection of women to men is as Subjection of women to men is as

wrong as the arbitrary power of wrong as the arbitrary power of monarchs over peoplemonarchs over people

Writers like Rousseau seen to Writers like Rousseau seen to contradict their own statements contradict their own statements about the power on monarchs over about the power on monarchs over people or slave owners over peoplepeople or slave owners over people

04/13/23 92John 3:16


Mary Wollstonecraft: Mary Wollstonecraft: Vindication of Vindication of the Rights of Womenthe Rights of Women The Enlightenment appealed to reason. The Enlightenment appealed to reason.

If women have reason, then they are If women have reason, then they are entitled to the same rights as menentitled to the same rights as men

Women should have the same Women should have the same education, economic, and political education, economic, and political rightsrights

04/13/23 93John 3:16

The Social Environment of The Social Environment of the Philosophesthe Philosophes

Social background Social background of philosophes of philosophes variedvaried Aristocratic to Aristocratic to

lower middle classlower middle class Appeal of the Appeal of the

Enlightenment Enlightenment mostly aristocracymostly aristocracy

Common people Common people not effected muchnot effected much

04/13/23 94John 3:16

The Social Environment The Social Environment of the Philosophesof the Philosophes

Spread of ideas to Spread of ideas to literate elite in literate elite in European societyEuropean society The publication of The publication of

books and treatisebooks and treatise SalonsSalons, elegant , elegant

drawing rooms of the drawing rooms of the wealthy, brought wealthy, brought philosophes and other philosophes and other guests for witty and guests for witty and enlightened enlightened conversationsconversations

04/13/23 95John 3:16

Aristocratic woman Aristocratic woman 1818thth century century

The Social Environment of The Social Environment of the Philosophes the Philosophes

Hostesses of Hostesses of salons, women salons, women found themselves found themselves in a position to in a position to sway political and sway political and effect the decisions effect the decisions of kingsof kings

04/13/23 96John 3:16

Salon hostess, 18Salon hostess, 18thth centurycentury


The reputation of a salon was based The reputation of a salon was based on the stature of the males attractedon the stature of the males attracted

Some complaints occurred that Some complaints occurred that females exerted undue influence on females exerted undue influence on political affairspolitical affairs Exaggerated, but Salons declined Exaggerated, but Salons declined

during the French Revolution during the French Revolution

04/13/23 97John 3:16


The salons were The salons were important in important in promoting promoting conversation and conversation and Enlightenment Enlightenment thoughtthought

04/13/23 98John 3:16

The Social Environment of The Social Environment of the Philosophes the Philosophes

Coffeehouses, cafes, reading clubs, and Coffeehouses, cafes, reading clubs, and public lending libraries important in public lending libraries important in spreading ideasspreading ideas

Learned societies formed in Europe and Learned societies formed in Europe and AmericaAmerica Select Society of Edinburgh, Scotland, and Select Society of Edinburgh, Scotland, and

the American Philosophical Society in the American Philosophical Society in PhiladelphiaPhiladelphia

Secret societies developed like the Secret societies developed like the Freemasons established in London in 1717Freemasons established in London in 1717

04/13/23 99John 3:16

Culture and Culture and Society in the Society in the

EnlightenmentEnlightenmentThe intellectual adventure The intellectual adventure

fostered by the philosophes was fostered by the philosophes was accompanied by both traditional accompanied by both traditional practices and important changes practices and important changes

in 18in 18thth century culture and society century culture and society

04/13/23 100John 3:16

Innovations in Art, Innovations in Art, Music, and LiteratureMusic, and Literature

Baroque and Baroque and Neoclassical styles Neoclassical styles gave way to gave way to RococoRococo Baroque and Baroque and

Neoclassical Neoclassical emphasized emphasized majesty, power, majesty, power, and movementand movement

Rococo brought Rococo brought change change

04/13/23 101John 3:16

RococoRococo

Innovations in Art, Innovations in Art, Music, and Literature Music, and Literature

RococoRococo, new style , new style of decoration and of decoration and architecture, architecture, entered 1730sentered 1730s Emphasized grace Emphasized grace

and gentle actionand gentle action Followed Followed

wandering lines of wandering lines of natural objects natural objects (seashells and (seashells and flowers)flowers)

04/13/23 102John 3:16

RococoRococo


Rococo…Rococo… Charm speaks to Charm speaks to

pleasure, love, and pleasure, love, and life (secular)life (secular)

Could be used with Could be used with BaroqueBaroque

Baroque-Rococo Baroque-Rococo architecture was architecture was popular style of 18popular style of 18thth centurycentury

Gold, delicate Gold, delicate contours, graceful contours, graceful curvescurves

04/13/23 103John 3:16

Innovations in Art, Music, Innovations in Art, Music, and Literature and Literature

