antecedents of satisfaction in a marketing channel

Journal of Retailing 79 (2003) 237–248

Antecedents of satisfaction in a marketing channel

Robert A. Ping Jr.∗

Department of Marketing, Wright State University, 266 Rike Hall, Dayton, OH 45435, USA

Accepted 2 September 2003

Abstract

Because of the importance of satisfaction to inter-firm relationship quality and thus inter-firm relationship continuity, this research inves-tigates previously unstudied antecedents of satisfaction in a marketing channel. These antecedents include the attractiveness of alternativerelationships, relationship investment, and switching cost. The research also tests reciprocal relationships between satisfaction and alternativeattractiveness, and between satisfaction and voice. This helps suggest answers to questions such as, does satisfaction reduce alternative at-tractiveness as it is generally believed, or does alternative attractiveness reduce satisfaction? Many of the study variables were antecedents ofsatisfaction in the study context. Together they explained almost half of the variation in satisfaction. Nevertheless, alternative attractiveness,relationship investment, and voice were the most important antecedents of satisfaction in the study. The paper concludes with suggestions forthe cultivation of customer satisfaction in the study context.© 2003 by New York University. Published by Elsevier. All rights reserved.

Keywords:Antecedents; Attractiveness; Customer satisfaction

It is now difficult to find a branch of Marketing that doesnot stress the importance of satisfaction in the creation andmaintenance of exchange relationships. Relationship satis-faction is a central concept in theories of interdependence(e.g.,Thibaut & Kelley, 1959). It is argued to be critical tobuyer–seller relationship development (Dwyer, Schurr, &Oh, 1987; Frazier, 1983). The loss of satisfaction is arguedto be central to the dissolution of buyer–seller relationships(Dwyer et al., 1987). In Marketing, satisfaction has gener-ated the largest amount of theory and research in consumerbehavior (seeAjzen & Fishbein, 1980; Anderson, 1973;Bearden & Teel, 1983; Bettman, 1979; Oliver, 1980). Re-cent contributions includeAnderson and Sullivan (1993),Anderson (1994), Anderson, Fornell, and Lehmann (1994),Anderson, Fornell, and Rust (1997), Bolton and her col-leagues’ research—seeBolton (1998)for citations; Bould-ing and his colleagues’ research—seeBoulding, Kalra, andStaelin (1999)for citations; Fornell, Johnson, Anderson,Cha, and Bryant (1996), andRust and Zahorik (1993).

Satisfaction and the attractiveness of alternative relation-ships are focal constructs in other relationship literatures(e.g.,Johnson, 1982; Rusbult, Farrell, Rogers, & Mainous,1988; Thibaut & Kelley, 1959). In the interpersonal rela-

∗ Tel.: +1-937-775-3047.E-mail address:[email protected] (R.A. Ping Jr.).

tionship literature,Rusbult (1980)argued that relationshipsatisfaction and alternative attractiveness, along with priorinvestments in the relationship, were the critical variables inher investment model of relationship continuity. She arguedthat they were fundamental to the development or deteriora-tion of commitment in ongoing relationships (p. 173). Whileher investment model of relationship continuity has been ex-panded and extended to other literatures (e.g.,Ping, 1993;Rusbult et al., 1988), satisfaction, alternative attractiveness,and relationship investment have always been modeled assimply intercorrelated. Plausible directional paths betweenthem in the investment model have yet to be empirically ex-plored.

However, the linkages among some of these variableshave received considerable theoretical attention.Dwyer et al.(1987)stated that satisfaction should reduce the attractive-ness of alternative buyer–seller relationships.1 Johnson andRusbult (1989)proposed that this also occurs in committedinterpersonal relationships. They stated that satisfaction’s

1 For example, in focus groups conducted with a convenient samplefrom the study population, highly satisfied retailers stated that they didnot believe the claims of sales persons from other wholesalers/suppliers(the term wholesaler is generally used in the study venue) at industrytrade shows (e.g., for better advertising allowances than these retailers’current wholesaler, better return policies for seasonal goods, and highercumulative discounts).

0022-4359/$ – see front matter © 2003 by New York University. Published by Elsevier. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.jretai.2003.09.001

238 R.A. Ping Jr. / Journal of Retailing 79 (2003) 237–248

Voice Intention(VOI)

Sales Revenue(SLS)

Year WithWholesales

(WITH)

Competitions(RIVAL)

Investment (INV)

Satisfaction (SAT)

Alternative Attractiveness

ALT

Employees(EMPL)

Years inBusiness (OPEN)

Switching Costs(SWC)

Fig. 1. Hypothesized model (simplified). The indicators of SAT, ALT, INV, SWC, and VOI are not shown. However their errors (ε’s) and the structuraldisturbances (ζ’s) of the dependent (endogenous) variables were uncorrelated, and the independent (exogenous) variables (i.e., EMPL, SLS, WITH,RIVAL, and OPEN) were correlated.

reducing the attractiveness of alternatives was a relationshipmaintenance mechanism, which they termed devaluation ofalternatives.

