121. Acheulian (ash´-oo-lay-en)

A Lower Paleolithic stone tool industrythat includes bifacially worked hand axesand cleavers and many kinds of flaketools. It began as early as 1.4 mya inAfrica, spread across many parts of thetemperate to tropical parts of Europe andAsia, and ended roughly 200,000 ya.Also spelled Acheulean.

45. agriculture Cultural activities associated withplanting, herding, and processingdomesticated species; farming.

46. alluvial Deposited by streams, usually duringflood stages.

84. anthropomorphic (anthro, meaning "man," and morph,meaning "shape") Having or being givenhumanlike characteristics.

47. archaeobotanical Referring to the analysis andinterpretation of the remains of ancientplants recovered from the archaeologicalrecord.

20. Archaic North American archaeological periodthat follows the end of the Ice Age andtraditionally ends with the beginning ofthe use of ceramics; equivalent to theMesolithic in the Old World.

7. Aurignacian An early Upper Paleolithic stone toolindustry found across southern Europeand the Near East.

21. aurochs

European wild oxen, ancestral todomesticated cattle.

85. Aztecs

Militaristic people who dominated theValley of Mexico and surrounding area at

the time of the European conquest.

48. Bandkeramik Literally, "lined pottery"; refers to aNeolithic ceramic ware widelyencountered in central Europe and to theculture that produced it.

22. Beringia (bare-in´-jya)

The dry-land connection between Asiaand America that existed periodicallyduring the Pleistocene epoch.

1. blade technology Chipped stone toolmaking approach inwhich blades struck from prepared coresare the main raw material from whichtools are made. A blade is a chipped stoneflake that is at least twice as long as it iswide.

2. burin

A small flake tool with a chisel-like end,used to cut bone, antler, and ivory.

23. carryingcapacity

In an environment, the maximumpopulation of a specific organism that canbe maintained at a steady state.

83. Çatalhöyük(chaetal´-hae-yook´)

A large early Neolithic site in southernTurkey. The name is Turkish for "forkedmound."

49. charnel houses Buildings that hold the bones or bodies ofthe dead.

8. Chatelperronian Pertaining to an Upper Paleolithicindustry found in France and Spain.

86. cities Urban centers that both support and aresupported by a hinterland of lessercommunities.

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87. city-states Urban centers that form autonomoussociopolitical units.

88. civilization The larger social order that includes statesrelated by language, traditions, history,economic ties, and other shared culturalaspects.

24. climaticmaximum

Episode of higher average annualtemperatures that affected much of the globefor several millennia after the end of the lastice age; also known as the altithermal.

89. codices

(sing., codex) Illustrated books.

25. collectors Hunter-gatherers who tend to stay in oneplace for a long time. A task group may rangefar afield to hunt and collect food and otherresources that are brought back to camp andshared among its inhabitants. Valued foodresources are commonly stored inanticipation of future use.

9. compositetool

Minimally, a tool made of several pieces. Forexample, a prehistoric knife typicallyincluded a handle or shaft, a chipped stoneblade, and binding materials such as glue orsinew to hold the blade firmly in place.

26. coprolites Preserved fecal material, which can bestudied for what the contents reveal aboutdiet and health.

50. craftspecialization

An economic system in which someindividuals do not engage in food getting, butdevote their labor to the production of othergoods and services. Examples includepotters, carpenters, smiths, shamen, oracles,and teachers.

51. cultigen A plant that is wholly dependent on humans;a domesticate.

52. cultivars Wild plants fostered by human efforts tomake them more productive.

90. cuneiform

(cuneus, meaning "wedge") Wedge-shapedwriting of ancient Mesopotamia.

53. demographic Pertaining to the size or rate of increase ofhuman populations.

27. dental caries Erosions in teeth caused by decay; cavities.

54. desertification Any process resulting in the formation orgrowth of deserts.

55. diffusion The idea that widely distributed culturaltraits originated in a single center and werespread from one group to another throughcontact or exchange.