Balthasar NeumannBalthasar Neumann, one of greatest , one of greatest architects of the 18architects of the 18thth century. Known century. Known for two masterpiecesfor two masterpieces Pilgrimmage church of the Viezehnheiligen, Pilgrimmage church of the Viezehnheiligen,

Germany (see text)Germany (see text) Bishop’s palace, known as the Residenz of Bishop’s palace, known as the Residenz of

WurzburgWurzburg Light, bright colors; elaborate and rich Light, bright colors; elaborate and rich

detail detail Mix of secular and spiritualMix of secular and spiritual

04/13/23 104John 3:16

Innovations in Art, Music, Innovations in Art, Music, and Literature (cont)and Literature (cont)

Neoclassicism continued to make Neoclassicism continued to make strong appeal in 18strong appeal in 18thth century France century France

Simplicity, dignity, and classical Simplicity, dignity, and classical style of ancient Greecestyle of ancient Greece

04/13/23 105John 3:16


Jacques-Louis DavidJacques-Louis David, re-created a , re-created a scene from Roman historyscene from Roman history Oath of the HoratiiOath of the Horatii Horatius brothers swore an oath before Horatius brothers swore an oath before

their father, proclaiming their their father, proclaiming their willingness to sacrifice their lives for willingness to sacrifice their lives for their country (see text) their country (see text)

04/13/23 106John 3:16

The Development of The Development of MusicMusic

The 17The 17thth and 18 and 18thth centuries saw the rise of centuries saw the rise of the opera, oratorio, sonata, concerto, and the opera, oratorio, sonata, concerto, and symphonysymphony

Italians were the first to develop above Italians were the first to develop above formatsformats Germans, Austrians, and English followedGermans, Austrians, and English followed

Most musicians depended on a patron—Most musicians depended on a patron—perhaps a prince who would offer a court perhaps a prince who would offer a court and financial supportand financial support Helped make Italy and Germany music leadersHelped make Italy and Germany music leaders

04/13/23 107John 3:16

The Development of Music The Development of Music

Bach and Handel—1600-1750 Bach and Handel—1600-1750 timeframetimeframe Composers, seen as geniuses Composers, seen as geniuses Baroque music styleBaroque music style

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) Came from family of musiciansCame from family of musicians Became director of church music at the Became director of church music at the

Church of Saint Thomas in LeipzigChurch of Saint Thomas in Leipzig Composed his Mass in B Minor Composed his Mass in B Minor

04/13/23 108John 3:16


Bach Bach One of the greatest composers of all timeOne of the greatest composers of all time Music was a worship of GodMusic was a worship of God

“…“…well ordered music in the honor of God”well ordered music in the honor of God” George Frederick Handel (1685-1759)George Frederick Handel (1685-1759)

Born in Germany the same year as BachBorn in Germany the same year as Bach Stormy international life and secular in Stormy international life and secular in

temperamenttemperament Moved to England attempting most of his Moved to England attempting most of his

life to run an opera companylife to run an opera company

04/13/23 109John 3:16


Handel Handel Wrote for large audiences, writing some Wrote for large audiences, writing some

huge, unusual sounding pieceshuge, unusual sounding pieces Band for his fireworks music was to be Band for his fireworks music was to be

accompanied by 101 canonaccompanied by 101 canon Wrote 40 operas, and moreWrote 40 operas, and more

Best known for his religious musicBest known for his religious music Messiah Messiah called “one of those rare works called “one of those rare works

that appealed immediately to everyone, and that appealed immediately to everyone, and yet…a masterpiece of the highest order”yet…a masterpiece of the highest order”

04/13/23 110John 3:16


Orchestra musicOrchestra music not until second half not until second half of 18of 18thth century century New instruments like the piano appearedNew instruments like the piano appeared Classical EraClassical Era, new musical period, (1750-, new musical period, (1750-

1830)1830) Representing this new the orchestra Representing this new the orchestra

music era are music era are Haydn and MozartHaydn and Mozart Their renown caused the musical center of Their renown caused the musical center of

Europe to shift from Italy and Germany to the Europe to shift from Italy and Germany to the Austrian EmpireAustrian Empire

04/13/23 111John 3:16


Franz Joseph HaydnFranz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) (1732-1809) Spent most of adult life as musical director Spent most of adult life as musical director

for wealthy Hungarian princes, the Esterhazy for wealthy Hungarian princes, the Esterhazy brothersbrothers

Composed 104 symphonies, plus numerous Composed 104 symphonies, plus numerous string quartets, concerti, songs, oratorios, string quartets, concerti, songs, oratorios, and Massesand Masses

Trip to England introduced him to Trip to England introduced him to writing for writing for publicpublic concerts rather than princes concerts rather than princes Wrote two oratorios, Wrote two oratorios, The CreationThe Creation and and The The

SeasonsSeasons, both , both dedicated to the common peoplededicated to the common people