Satisfaction is argued to be a result of comparison to al-ternatives (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959), as well as relationshipreward, cost, and fairness (Johnson, 1982). Thus, the rela-tionship between satisfaction and alternative attractivenessshould also work from alternative attractiveness to satis-faction: Alternative attractiveness should reduce satisfactionwith the incumbent relationship (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959;seeFrazier, 1983).2 The picture that emerges is that satisfac-tion and alternative attractiveness should be bi-directionallylinked. Satisfaction should reduce alternative attractiveness,which in turn should increase satisfaction (seeFig. 1).

Ping (1993)reported that firms’ satisfaction was positivelyassociated with their use of voice in a marketing channel.3

2 For example, in the focus groups just mentioned several retailersstated that they became less satisfied with their wholesalers’/suppliers’(again, the term wholesaler is generally used in the study venue) nationaladvertising after they saw the NFL Football commentator John Maddenin ads for an alternative wholesaler.

3 Voice is constructive attempts to change rather than escape from ob-jectionable relationship conditions.Rusbult, Zembrodt, and Gunn (1982)conceptualized voice as a combination ofHirschman’s (1970, 1974)no-tion of alerting the relationship partner to relationship problems, and thatof working with the relationship partner to improve relationship condi-tions. This conceptualization of voice includes constructive actions aimedat relationship improvement beyond alerting the relationship partner. Italso more fully accounts for “. . . any attempt at all to changeratherthan escape froman objectionable state of affairs. . . ” in committedrelationships (Hirschman, 1970, p. 30). The Hirschman-Rusbult concep-tualization of voice is consistent withHirschman’s (1970)characteriza-

In discussing the study results, he proposed that satisfactionshould increase voice, but that voice should also increasesatisfaction. Consequently, satisfaction and voice should alsobe bi-directional linked: Satisfaction should increase voice,and voice should increase satisfaction (seeFig. 1).

Because of the importance of satisfaction to inter-firm re-lationship quality and continuity, this research investigatesthese plausible bi-directional paths between satisfaction, andalternative attractiveness and voice to identify additionalantecedents of satisfaction. The other extended investmentmodel variables, relationship investment and switching cost(Ping, 1993), are also specified in the model to be tested(seeFig. 1). Plausible structural contingency (seeGalbraith,1973) observed variables, such as competition and the du-ration of the buyer–seller relationship, are also included inthis model to help ensure model identification.

The study results deepen our understanding of committedinter-firm relationships. Studies involvingRusbult’s (1980)investment model of relationship continuity have alwaysmodeled satisfaction, alternative attractiveness, relationshipinvestment, and switching cost as merely intercorrelated.This research is the first to investigate the paths among thesevariables in any context. This research also proposes thatalternative attractiveness and relationship investment may

tions of voice. However, it is intended to exclude more negative andless relationship-maintenance oriented conceptualizations of voice suchas negative word of mouth (Diener & Grayser, 1978). As a result, voicein the present research connotes active, constructive, and relationship pre-serving behavior aimed at the relationship partner and intended to changerather than escape from an objectionable state of affairs, including butnot limited to alerting the relationship partner to relationship problems.

R.A. Ping Jr. / Journal of Retailing 79 (2003) 237–248 239

be antecedents of satisfaction.4 It also probes the plausiblybi-directional relationship between satisfaction and voice,which is also unstudied in any context. The study involved anationally representative sample. As a result, its results mayhave implications for interfirm relationship management inthe study context.

In the balance of the paper a test of the proposed modelusing a survey of firms in long term buyer–seller relation-ships and structural equation analysis is reported. We beginwith the linkages among the study variables.

Satisfaction, alternatives attractiveness, and voice

In their description of buyer–seller relationship devel-opment,Dwyer et al. (1987)stated that for relationshipsin the committed stage, satisfaction reduces the attractive-ness of alternatives. They noted that once a relationshipreaches the committed phase, where relationship satisfactionis high, the relationship parties do not stop noticing alterna-tives. However, they maintain their awareness of alternativeswithout constantly testing the current relationship againstthem (p. 19). Using comparison level arguments (Thibaut &Kelley, 1959), Johnson and Rusbult (1989)proposed thatthere is a tendency to devalue alternative relationships thatproceeds from a high level of satisfaction with the presentrelationship (also seePing & Dwyer, 1988). Alternativesshould appear less attractive because the subject’s compar-ison level for alternatives has been increased as a conse-quence of involvement in the present satisfying relationship(p. 968). Thus, we propose that

H1a. Satisfaction reduces alternative attractiveness.

However, using almost identical logic, alternative attrac-tiveness is argued to be an antecedent of satisfaction (Thibaut& Kelley, 1959; seeJohnson, 1982). For example,Johnson(1982) argued that satisfaction is the result of a compari-son of the relationship’s rewards and costs to those avail-able from other relationships, in addition to the rewards andcosts in the present relationship, and the relative payoffs orequity between the relationship partners (p. 54). In particu-lar, these authors argue that if alternative attractiveness in-creases overall satisfaction with the incumbent relationshipwill decline. Formally,

H1b. Alternative attractiveness reduces satisfaction,

and satisfaction and alternative attractiveness should havebi-directional paths between them: Satisfaction should re-

4 Other empirically investigated antecedents of satisfaction in market-ing channels include power and conflict (seeGaski, 1984, 1987forsummaries); dependence (Zemanek & McIntyre, 1995); noncontingentinfluence attributions and bureaucratic structure (John, 1984); control(Anderson & Narus, 1984); and outcomes, trust and conflict (Anderson& Narus, 1990).

duce alternative attractiveness, and alternative attractivenessshould reduce satisfaction.