10. discoidtechnique

A prepared-core technique in which flakesare struck toward the center of the stonecore; greater efficiency of raw material usethan Levallois; also called "radial core"technique.

91. divination Foretelling the future.

56. domestication A state of interdependence between humansand selected plant or animal species.Intense selection activity induces permanentgenetic change, enhancing a species' valueto humans.

57. El Niño Periodic climatic instability, related totemporary warming of Pacific Ocean waters,which may influence storm patterns andprecipitation for several years.

28. Epipaleolithic (epi, meaning "after") Late Pleistocene andearly Holocene period of foragers andcollectors in the Near East and adjacentparts of Asia.

11. flexed The position of the body in a bentorientation, with arms and legs drawn up tothe chest.

29. fluted point A biface or projectile point having had long,thin flakes removed from each face toprepare the base for hafting, or attachmentto a shaft.

30. foragers Hunter-gatherers who live in small groupsthat move camp frequently to take advantageof fresh resources as they come into season,with few resources stored in anticipation offuture use.

92. Gilgamesh Semilegendary king and culture hero of earlyUruk; reputed to have had many marvelousadventures.

12. glaciations Climatic intervals when continental icesheets cover much of the northerncontinents. Glaciations are associated withcolder temperatures in northern latitudesand more arid conditions closer to theequator, most notably in Africa.

93. glyphs

Carved or incised symbolic figures.

122. grade A grouping of organisms sharing a similaradaptive pattern. Grade isn't necessarilybased on closeness of evolutionaryrelationship, but it does contrast organismsin a useful way (e.g., Homo erectus withHomo sapiens).

94. Hammurabi(ham-oo-rah´-bee)

Early Babylonian king, ca. 1800-1750 B.C.

95. Harappa(ha-rap´-pa)

A fortified city in the Indus Valley ofnortheastern Pakistan.

96. hieroglyphics

(hiero, meaning "sacred," and glyphein,meaning "carving") The picture-writing of

ancient Egypt.

31. Holocene The geological epoch during which we nowlive. The Holocene follows the Pleistoceneepoch and began roughly 11,000-10,000 ya.

58. horticulture Farming method in which only hand toolsare used; typical of most early Neolithicsocieties.

97. Huaca del Sol(wah´-ka dellsole)

Massive adobe pyramid built at Moche, innorthern Peru.

32. hunter-gatherers

People who make their living by hunting,fishing, and gathering their food and not byproducing it.

3. indirectpercussion

The method of driving off blades and flakesfrom a prepared core using a bone or antlerpunch to press off a thin flake.

98. Inka People whose sophisticated culture dominatedPeru at the time of the European arrival; also,the term for that people's highest ruler; alsospelled Inca.

13. interglacials Climatic intervals when continental ice sheetsare retreating, eventually becoming muchreduced in size. Interglacials in northernlatitudes are associated with warmertemperatures, while in southern latitudes theclimate becomes wetter.

99. Kaminaljuyú(cam-en-awl-hoo-yoo´)

Major prehistoric Maya site located atGuatemala City.

33. Kebaran Late Pleistocene hunter-gatherers of theeastern Mediterranean region and Levant.

59. kivas Underground chambers or rooms used forgatherings and ceremonies by pueblodwellers.

14. LatePleistocene

The Pleistocene stage beginning 125,000 yaand ending approximately 10,000 ya.

34. Laurentide(lah-ren´-tid)

Pleistocene ice sheet centered in the HudsonBay region and extending across much ofeastern Canada and the northern UnitedStates.

60. loess (luss)

Fine-grained soil composed of glaciallypulverized rock, deposited by the wind.

4. Magdalenian A late Upper Paleolithic stone tool industry inEurope that dates to 17,000-11,000 ya.

61. manioc Cassava, a starchy edible root crop of thetropics.

100. Maya Mesoamerican culture consisting of regionalkingdoms and known for its art andarchitectural accomplishments; also, NativeAmerican ethnic group of southern Mexico,Guatemala, and Belize.