04/13/23 112John 3:16


Wolfgang Amadeus Wolfgang Amadeus MozartMozart (1756- (1756-1791)1791) Child prodigy, Child prodigy,

started in Salzburgstarted in Salzburg Gave first concert Gave first concert

at age 6at age 6, , wrote first wrote first opera at 12opera at 12

04/13/23 113John 3:16

Mozart, age 6Mozart, age 6

The Development of The Development of MusicMusic

Mozart…Mozart… Moved to Vienna, Moved to Vienna,

unable to find a unable to find a permanent patron permanent patron which made his life which made his life miserablemiserable

Wrote music Wrote music prolifically and prolifically and passionately, but passionately, but died a debt-ridden died a debt-ridden pauper at 35pauper at 35

04/13/23 114John 3:16

MozartMozart


Mozart Mozart Carried tradition of Carried tradition of

Italian comic opera to Italian comic opera to new heights. Three of new heights. Three of world’s greatest operasworld’s greatest operas

The Marriage of The Marriage of FigaroFigaro

The Magic FluteThe Magic Flute Don Giovanni Don Giovanni

Blended grace, Blended grace, precision, and emotion, precision, and emotion, arguably, no one has arguably, no one has excelled excelled

04/13/23 115John 3:16

Mozart Mozart

The Development of the The Development of the NovelNovel

The novel grew out of the medieval The novel grew out of the medieval romances and 16romances and 16thth century stories century stories

English credited with establishing the novel English credited with establishing the novel as main vehicle for fiction writingas main vehicle for fiction writing

Proved attractive to women readers and Proved attractive to women readers and writerswriters

Samuel Richardson, Samuel Richardson, printer, started writing printer, started writing at 50at 50 First novel, First novel, Pamela: or, Virtue RewardedPamela: or, Virtue Rewarded Appealed to sensibilitiesAppealed to sensibilities

04/13/23 116John 3:16

The Development of the The Development of the Novel Novel

Henry FieldingHenry Fielding (1707-1754) (1707-1754) Wrote novels abut people without Wrote novels abut people without

scruples who survived with their witsscruples who survived with their wits The History of Tom Jones, A The History of Tom Jones, A

Foundling, Foundling, was his bestwas his best Emphasized action rather than inner Emphasized action rather than inner

feelingfeeling However, he did attack the hypocrisy of However, he did attack the hypocrisy of

his agehis age

04/13/23 117John 3:16

The Writing of HistoryThe Writing of History

Philosophes Philosophes created revolution created revolution in history writingin history writing Secular orientationSecular orientation Eliminated role of Eliminated role of

GodGod in history in history Could focus on Could focus on

eventsevents

04/13/23 118John 3:16

VoltaireVoltaire


History writing…History writing… for for causal relationshipscausal relationships in natural world in natural world Broadened the scopeBroadened the scope from just politics to from just politics to

economic, social, intellectual, and cultural economic, social, intellectual, and cultural developmentsdevelopments

The Age of Louis XIV The Age of Louis XIV by Voltaireby Voltaire was written was written not just to depict his life, but to depict the not just to depict his life, but to depict the “…spirit of men in the most enlightened age “…spirit of men in the most enlightened age the world has ever seen”the world has ever seen”

Voltaire initiated the modern ideal of social Voltaire initiated the modern ideal of social history history

04/13/23 119John 3:16

The Writing of History The Writing of History

Voltaire, as much as anyone, initiated Voltaire, as much as anyone, initiated the “modern ideal of social history”the “modern ideal of social history”

Weakness of philosophes stemmed Weakness of philosophes stemmed from their from their preoccupations as preoccupations as philosophesphilosophes Sought to instruct as well as entertainSought to instruct as well as entertain Goal was to help Goal was to help civilize their agecivilize their age History could play a role by revealing its History could play a role by revealing its

lessons lessons according to their visionaccording to their vision

04/13/23 120John 3:16

The Writing of History The Writing of History

Philosophes writing history (cont)Philosophes writing history (cont) Emphasized Emphasized reasonreason and and sciencescience Disliked ChristianityDisliked Christianity, making them less , making them less

sympathetic to the Middle Agessympathetic to the Middle Ages

04/13/23 121John 3:16


Philosophes writing Philosophes writing history…history… Decline and Fall of Decline and Fall of

the Roman Empirethe Roman Empire, , by by Edward GibbonEdward Gibbon

Portrayed the Portrayed the growth growth of Christianityof Christianity as a as a major reason for major reason for Rome’s eventual Rome’s eventual collapsecollapse

Also thought the Also thought the decline had many decline had many causescauses

04/13/23 122John 3:16

Edward GibbonEdward Gibbon

The High Culture of the The High Culture of the Eighteenth CenturyEighteenth Century