Hirschman (1970)proposed that the clients of an or-ganization have behavioral options available to them be-sides exiting when there were, as he argued, the inevitablerelationship problems. One option was to use voice, con-structive attempts to change objectionable relationship con-ditions. Another option was to remain loyal: Refuse to exitthe relationship and suffer in silence with confidence thatthings will get better (p. 38). Arguing for the importanceof voice at a time when exiting was widely believed to bethe primary reaction to relationship problems, he explainedthat voice indicated several things. Not only was it a callfor problem remediation. In addition, he argued that vocalsubjects were still sufficiently satisfied with the relationshipthat they were willing to trade the certain losses of exitingfor the uncertain gains of remediation. Stated differently,he argued that satisfaction should increase the intention touse voice. As a result,

H2a. Satisfaction increases voice intention.

Festinger (1957)argued that subjects maintain mentalconsistency between what he termed “elements,” whichincluded the subject’s behavioral intentions and their feel-ings. One result of Festinger’s and others work is thatbehavioral intentions can influence feelings (seeWicklund& Brem, 1976). In particular, subjects should alter theirfeelings about an object in the direction of increased con-sistency or consonance with their behavioral intentionstoward that object. Voice connotes active, constructive, andrelationship-preserving behavior aimed at the relationshippartner that is intended to change, rather than escape from,an objectionable state of affairs.Rusbult and Zembrodt(1983)characterized voice as behavior that is constructive,optimistic and positive concerning the relationship’s fu-ture (p. 276).Hirschman (1970)argued that vocal subjectswere still satisfied with the relationship. Consequently, assubjects’ voice intention increases they should increasetheir satisfaction to be consonant with that voice intention.Formally,

H2b. Voice intention increases satisfaction,

and satisfaction and voice intention should also havebi-directional paths between them: Satisfaction should in-crease voice intention and voice intention should increasesatisfaction.

Investment and switching cost

Festinger’s (1957)“elements” also included the subject’sfeelings in light of their past actions. He argued that subjectswere likely to alter their feelings in the direction of increasedconsistency with past actions. Thus, because subjects are


more likely to seek satisfaction rather than dissatisfaction(Homans, 1961), as their past investment increases fromsubject to subject these subjects’ current overall satisfactionshould also have increased. Stated differently subjects’ highlevels of past investment should result in their increasingtheir current satisfaction to be consonant with that past in-vestment. In summary,

H3. Investment increases satisfaction.

Hirschman (1970)proposed that investment in the re-lationship should increase the relationship investor’s useof voice (pp. 37, 40).Ping (1993)argued that increasesin firms’ relationship investments should make future ex-changes with their partner firms perceptually more valu-able (Frazier, 1983). As a result, their investments shouldmake them more likely to work to preserve the relationshipwhen there are relationship problems (Rusbult et al., 1982).Their investments would be lost if the relationship werelost (Walster, Berscheid, & Walster, 1976). Consequently, astheir relationship investments increase firms should prefer tocontact the partner firm and work cooperatively to resolveproblems and maintain the relationship. Formally,

H4. Investment increases voice intention.

As investments in the relationship increase, some of theseinvestments are likely to be relationship-specific. Theserelationship-specific investments are by definition nontrans-ferable to other exchange relationships. If they are substan-tial they should be perceived by the investor as indicativeof the high cost to establish and maintain an alternativerelationship. As a result, increased investment in a relation-ship should perceptually increase the cost of switching toalternative exchange relationships (Walster et al., 1976) and

H5. Investment increases switching cost.

As the costs of exiting the incumbent exchange relation-ship and establishing another relationship increase, the per-ceived costs associated with alternative relationships shouldalso increase (Walster et al., 1976). This should reduce the at-tractiveness of alternative relationships (Frazier, 1983), and

H6. Switching cost reduces alternative attractiveness.

Observed variables

Although they appear to take us away from the primaryfocus of the study, antecedents of satisfaction, relevant struc-tural contingency variables (seeGalbraith, 1973) will beadded to the model. These variables are important, not onlybecause they have become variables that are now infre-quently investigated in channels research, but also becausethey ensure the identification of theFigure 1structural model

and they guarantee that the coefficient estimates are unique.These variables include subject firm revenue, the numberof its employees and competitors, how long they have beenopen, and the duration of their primary supplier relationship.

Voice and observed variables

Increased revenue (a reward) that results from exchangeswith a partner firm should make future exchanges with themmore valuable (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959). As their revenue at-tributed to the relationship increases, the subject firm shouldrespond to relationship problems by contacting the partnerfirm and working cooperatively with them to resolve prob-lems, thus maintaining the relationship rather than exitingit. Hence,

H7. Revenue increases voice intention.