35. megafauna Literally,"large animals," those weighingover 100 pounds.

101. Mesoamerica (meso, meaning "middle") Geographical andcultural region from central Mexico tonorthwestern Costa Rica; formerly called"Middle America" in the archaeologicalliterature.

36. Mesolithic (meso, meaning "middle," and lith, meaning"stone") Middle Stone Age; period of hunter-gatherers, especially in northwesternEurope.

102. Mesopotamia (meso, meaning "middle," and potamos,meaning "river") Land between the Tigrisand Euphrates rivers, mostly included inmodern-day Iraq.

37. middens

Archaeological sites or features within sitesformed largely by the accumulation of

domestic waste.

15. MiddlePaleolithic

Cultural period that began about 200,000 yaand ended around 30,000-40,000 yearsago. Roughly the same period in sub-Saharan Africa is called the Middle StoneAge.

16. MiddlePleistocene

The Pleistocene stage beginning 780,000 yaand ending 125,000 ya.

62. millet Small-grained cereal grasses native to Asiaand Africa.

103. Mohenjo-Daro (mo-henjo-dar´-o)

An early Indus Valley city in south-centralPakistan.

17. Mousterian A Middle Paleolithic stone tool industryassociated with Neandertals and somemodern H. sapiens groups.

104. Naj Tunich (nahtoon´-eesh)

Maya sacred cave in Guatemala.

38. Natufian Referring to collector-type hunter-gatherers who established sedentarysettlements in parts of the Near East after12,000 ya.

105. Nebuchadnezzar(neh-boo-kud-neh´-zer)

Late Babylonian king, ca. 605-562 B.C.

63. Neolithic (neo, meaning "new," and lith, meaning"stone") New Stone Age; period offarmers.

64. Neolithicrevolution

Childe's term for the far-reachingconsequences of food production.

123. nuchal torus(nuke´-ul)

(nuchal, meaning "pertaining to theneck") A projection of bone in the back ofthe cranium where neck muscles attach;used to hold up the head.

65. oases

(sing., oasis) Permanent springs or waterholes in an arid region.

66. Oaxaca (wah-ha´-kah)

A southern Mexican state bordering thePacific Ocean.

106. Olmec Prehistoric chiefdom in the Gulf Coastlowlands of Veracruz and Tabasco,Mexico, between 3,200 and 2,400 ya.

67. Ounjougou A site populated by African hunter-gatherers who made early use of wildcereal grasses on the southern edge of theSahara between 12,000 and 9,000 ya.

39. Paleo-Indian (paleo, meaning "ancient") Referring toearly hunter-gatherers who occupied theAmericas from about 13,500 to 10,000ya.

68. phytoliths (phyto, meaning "plant," and lith,meaning "stone") Microscopic silicastructures formed in the cells of manyplants.

69. plantmacrofossils

Plant parts such as seeds, nutshells, andstems, preserved in the archaeologicalrecord and large enough to be clearlyvisible to the naked eye.

70. plantmicrofossils

Small to microscopic plant remains, mostfalling in a range of 10 to 100 micrometers(µm), or roughly the size of individual grainsof wheat flour in the bag from your grocer'sshelf.

124. Pleistocene The epoch of the Cenozoic from 1.8 mya until10,000 ya. Frequently referred to as the IceAge, this epoch is associated with continentalglaciations in northern latitudes.

126. Plio-Pleistocene

Pertaining to the Pliocene and first half of thePleistocene, a time range of 5-1 mya. For thistime period, numerous fossil hominins havebeen found in Africa.

107. polities The political organizations of societies orgroups.

71. pollen

Microscopic grains containing the malegametes of seed-producing plants.

108. polychrome Many-colored.

18. prepared-core method

Pertaining to stone cores that a toolmakershapes into a pre-planned form before strikingflakes from it; enables predictable flake shapeand thickness; can be efficient in the use ofraw materials.