High Culture, High Culture, by 18by 18thth century century Literally and artistic world of educated and Literally and artistic world of educated and

wealthywealthy Latin as languageLatin as language Theologians, scientists, philosophes, poets, etc.Theologians, scientists, philosophes, poets, etc. Supported by wealthy and literate lay group, Supported by wealthy and literate lay group,

mostly landed aristocracy and rich upper mostly landed aristocracy and rich upper classed in citiesclassed in cities

Popular CulturePopular Culture Written and unwritten lore of the masses, most Written and unwritten lore of the masses, most

passed down orallypassed down orally

04/13/23 123John 3:16

The High Culture of the The High Culture of the Eighteenth Century Eighteenth Century

Expansion of reading public and Expansion of reading public and publishingpublishing

Authors making money, less dependent Authors making money, less dependent on patronson patrons

Development of magazines, Great Development of magazines, Great Britain leading the wayBritain leading the way Twenty five published in 1700, 158 in 1780 Twenty five published in 1700, 158 in 1780 Best known, Best known, SpectatorSpectator, by Joseph Addison , by Joseph Addison

and Richard Steele, started in 1711and Richard Steele, started in 1711

04/13/23 124John 3:16

The High Culture of the The High Culture of the Eighteenth Century Eighteenth Century

The Female SpectatorThe Female Spectator featured featured articles by female writersarticles by female writers

Newspapers began to appearNewspapers began to appear First newspaper printed on London in 1702First newspaper printed on London in 1702 By 1780, 37 other towns had newspapersBy 1780, 37 other towns had newspapers Cheap and provided free in coffeehousesCheap and provided free in coffeehouses

Books circulated more widelyBooks circulated more widely Public libraries and private circulating Public libraries and private circulating

libraries libraries

04/13/23 125John 3:16

Education and Education and UniversitiesUniversities

Large number of privately endowed Large number of privately endowed secondary schools by 18secondary schools by 18thth century century Tended to be elitist, meeting needs of Tended to be elitist, meeting needs of

upper classupper class Perpetuated class hierarchy instead of Perpetuated class hierarchy instead of

social mobilitysocial mobility

04/13/23 126John 3:16


Privately endowed secondary Privately endowed secondary schools… schools… Philosophes reinforced idea to keep Philosophes reinforced idea to keep

people in their original social classpeople in their original social class ““Education should teach princes to reign, Education should teach princes to reign,

the ruling classes to distinguish themselves the ruling classes to distinguish themselves by their merit and virtue, the rich to use by their merit and virtue, the rich to use their riches well, the poor to live by honest their riches well, the poor to live by honest industry”…Baron d’Holbach industry”…Baron d’Holbach

04/13/23 127John 3:16


Privately owned secondary schools…Privately owned secondary schools… Still largely concentrated on Greek and Still largely concentrated on Greek and

Latin classicsLatin classics Not much mathematics, science, or Not much mathematics, science, or

modern languages modern languages

04/13/23 128John 3:16

Education and Education and Universities Universities

Complaints by Complaints by philosophe-reformers philosophe-reformers led to attempt at led to attempt at more practical more practical curriculums—most curriculums—most common complaintscommon complaints Too much emphasis Too much emphasis

on classics and on classics and Aristotelian Aristotelian philosophyphilosophy

No training in No training in sciences and modern sciences and modern languageslanguages

04/13/23 129John 3:16


In Germany, the In Germany, the Realschule Realschule opened opened 1747 and offered modern languages, 1747 and offered modern languages, geography, and bookkeeping to geography, and bookkeeping to prepare boys for businessprepare boys for business

New schools also opened for women, New schools also opened for women, but emphasized religions and but emphasized religions and domestic skillsdomestic skills

Few scientific discoveries of 18Few scientific discoveries of 18thth century occurred in universities century occurred in universities

04/13/23 130John 3:16

Crime and PunishmentCrime and Punishment

Most European countries had Most European countries had hierarchy of courts hierarchy of courts

Judicial torture was important means Judicial torture was important means of obtaining evidence for trialof obtaining evidence for trial

Punishments were cruel and Punishments were cruel and spectacularspectacular

Nobles executed by simple beheadingNobles executed by simple beheading Lower class criminals tortured—Lower class criminals tortured—

broken at the wheel, drawn and broken at the wheel, drawn and quartered, etc. quartered, etc.