All other factors being equal, firms with many employ-ees should be more inclined to work with their partner firmsto resolve relationship problems in committed relationships.Not only are they likely to have the personnel resources todo so but their buyer–seller relationships are likely to be ei-ther maintained by their partner firms or maintained jointly.Their size and any collateral market power should makethem attractive to their partner firms as revenue sources. Thisshould produce a bilateral or partner-maintained relationship(seeDwyer et al., 1987). For a bilateral relationship, voiceshould a natural consequence of the relationship when thereare problems (Macneil, 1980). In a partner-maintained rela-tionship subject firm voice is likely to be rewarded by therelationship partner and it is therefore likely to be repeated(Homans, 1974). Thus, firms with many employees shouldbe inclined to exercise the voice option when problems oc-cur in the exchange relationship, and

H8. Number of employees increases voice intention.

Investment and switching cost observed variables

In long-lived economic exchange relationships, relation-ship commitment should have been maintained or havegrown (Blau, 1964). The total number of investment op-portunities should have increased with the length of therelationship, and the subject firm may perceive the lengthof the relationship itself as a relationship investment. As aresult, investment by firms in long-lived economic exchangerelationships should have increased (Dwyer et al., 1987).Formally,

H9. Relationship duration increases investment.

On the other hand, firms that have been in business formany years should be comparatively more knowledgeableof available alternatives. They also should be relatively


more experienced in dealing with the category of firms rep-resented by their partner firms (Dwyer et al., 1987). Somefirms in these durable relationships may have attractive lev-els of market power at the macro- or micro-market level.Because knowledge, experience, and any market powermay be sources of countervailing power (Dwyer, 1984)these firms should be less dependent on their partner firms(Emerson, 1962). This reduced dependency should havemade these subject firms less inclined to invest in their cur-rent relationships and their resulting switching costs shouldbe less. In summary,

H10. The number of years in business reduces investmentand switching cost.

Economic theory predicts that in mature markets as thenumber of competitors increases, each competitor’s salesand return on investment should decrease (Chamberlin,1933). As a result, firms’ investment in their relationshipwith their partner firms in mature markets should declineover time as the number of their competitors increases.The subject firms’ outcomes such as sales are reduced ina crowed market, and these firms are relatively less ableto invest in relationships. This may reduce the attractive-ness of their relationships with their relationship partner,

Table 1Measure summary

Construct Conceptual definition Operational definition Items Sample item

Alternativeattractiveness(ALT)

Global evaluation of the relationshipfulfillment available in the bestavailable alternative relationship

Satisfaction believed to be availablein the best alternative relationship,compared to the current relationship

4 Overall the alternative wholesalerwould be a much better company todo business with than the currentwholesaler

Investment(INV)

Sunk cost to build and maintain thecurrent relationship in anticipationof future exchanges

Magnitude of the relationship assetsthat would be lost or no longeruseful if the relationship ended

4 A lot of energy, time and efforthave gone into building andmaintaining the relationship withthe current wholesaler

Satisfaction(SAT)

Global evaluation of relationshipfulfillment

Belief that the relationship issatisfactory

5 All in all, my relationship with myprimary wholesaler is verysatisfactory

Switching cost(SWC)

Costs to end the current relationshipand secure the alternative

Cost and effort required to changewholesalers

4 Generally speaking the costs in time,money, effort and grief to switchprimary wholesalers would be high

Voice intention(VOI)

Constructive attempts to changeobjectionable relationship conditions

Intention to constructively notifyand work with the primarywholesaler to change objectionablerelationship conditions

4 I will work with my primarywholesaler to correct any mutualproblems

Employees(EMPL)

Retailer’s number of employees The number of employees at yourstore?

1

Years inbusiness(OPEN)

Number of years the retailer hasbeen in business

How many years has your storebeen open?

1

Competitors(RIVAL)

Number of competitive stores inretailer’s service area

The number of competing stores inyour service area?

1

Revenue (SLS) Retailer’s revenue Your last year’s sales? 1Years with

wholesaler(WITH)

Number of years the retailer hasdone business with the supplier

How many years have you donebusiness with your primarywholesaler?

1

and reduce their inclination to invest in these unattractiverelationships (Blau, 1964). Formally,

H11. The number of competitors reduces investment.

These hypotheses are summarized inFigure 1.

The study

Measures

Satisfaction, alternative attractiveness, voice intention, in-vestment, and switching cost were measured using balancedfive-point Likert scales developed byPing (1993). Thesemeasures were reliable and valid in previous studies (seePing, 1993, also seeDwyer & Oh, 1987; Gaski, 1986; Gaski& Nevin, 1985; Ruekert & Churchill, 1984). They are ex-tensively discussed inPing (1993)and they are summarizedin Table 1. The other study variables were measured withopen-ended questions that are also shown inTable 1.

Sample

The study population was hardware retailers. The sam-pling frame contained the subscribers of a widely read hard-


ware retailing trade publication that was judged to ade-quately represent the study population. The key informantin the sampling unit was the store owner, manager, or ex-ecutive. The sample was obtained specifically for this studyand it has not been used before.