72. pueblos

Spanish for "town"; multiroom residencestructures built by village farmers in the

American Southwest; when spelled with anuppercase P, the several cultures that built

and lived in such villages.

73. quinoa(keen-wah´)

Seed-bearing member of the genusChenopodium, cultivated by early Peruvians.

74. rachis The short stem by which an individual seedattaches to the main stalk of a plant as itdevelops.

40. sedentism The practice of residing in a single locationfor most or all of the year.

109. shamanism Traditional practices that mediate betweenthe world of humans and the world of spirits.

110. socialstratification

Class structure or hierarchy, usually based onpolitical, economic, or social standing.

125. Soft hammerpercussion

A direct percussion method of making stonetools that uses a resilient hammer or billet togain greater control over the length, width,and thickness of flakes driven from a core.

5. Solutrean An Upper Paleolithic stone tool industry insouthwestern France and Spain that dates to21,000-18,000 ya.

75. sorghum A cereal grass. Some subspecies are grownfor food grains, others for their sweet, juicystalk.

76. starch grains Subcellular structures that form in all plantparts and are classifiable by family or genus;particularly abundant in seeds and tubers.

111. state A governmental entity that persists bypolitically controlling a territory; examplesinclude most modern nations.

112. Sumerians Earliest civilization of Mesopotamia.

77. symbiosis (syn, meaning "together," and bios, meaning"life") Mutually advantageous association oftwo different organisms; also known asmutualism.

78. Tamaulipas(tah-mah-leep´-ahs)

A Mexican state located on the Gulf Coastsouth of Texas.

79. taros Species of a tropical plant with an ediblestarchy root.

80. TehuacánValley (tay-wah-kahn´)

A dry highland region on the boundary of thestates of Puebla and Oaxaca in southernMexico.

113. Tenochtitlán(tay-nosh-teet-lahn´)

Aztec capital, built on the future site of MexicoCity.

81. teosinte(taeo-sin´-tae)

A native grass of southern Mexico, believed tobe ancestral to maize.

114. Teotihuacán(tay-oh-tee-wah-cahn´)

Earliest city-state to dominate the Valley ofMexico. It became one of the largest urbancenters in the New World up to the nineteenthcentury.

115. territorialstate

A form of state political organization withmultiple administrative centers and one ormore capitals. The cities tended to house theelite and administrative classes, and foodproducers usually lived and worked in thesurrounding hinterland.

41. till plains

Accumulations of stones, boulders, mud,sand, and silt deposited by glaciers as they

melt; ground moraines.

116. Tiwanaku(tee-wahn-ah´-koo)

Regional state, city, and valley of the samename near Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia.

117. Toltecs Central Mexican highlands people whocreated a pre-Aztec empire with its capital atTula in the Valley of Mexico.

42. totem

An animal or being associated with a kin-group and used for social identification;

also, a carved pole representing thesebeings.

43. transhumance Seasonal migration from one resource zoneto another, especially between highlandsand lowlands.

118. Tula (too´-la) Toltec capital in the Valley of Mexico;sometimes known as Tollan.

6. tundra

Treeless plains characterized by permafrostconditions that support the growth of

shallow-rooted vegetation such as grassesand mosses.

119. Ubaid (oo-bide´)

Early formative culture of Mesopotamia,7,500-6,200 ya; predecessor to Sumeriancivilization.

19. UpperPaleolithic

Cultural period beginning roughly 30,000-40,000 ya and ending about 10,000 ya anddistinguished by major technologicalinnovations, the creation of the earliesthuman art widely recognized as such, andmany other accomplishments. Best knownfrom western Europe, similar industries arealso known from central and easternEurope and Africa.

44. YoungerDryas

A stadial between roughly 13,000 and11,500 ya. The climate became colder anddrier but did not return to full glacialconditions in higher latitudes.

120. ziggurat

Late Sumerian mud-brick temple-pyramid

82. zoonoses Diseases that can be transmitted to humans from other vertebrates.