04/13/23 131John 3:16


Public executions seen as necessary Public executions seen as necessary for deterrence for deterrence

Death penalty was commonly used—Death penalty was commonly used—more than 200 crimes earned the more than 200 crimes earned the death penaltydeath penalty

04/13/23 132John 3:16

Crime and Punishment Crime and Punishment

There was forced labor in mines, There was forced labor in mines, forts, and naviesforts, and navies

Sent criminals as indentured Sent criminals as indentured servants to coloniesservants to colonies

04/13/23 133John 3:16


Italian philosophe, Cesare Beccaria, Italian philosophe, Cesare Beccaria, wrote, wrote, On Crimes and On Crimes and PunishmentsPunishments Punishments should only serve as Punishments should only serve as

deterrent, not brutalitydeterrent, not brutality Against capital punishmentAgainst capital punishment

By end of 18By end of 18thth century, prisons century, prisons replaced much of capital punishment replaced much of capital punishment actions actions

04/13/23 134John 3:16

The World of MedicineThe World of Medicine University medical education University medical education

conducted in Latin and based on conducted in Latin and based on Galen medicine even to 17Galen medicine even to 17thth and 18 and 18thth centuries. Based hierarchy of centuries. Based hierarchy of positionspositions

Graduate with doctorate in medicine Graduate with doctorate in medicine needed for license to hold regular needed for license to hold regular patient consultationspatient consultations

04/13/23 135John 3:16

The World on MedicineThe World on Medicine

Below physicians were surgeons Below physicians were surgeons whose main jobs were to bleed whose main jobs were to bleed patients and perform surgerypatients and perform surgery Surgery often done without painkillers Surgery often done without painkillers

and under filthy conditionsand under filthy conditions Bleeding believed to combat variety of Bleeding believed to combat variety of

illnessesillnesses

04/13/23 136John 3:16

The World of Medicine The World of Medicine In 1740s, surgeons began to In 1740s, surgeons began to

separate themselves from the separate themselves from the barbers and organize into guildsbarbers and organize into guilds

Surgeons underwent more training Surgeons underwent more training in anatomyin anatomy Began to be licensedBegan to be licensed Began to see patientsBegan to see patients

04/13/23 137John 3:16

The World of MedicineThe World of Medicine

Apothecaries, midwives, and faith Apothecaries, midwives, and faith healers served the common peoplehealers served the common people

Hospitals were filthy and often Hospitals were filthy and often people would leave with diseases people would leave with diseases they didn’t have when they went inthey didn’t have when they went in

04/13/23 138John 3:16

Popular CulturePopular Culture

Social activities and other pursuits Social activities and other pursuits common to lives of most peoplecommon to lives of most people

Festivals—a variety of celebrationsFestivals—a variety of celebrations Christmas and EasterChristmas and Easter CarnivalsCarnivals People ate, drank, and celebrated to People ate, drank, and celebrated to

excessexcess

04/13/23 139John 3:16

CarnivalCarnival

Celebrated the weeks leading up to Celebrated the weeks leading up to LentLent

Time of great indulgenceTime of great indulgence Lots of foodLots of food Offensive songsOffensive songs Verbal and physical aggression through Verbal and physical aggression through

insults and pelting with eggs, apples, insults and pelting with eggs, apples, flour, etc.flour, etc.

Criticism of superiors OKCriticism of superiors OK

04/13/23 140John 3:16

Taverns and AlcoholTaverns and Alcohol People also gathered in taverns and People also gathered in taverns and

cabaretscabarets Social gatherings in neighborhoodsSocial gatherings in neighborhoods Cheap alcoholic beverages led to physical Cheap alcoholic beverages led to physical

and monetary problems for average peopleand monetary problems for average people The rich drank different beverages such as port The rich drank different beverages such as port

or brandy causing fewer physical problemsor brandy causing fewer physical problems The differences in drinking habits and the The differences in drinking habits and the

abandoning of festivals by the rich was abandoning of festivals by the rich was symbolic of abandoning the popular world symbolic of abandoning the popular world view as well view as well

04/13/23 141John 3:16

Taverns and Alcohol Taverns and Alcohol

Abandoning the world view Abandoning the world view Upper classes now viewed such things Upper classes now viewed such things

as witchcraft, faith healing, fortune as witchcraft, faith healing, fortune telling, and prophesy as the beliefs, telling, and prophesy as the beliefs, “such are of the weakest judgment and “such are of the weakest judgment and reason, as women, children, and reason, as women, children, and ignorant and superstitious persons.” ignorant and superstitious persons.”

04/13/23 142John 3:16

Literacy and Primary Literacy and Primary Education Education

Pop culture not entirely oralPop culture not entirely oral Chapbooks Chapbooks were short brochures sold were short brochures sold

by peddlers to lower classes containing by peddlers to lower classes containing spiritual and secular materialspiritual and secular material Lives of saints, adventure stories, etc.Lives of saints, adventure stories, etc. Promoted literacyPromoted literacy

While the wealthy and middle class While the wealthy and middle class artisans grew in literacy, women and artisans grew in literacy, women and peasants remained largely illiteratepeasants remained largely illiterate

04/13/23 143John 3:16


Protestant reformationProtestant reformation and and bible bible readingreading led to more interest in literacy led to more interest in literacy

Some states, Germany, Swiss, Some states, Germany, Swiss, Scotland, etc., made an effort toward Scotland, etc., made an effort toward mass educationmass education