A pre-test and the final test samples were selected ran-domly usingn-th name selection, and this produced 109pretest names and addresses, and 592 final test names and ad-dresses. Questionnaires were mailed to the pretest and finaltest samples along with a response incentive. Two post cardfollow-ups in the final test produced 231 usable question-naires (39% response). These pre- and final-test responseswere then used separately to determine the reliability andvalidity of the latent variable measures.

Results

RepresentativenessBecause the respondents were guaranteed anonymity, it

was not possible to identify non responders in the pre- orfinal tests. However, a comparison of the final test means andcovariances for questionnaires that were received early to

Table 2Measurement model resultsa

Covariances and correlationsb

Variable Variable number

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. SAT .44c −.52c .32c .25c .29c .10 .06 .02 −.00 −.002. ALT −.30c .74c −.27c −.38c −.10 −.17c −.03 −.12 −.07 .013. INV .16c −.18c .61c .55c .25c .11 −.10 .12 .07 −.134. SWC .16c −.33c .42c .95c .15c .09 .00 .10 −.05 −.055. VOI .08c −.03 .09c .06c .17c .00 .00 .10 −.06 −.056. WITH .08 −.18c .12 .11 .00 1.48c .41c .09 .09 .147. OPEN .10 −.08 −.19 −.06 .00 1.32c 7.26c .06 .06 .058. EMPL .02 −.13 .13 .19 .05 .14 .23 1.73c .51c .39c

9. SLS −.00 −.10 .00 .14 −.05 .19 .26 1.09c 2.63c .19c

10. RIVAL −.00 −.00 −.12 −.01 −.02 .22 .18 .65c .40c 1.57c

Measurement model-to-data fit statisticd

Statistic Value

Chi-square/df/p-value .362/259/0CFIe .976RMSEAf .042GFI/AGFIg .889/849

Average variance extracted (AVE) and latent variable reliability (reliability)

SAT ALT INV SWC VOI

AVE .770 .768 .739 .802 .760Reliability .943 .929 .919 .941 .926

a Maximum likelihood estimates.b Covariances are shown on and below the diagonal, correlations are shown above the diagonal.c t-value> 2.d Maximum likelihood estimates.e A value of .90 or above suggests acceptable fit (McClelland & Judd, 1993).f Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation—a value of .05 or less suggests close fit, values of .051–.08 suggests acceptable fit (Browne & Cudeck,

1993; Jöreskog, 1993).g GFI and AGFI may be inappropriate for assessing fit in larger models (Gerbing & Anderson, 1984).

those that were received later suggested these cohorts weresimilar. We judged the sample to be nationally representativeof the study population because the demographic profile ofthe final test responses was judged to be similar to publisheddata profiling hardware retailers.

ReliabilityThe pretest responses were used to assess the psychome-

tric properties of the latent variable measures. These mea-sures were unidimensional using multiple group analysis(Anderson, Gerbing, & Hunter, 1987). They were internallyand externally consistent (seeGerbing & Anderson, 1984)using ordered similarity coefficients (Hunter, 1973) and theyhad coefficient alphas of .85 or above.

Using the final test responses the psychometric proper-ties of the latent variable measures were re-examined usingLISREL 8 and maximum likelihood single and multipleconfirmatory factor analysis (Jöreskog, 1993). The invest-ment measure required the deletion of an item to attaininternal consistency. This deletion was based on an ex-amination of the measure’s content or face validity beforeand after item deletion, and the fit statistics available in a


Table 3Figure 1structural model estimation resultsa

Parameter Estimate t-value

βVOI→SATb .444 2.32

βSAT→VOI −.111 −0.36βSAT→ALT −.281 −2.22βALT→SAT −.282 −2.63βINV→VOI .259 1.99βINV→SAT .178 2.67βINV→SWC .542 8.36βSWC→ALT −.327 −4.80βWITH→INV .211 2.86βOPEN→INV −.167 −2.28βOPEN→SWC .031 0.51βEMPL→VOI .230 2.81βSLS→VOI −.153 −1.95βRIVAL →INV −.187 −2.78

Structural model-to-data fit statistics

Statistic Value

Chi-square/df/p-value .385/280/0RMSEAc .041CFId .975GFI/AGFIe .878/.847

Explained variance of dependent (endogenous) variables (squared multiple correlations)

SAT ALT INV SWC VOI

Squared multiple correlations .44 .34 .07 .29 .00

a Maximum likelihood estimates.b βVOI→SAT is the standardized effect of VOI on SAT (i.e., the path from VOI to SAT inFig. 1).c Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation—.05 or less suggests close fit, .051–.08 suggests acceptable fit (Browne & Cudeck, 1993; Jöreskog, 1993).d .90 or higher suggests acceptable fit (McClelland & Judd, 1993).e GFI and AGFI may be inappropriate for assessing fit in larger models (Gerbing & Anderson, 1984).

single factor confirmatory analysis. The item deletion didnot appear to impair the content validity of the investmentmeasure and it substantially improved its internal consis-tency. The final test measures were unidimensional andthey displayed latent variable reliabilities greater than .91(seeTable 2).