Efforts to teach the lower classes was Efforts to teach the lower classes was often thwarted by the upper class often thwarted by the upper class because they feared educating the because they feared educating the lower classes would lead to rebellionlower classes would lead to rebellion Teaching hard work and loyalty to Teaching hard work and loyalty to

superiors was seen as paramount superiors was seen as paramount 04/13/23 144John 3:16


Hannah More, English writer, set up Hannah More, English writer, set up a network of Sunday schools, a network of Sunday schools, explains her philosophyexplains her philosophy ““They learn on weekdays such coarse They learn on weekdays such coarse

work as may befit them for work as may befit them for servantsservants. I . I allow of no writing for the poor. My allow of no writing for the poor. My object is to train up the lower classes in object is to train up the lower classes in habits of habits of industryindustry and and pietypiety.”.”

04/13/23 145John 3:16

Religion and the Religion and the ChurchesChurches

Life was becoming secularized and men Life was becoming secularized and men of reason attacked the churches. Yet of reason attacked the churches. Yet

much of the art and music was much of the art and music was religious. Most Europeans were religious. Most Europeans were

Christian. Accepted by most church Christian. Accepted by most church critics was that society could not critics was that society could not

function without faithfunction without faith

04/13/23 146John 3:16

The Institutional ChurchThe Institutional Church

Churches of 18Churches of 18thth century upheld century upheld society’s hierarchical structuresociety’s hierarchical structure No dramatic internal changesNo dramatic internal changes Church, run by priest or pastor, was Church, run by priest or pastor, was

center of religious practicecenter of religious practice Kept records of births, deaths, and Kept records of births, deaths, and

marriagesmarriages Provided charity for the poorProvided charity for the poor Supervised primary educationSupervised primary education Cared for orphansCared for orphans

04/13/23 147John 3:16

Church-State RelationsChurch-State Relations Protestant Reformation established Protestant Reformation established

state control over the churchesstate control over the churches Protestant state churches flourished Protestant state churches flourished

throughout throughout

Europe in 18Europe in 18thth century century Scandinavia, north German states, Scandinavia, north German states,

England, Scotland, etc. England, Scotland, etc.

04/13/23 148John 3:16

Church-State RelationsChurch-State Relations

Catholic church still exercised much Catholic church still exercised much control by 1700. Church had control by 1700. Church had enormous wealthenormous wealth In Spain, 3000 monastic institutions In Spain, 3000 monastic institutions

housing 100,000 men and women housing 100,000 men and women controlled enormous land estatescontrolled enormous land estates

Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Hapsburg empire, Poland, and Hapsburg empire, Poland, and southern Germany southern Germany

04/13/23 149John 3:16

Church-State Relations Church-State Relations

Catholic church remained on top of Catholic church remained on top of the hierarchy structurethe hierarchy structure Bishops, archbishops, abbots, and Bishops, archbishops, abbots, and

abbesses were members of the upper abbesses were members of the upper classesclasses

Received revenues from landed estates Received revenues from landed estates and faithful tithesand faithful tithes

Wide gulf between upper and lower clergyWide gulf between upper and lower clergy Bishop of Strasburg received 100,000 livres a Bishop of Strasburg received 100,000 livres a

year, parish priests paid 500year, parish priests paid 500

04/13/23 150John 3:16

Church-State Relations Church-State Relations States sought to control (nationalize) States sought to control (nationalize)

the Catholic churchesthe Catholic churches Meant controlling the papacy and Meant controlling the papacy and

Society of JesusSociety of Jesus Jesuits had created special enclaves Jesuits had created special enclaves

within states and French, Spanish, and within states and French, Spanish, and Portuguese coloniesPortuguese colonies Much political influenceMuch political influence Created many enemiesCreated many enemies Spain and France demanded the Society be Spain and France demanded the Society be

dissolved and Pope Clement XIV complieddissolved and Pope Clement XIV complied04/13/23 151John 3:16

Church-State RelationsChurch-State Relations

Jesuits had acquired much success Jesuits had acquired much success and powerand power

Monarchs distrust JesuitsMonarchs distrust Jesuits Portugal, Spain, France expelled the Portugal, Spain, France expelled the

JesuitsJesuits Spain and France asked Pope Clement Spain and France asked Pope Clement

XIV to dissolve the Jesuits—he XIV to dissolve the Jesuits—he reluctantly did reluctantly did

04/13/23 152John 3:16

Church-State Relations Church-State Relations

The termination of the Jesuits The termination of the Jesuits paralleled the decline in papal powerparalleled the decline in papal power

Mid-eighteenth century, papacy Mid-eighteenth century, papacy played only minor role in diplomacy played only minor role in diplomacy and international affairsand international affairs

The papacy could no longer appoint The papacy could no longer appoint high clerical officialshigh clerical officials

04/13/23 153John 3:16

Toleration and Religious Toleration and Religious Minorities Minorities

Philosophes had called for religious Philosophes had called for religious tolerationtoleration

Many rulers still found toleration difficult Many rulers still found toleration difficult to acceptto accept Louis XIV had suppressed the rights of Louis XIV had suppressed the rights of

HuguenotsHuguenots It was seen as true duty of ruler not to allow It was seen as true duty of ruler not to allow

subjects to be condemned to hell by being subjects to be condemned to hell by being hereticsheretics

Persecution continued and the last burning of Persecution continued and the last burning of heretics took place 1781heretics took place 1781

04/13/23 154John 3:16

Toleration and Religious Toleration and Religious Minorities Minorities

Some progress made toward religious Some progress made toward religious toleration through Joseph II of Austriatoleration through Joseph II of Austria Toleration Patent of 1781Toleration Patent of 1781 Granted Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek Granted Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek

Orthodox the right to worship privatelyOrthodox the right to worship privately In all ways, all subjects were now equalIn all ways, all subjects were now equal

04/13/23 155John 3:16

Toleration and the JewsToleration and the Jews

Jews were the most despised Jews were the most despised religious minority of Europereligious minority of Europe

Largest number called Ashkenazic Largest number called Ashkenazic JewsJews

Except for Poland, they were Except for Poland, they were restricted in their movements, restricted in their movements, forbidden to own land or hold many forbidden to own land or hold many jobs, forced to pay special taxes, and jobs, forced to pay special taxes, and subject to outbursts of popular subject to outbursts of popular wrathwrath

04/13/23 156John 3:16

Toleration of the JewsToleration of the Jews

PogromsPogroms were were actions that saw actions that saw looting of Jewish looting of Jewish communities and communities and the massacre Jews the massacre Jews

04/13/23 157John 3:16

Toleration of the Jews Toleration of the Jews Sephardic Jews were another major Sephardic Jews were another major

groupgroup Lived in Amsterdam, Venice, London, Lived in Amsterdam, Venice, London,

Frankfurt, etc., relatively free to Frankfurt, etc., relatively free to practice banking and commercial practice banking and commercial activities, which they had done since activities, which they had done since the Middle Agesthe Middle Ages

Provided valuable services to courtsProvided valuable services to courts

04/13/23 158John 3:16

Toleration of the JewsToleration of the Jews

Treatment of Jews…Treatment of Jews… They were still set apart and They were still set apart and

socially resentedsocially resented Many philosophes denounced Many philosophes denounced

persecution of Jewspersecution of Jews Many Europeans favored Many Europeans favored

assimilation of Jews but only if assimilation of Jews but only if they converted to Christianity—not they converted to Christianity—not acceptable to most Jews acceptable to most Jews

04/13/23 159John 3:16

Toleration of the Jews Toleration of the Jews

Austrian emperor Joseph II tried new Austrian emperor Joseph II tried new policypolicy Too limitedToo limited Freed the Jews from nuisance taxesFreed the Jews from nuisance taxes Allowed more freedom of movement and jobsAllowed more freedom of movement and jobs Restricted from owning land Restricted from owning land Could not worship in publicCould not worship in public Encouraged them to learn GermanEncouraged them to learn German Encouraged greater assimilation into Encouraged greater assimilation into

German societyGerman society

04/13/23 160John 3:16

Popular Religion Popular Religion in the Eighteenth in the Eighteenth

CenturyCenturyDespite the rise of skepticism and Despite the rise of skepticism and the intellectuals’ belief in deism the intellectuals’ belief in deism and natural religion, religious and natural religion, religious

devotion remained strong in the devotion remained strong in the 1818thth century century

04/13/23 161John 3:16

Catholic PietyCatholic Piety European Catholic religiosity European Catholic religiosity

difficult to assessdifficult to assess Parish was important center for Parish was important center for

communitycommunity Hard to establish regular attendance Hard to establish regular attendance

figuresfigures Ninety-plus percent attended Mass on Ninety-plus percent attended Mass on

Easter SundayEaster Sunday

04/13/23 162John 3:16

Catholic PietyCatholic Piety

Catholic piety…Catholic piety… Much externalized form of worship, Much externalized form of worship,

e.g., prayers to saints, pilgrimages, and e.g., prayers to saints, pilgrimages, and devotion to relics and imagesdevotion to relics and images

Parishioners “more superstitious than Parishioners “more superstitious than devout”devout”

Feared witches and prayed to Virgin Feared witches and prayed to Virgin Mary to save them from personal Mary to save them from personal disasters caused by the devil disasters caused by the devil

04/13/23 163John 3:16

Protestant Revivalism: Protestant Revivalism: PietismPietism

Protestant state-run churches established Protestant state-run churches established good patterns and served by well-good patterns and served by well-educated clergyeducated clergy