ValidityThe measures for the latent variables were judged to be

valid. They were judged to be content valid. The averageextracted variances for the latent variables were above .5,which suggested their convergent validity (seeTable 2andFornell & Larker, 1981). They also were significantly andplausibly correlated with at least one other study variable(seeTable 2), which suggested that these latent variableswere also construct valid. The squared correlations betweenthe latent variables were less than their average extractedvariances, which suggested their discriminant validity (seeTable 2; Fornell & Larker, 1981).

Measurement and structural modelsThe Goodness of Fit (GFI) and Adjusted Goodness of

Fit (AGFI) indices of the measurement model were slightlylow (seeTable 2). However,Anderson and Gerbing (1984)observed that these statistics are sensitive to the number of

variables in the model and thus they may be inappropriatefor larger models. The measurement model corresponding toFigure 1was judged to fit the data based on the ComparativeFit Index (CFI) (Bentler, 1990) and the Root Mean SquaredError of Approximation (RMSEA) statistic (Steiger, 1990)(seeTable 2). TheFigure 1structural model was identifiedand thus its coefficient estimates were unbiased.5 It was also

5 The Figure 1structural model can be formally shown to be identified,but the proof is long and it is not shown. However, there is collateralevidence of identification.Jöreskog and Sörbom (1989)suggested usingthe fitted covariance matrix produced by the sample to verify identification.When it is used as the input covariance matrix, the resulting parameterestimates should be the same as those produced by the sample (p. 18).The Figure 1 model parameter estimates resulting from using the fittedcovariance matrix as the input covariance matrix were identical to thosefrom sample to three digits after the decimal point (not shown).Jöreskogand Sörbom (1989)also suggested that modification indices can be used toverify model identification (p. 18). A nonzero modification index suggestsan identified parameter. Starting with an all-error model (seeBentler,1990), the parameters involved in theFigure 1model that were fixed atzero were sequentially freed starting with the largest modification index,and theFigure 1model obtained. Stated differently, no zero modificationindices for theFigure 1 model parameters were produced. Finally, it iswell known with real world data that LISREL 8 will refuse to producemodel fit and significance statistics for a non-identified model becausethe information matrix will not be positive definite.

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Table 4Figure 1standardized total effects

VOI SAT ALT INV SWC WITH OPEN EMPL SLS RIVAL

VOI −.051 (−.33) −.115 (−.39) .032 (.41) .220 (3.17) −.010 (−.42) .046 (2.13) −.037 (−1.87) .218 (3.02) −.145 (−2.02) −.041 (−2.10)SAT .457 (3.47) .031 (.19) −.291 (−2.11) .355 (5.29) .095 (1.70) .075 (2.53) −.056 (−1.96) .105 (1.90) −.070 (−1.56) −.066 (−2.47)ALT −.129 (−1.50) −.290 (−2.59) .082 (3.89) −.277 (−5.16) −.354 (−4.82) −.058 (−2.52) .035 (1.18) −.029 (−1.19) .019 (1.09) .052 (2.46)INV .211 (2.86) −.167 (−2.28) −.187 (−2.78)SWC .542 (8.36) .114 (2.73) −.059 (−.84) −.101 (−2.65)

A total effect is the result ofall the paths between two variables. The total effect of INV on ALT, for example, is the result of the INV-SAT-ALT path and the INV-SWC-ALT path (seeFig. 1). Thetable is read from column to row. For example, the total effect of SAT on ALT is−.290, while the total effect of ALT on SAT is−.291. Blanks indicate there were no paths between the variables.Stability index= .798. t-values are shown in parentheses.


judged to fit the data based on its CFI and RMSEA (seeTable 3for these statistics).

Hypotheses test resultsTen of the 14 hypotheses were supported (seeTable 3).

However, the years-in-business-switching-cost path/structuralcoefficient (βOPEN→SWC in Table 3) was not significant,and the investment-voice intention and the revenue-voiceintention coefficients both merely approached significance.Further, the bi-directional paths between voice intention andsatisfaction were from voice intention to satisfaction only.

Table 4shows the total (the direct plus indirect) effects orpath coefficients among the study variables in theFigure 1model (seeBollen, 1989, p. 376).6 For example, investmentindirectly and negatively affected alternative attractivenessvia satisfaction, voice, and switching cost (seeFig. 1). Theseindirect effects are similar to clouds producing puddles.Clouds produce rain, and the rain produces puddles. Thus,clouds produce puddles by first producing rain. In differentwords, clouds produce puddles via, or by way of, rain.

There were several unhypothesized but significant total ef-fects between the observed variables and the latent variables.These ranged from obvious effects such as the number ofcompetitors negatively affected satisfaction and it positivelyaffected alternative attractiveness, to less obvious effectssuch as retailer voice was positively affected by their num-ber of employees and negatively affected by their revenue.