Bureaucratic and bereft of religious Bureaucratic and bereft of religious enthusiasmenthusiasm In Germany and England, where there was In Germany and England, where there was

more “rational” Christianity, ordinary more “rational” Christianity, ordinary Protestants wanted a deeper religious Protestants wanted a deeper religious experience leading to new religious experience leading to new religious movementsmovements PietismPietism was one response to rationalism was one response to rationalism

04/13/23 164John 3:16

Protestant Revivalism: Protestant Revivalism: Pietism Pietism

Pietism Pietism Begun in 17Begun in 17thth century by German clerics century by German clerics Spread by teachings of Count Nikolaus Spread by teachings of Count Nikolaus

von Zinzwndorf and his Moravian von Zinzwndorf and his Moravian Brethren (sect)Brethren (sect)

““Personal experience of God”—true Personal experience of God”—true religious experiencereligious experience

Zinzedorf: “He who wishes to Zinzedorf: “He who wishes to comprehend God with his mind becomes comprehend God with his mind becomes an atheist”an atheist”

04/13/23 165John 3:16

Protestant Revivalism: Protestant Revivalism: Pietism (cont)Pietism (cont)

Protestant churches offered little Protestant churches offered little excitement in England as wellexcitement in England as well

Anglican church offered little Anglican church offered little excitementexcitement

Dissenting Protestants—Puritans, Dissenting Protestants—Puritans, Quakers, Baptists, were relatively Quakers, Baptists, were relatively subduedsubdued

Deeper spiritual experience gone Deeper spiritual experience gone unmet until John Wesleyunmet until John Wesley

04/13/23 166John 3:16

Wesley and MethodismWesley and Methodism

John Wesley, ordained Anglican minister John Wesley, ordained Anglican minister (1703-1791)(1703-1791) Experienced deep spiritual, mystical Experienced deep spiritual, mystical

experienceexperience “…“…an assurance was given me, that He had an assurance was given me, that He had

taken away my sins…saved me from the law taken away my sins…saved me from the law of sin and death”of sin and death”

““The gift of God’s grace” assured him of The gift of God’s grace” assured him of salvationsalvation

Criticized by Anglican church as emotional Criticized by Anglican church as emotional mysticism mysticism

04/13/23 167John 3:16

Wesley and Methodism Wesley and Methodism

To Wesley, all To Wesley, all could be saved by could be saved by experiencing God experiencing God and opening the and opening the doors to His gracedoors to His grace

04/13/23 168John 3:16

John WesleyJohn Wesley


Wesley…Wesley… Spoke to masses in Spoke to masses in

open fieldsopen fields Concentrated on Concentrated on

lower classes lower classes neglected by elitist neglected by elitist Anglicans Anglicans

Charismatic Charismatic preaching fostered preaching fostered highly-charged highly-charged conversion conversion experiencesexperiences

04/13/23 169John 3:16

John WesleyJohn Wesley


Wesley…Wesley… Converts organized into Methodist Converts organized into Methodist

societies for good workssocieties for good works Became separate religious sect Became separate religious sect

after Wesley’s death despite his after Wesley’s death despite his preference to keep Methodism preference to keep Methodism within Anglican churchwithin Anglican church

Proved need for spiritualism not Proved need for spiritualism not expunged by search for reasonexpunged by search for reason

04/13/23 170John 3:16

ConclusionConclusion

The 18The 18thth century was about change century was about change and, to some degree, traditionand, to some degree, tradition Influenced by Scientific Revolution and Influenced by Scientific Revolution and

particularly ideas of Locke and Newtonparticularly ideas of Locke and Newton Philosophes hoped they could create Philosophes hoped they could create

new society through natural laws, like new society through natural laws, like laws of sciencelaws of science

Believed education could produce Believed education could produce better human beings and better societybetter human beings and better society

04/13/23 171John 3:16


Attacking traditional religion and Attacking traditional religion and creating the “new science of man” in creating the “new science of man” in economics, politics, justice, and economics, politics, justice, and education, the philosophes laid the education, the philosophes laid the foundation for a modern worldview foundation for a modern worldview based on rationalism and secularismbased on rationalism and secularism

Despite secular thought, most Despite secular thought, most people still lived in God, religious people still lived in God, religious worship, and farming. worship, and farming.

04/13/23 172John 3:16


The most brilliant architecture and The most brilliant architecture and music of the age were religiousmusic of the age were religious

Yet, secular changes were underway Yet, secular changes were underway and would lead to both political and and would lead to both political and social upheavals before century’s social upheavals before century’s end end

04/13/23 173John 3:16

ap euro history, ch 17

Documents

diderot11272012 john

rousseau11272012 john

wollstonecraft11272012

locke11272012 john

overview enlightenment

overview intellectuals

overview philosophes

scientific discoveries