Discussion

Satisfaction and alternative attractiveness

TheFigure 1alternative attractiveness-to-satisfaction pathand the satisfaction-to-alternative attractiveness paths wereboth significant (seeTables 3 and 4).7 The standardized co-efficients on these paths or the strength of these relation-ships were of the same magnitude and comparatively large

6 The paths corresponding to these total effects are shown inFigure 1.The directions of the non bi-directionalFigure 1 paths were tested fordirectionality using modification indices. This was accomplished by settingthe INV-SAT path for example to zero and comparing the resultingmodification indices for the INV-to-SAT and SAT-to-INV paths. Thelarger index (weakly) suggests the proper direction of the path given thedata. In summary, these modification indices suggested that the directionsof the non bi-directional paths were as shown inFigure 1 in the studydata.

7 Significant opposing unidirectional paths between two latent vari-ables have been previously observed (seeBagozzi, 1980and the citationstherein). In such situations a bi-directional specification has been used tosuggest which unidirectional specification is correct. For example,Bagozzi(1980) in his analysis of salesperson performance and satisfaction useda bi-directional specification to sort out opposing unidirectional specifi-cations of these two variables. He tested a bi-directional specification ofthe satisfaction-performance relationship and observed that only the pathfrom performance to satisfaction was significant. This in turn suggestedthat satisfaction did not affect performance but that performance did leadto satisfaction.

(β = −.29). This suggests that satisfaction was likely to de-crease alternative attractiveness in the study. Thus,Dwyeret al. (1987)and others’ proposals that parties to committedbuyer–seller relationships are likely to devaluate alternativesappears to apply in this study. Because this is also widelybelieved anecdotally this result could be termed obvious.

However, alternative attractiveness was likely to decreasesatisfaction in the study asJohnson’s (1982)and othershave argued. Stated differently, increased alternative at-tractiveness, for example, due to reduced switching costor investment, or increased competition (these paths weresignificant in Table 4), or from direct contact at a tradeshow, reduced satisfaction in the study. Thus, alternativeattractiveness was an antecedent of satisfaction. While thiswas hypothesized and it is predicted byJohnson (1982)andThibaut and Kelley (1959)this is a less obvious result.Johnson (1982)andThibaut and Kelley (1959)do not pro-vide explanations of how alternative attractiveness reducessatisfaction. However, increased alternative attractivenessfrom contact with an alternative supplier at a trade show,for example, should be dissonant (Festinger, 1957) withcurrent relationship satisfaction. Satisfaction could then bereduced to decrease this dissonance.8

Satisfaction and voice intention

Until now the path between satisfaction and voice inten-tion has been assumed to be from satisfaction to voice inten-tion, and it has been consistently observed to be significant inthis specification (see, e.g.,Ping, 1993; Rusbult et al., 1982,1988). The (unidirectional) satisfaction-to-voice intentionspecification of this path was significant in the presentstudy (not shown). However, in theFigure 1bi-directionalspecification the voice intention-to-satisfaction path wassignificant, but the satisfaction-to-voice intention path wasnot (seeTable 3).

This suggests that satisfaction did not affect voice inten-tion in the study, but voice intention affected satisfaction.Thus, voice intention was an antecedent of satisfaction inthe study. The lack of significance in the direct path fromsatisfaction to voice intention suggests thatPing’s (1993)and others (e.g.,Hirschman, 1970) beliefs that satisfied cus-tomers are the most likely to be vocal may be incorrect inthe study context—increased satisfaction was not associatedwith voice intention in the study. However, increased voiceintention from, for example, watching or learning of otherswho have successfully used voice (seeBandura, 1977), in-creased satisfaction in the study asFestinger (1957)mightpredict.

Investment model relationships

These results suggest that the relationships among satis-faction, alternative attractiveness, investment, and switching

8 See Footnote 2.


cost need not be specified as correlations as they have beenin the past. Further, with the possible exception of switchingcost, they were all antecedents of satisfaction. In fact theyexplained nearly 45% of the variance in satisfaction (seeTable 3). Specifically, increased past investment directly andpositively affected satisfaction, while the positive switchingcost effect on satisfaction via alternative attractiveness ap-proached significance (seeTable 4andFig. 1).9

Structural contingency associations

As an aside, while most of the structural contingency as-sociations were significant or approached significance, theireffects on the focal variables were comparatively minor. Ex-ceptions included that voice was more likely in firms withmany employees and in firms that had invested heavily inthe relationship (β = .2), and it was less likely in largerfirms (β = −.14). Other exceptions included that while re-lationship investment varied directly with the length of therelationship, it varied inversely with the length of time theretailer had been in business, and the amount of competition.

Implications

While it is very risky to generalize from a single study,the maintenance of relationship satisfaction is desirable formaintaining buyer–seller relationships. Relationship satis-faction has been reported to be strongly and negatively re-lated to exit intention (seePing, 1993). The results of thepresent study hint at several important and new strategiesfor channel satisfaction management in the study contextbeyond those that are well known or widely used (Davidow& Uttal, 1990; see the Fall 1995 issue of theJournal of theAcademy of Marketing Science). Forty-four percent of thevariance in relationship satisfaction was explained primarilyby the three relationship variables voice intention, alterna-tive attractiveness, and investment (seeTable 4). This sug-gests that satisfaction management activities aimed at ex-isting channel customers such as cultivating their voice, re-ducing the attractiveness of their alternatives, and increas-ing relationship investment may be important to relationshipmaintenance in this context (also seeCravens, 1995).

Encouraging voice

Voice intention had the largest standardized total effect onsatisfaction (β = .46). Wholesalers/suppliers (we will usethe study venue’s term, wholesalers) interested in fosteringlong term relationships may wish to sincerely solicit retailercomplaints, and then work to resolve them in a mutually sat-isfactory manner (Fornell & Wernerfelt, 1987; Hirschman,

9 In a Figure 1 model with a direct path between switching cost andsatisfaction, the direct path between switching cost and satisfaction wasnot significant (not shown).

1970, 1974). WhileFornell and Wernerfelt (1987)suggestedproviding 800 numbers and quick and competent complaintprocessing in a consumer context (p. 344), the situation maybe more complex. For example,Laver (1976)observed thatindividuals have different sensitivities to quality declines,and with all other things being equal subjects may not allhave the same voice intention.Hirschman (1970)explicitlymade the same assumption (p. 24). In addition,Hirschman(1970)argued that voice was affected by the expectation ofthe success of voice. He elaborated by proposing that the ex-pectation of the success of voice involved the subject’s eval-uation of the prospects of the declined firm getting back ontrack through a possible combination that firm’s actions, thesubject’s actions, and the actions of others (p. 38). He alsoargued that voice was affected by the advantage to be gainedby using voice (seeBanfield, 1961). Singh (1990b)concep-tualized this advantage as the worthwhileness of complaint,the costs versus the benefits to the subject.

Hirschman (1970)speculated that salience also increasedvoice (p. 41). This suggests that the importance of the rela-tionship to the subject firm may also increase the likelihoodof their voice when there are relationship problems. In thepresent study the importance of the relationship was highby design.10 However it is possible that in another contextwhere the relationships are less important the picture por-trayed in this study could be different.

As previously mentionedHirschman (1970)argued thereare customers that are passive and therefore not vocal whenthere are relationship problems. He termed these customers“loyals” (see p. 3).Singh’s (1990a)results suggest thereare several consumer voice response styles ranging frompassive, to “irate” and “activist.” It is therefore plausible thatfirms may also cluster into voice response styles and thatthere may be passive organizations when it comes to voice.

For these reasons wholesalers may wish to consideradditional means of increasing retailer voice beyond 800numbers and quick and competent complaint processingas Fornell and Wernerfelt (1987)suggest. They may wantto provide e-mail addresses and rapid responses to anye-mails, and they may want to consider providing on-linecustomer communities, such as user community bulletinboards, where problems and solutions can be shared. Chan-nel relationship managers may also wish to publicize totheir retailing partners successful outcomes proceedingfrom other retailers’ use of voice. They may want to havewholesaler sales persons actively solicit retailer voice byasking for their “number one complaint.” They may alsowant to consider using wholesaler-sponsored retailer sat-isfaction surveys to facilitate voice in less vocal retailingfirms such as those firms with fewer employees, or thosewith higher revenue in this study (who were less likely tobe vocal in the study—seeTable 4).

10 The questionnaire instructions asked respondents to think of theirprimary wholesaler in completing the questionnaire.


Increasing investment

Since investment had the next largest standardized ef-fect on satisfaction (β = .36), this suggests that investmentwas also important in cultivating satisfaction in the presentstudy. Wholesalers may wish to consider increased emphasison designing and promoting additional relationship invest-ments to their retailing partners. Prospect theory (Kahneman& Tversky, 1979) suggests that individuals and presumablyfirms should view the additional costs of relationship in-vestment noncumulatively. This suggests that with all otherthings being equal, retailers with high and low levels of re-lationship investment should be equally likely to make addi-tional investments in the relationship. In addition, prospecttheory suggests that investment opportunities should be of-fered as either a single large gain or a series of small costs(seeNagle & Holden, 1995), depending on how the prospec-tive investor might view the proposed investment. Opportu-nities for selling relationship investment could be identifiedusing a series of customer satisfaction surveys and system-atic prospecting and follow-up selling activities aimed, forexample, at long-time customers (seeTable 4).

Reducing alternative attractiveness

Alternative attractiveness had the next largest standard-ized effect on satisfaction (β = −.29). This suggests thatchanges in perceptions of the attractiveness of alternativeswere important to satisfaction maintenance in the study.Wholesalers interested in cultivating retailer satisfactionmay want to consider activities such as tailoring some oftheir promotional activities specifically for their establishedcustomers in order to reduce their customers’ alternativeattractiveness. Although there is little guidance in the mar-keting channels literature for comparative advertising, thistype of advertising may be an effective approach to reduc-ing alternative attractiveness. Promoting superior logisticsservice levels (seeLaLonde, 1985), for example, may bean effective tactic. Providing retailer “success stories” in anewsletter directed to retailer customers, or on the companyweb site, that tells of other retailers who switched fromcompetitive wholesalers may also be useful.

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