Journal of Vocational Behavior, 3, 357-366 (1973)

Anomie and Vocational-Technical Education

WILLIAM P. ANTHONY Florida State University

and

ROBERT C . MILJUS ’ The Ohio State University

Graduates from a public, postsecondary vocational-technical school are compared with a control group of individuals without such education in order to assess differences in level of anomie (via Srole Scale),

While differences in some cases were minimal, vocational-technical graduates generally revealed a more positive attitude about the present and future. It is suggested that since their education is more job-centered, and they have already experienced some occupational “success,” they are more likely to have internalized and reflect traditional societal norms. The control group, while possessing similar demographic backgrounds, still are in transition-attending college, looking for work, etc.

The subject of deep-rooted social unrest in American society, and especially among college and high school students, has received considerable study in recent years. Much of the attention has focused upon describing and identifying possible causes and correlates of such unrest. For example, with respect to causes, Friedenberg (1965) Miljus (1970), Nagai (1972), Rock (1971) Rosak (1969), and Slater (1970) cite the following: the hypocrisy between professed values and actual behavior; the depersonalization of mass media and education; the production orientation and impersonality of mass highly specialized, technocratic economic exchange (reflected in such institu- tions as assembly line technology, plasticized supermarkets, computerized billing in retail); rapid population growth, urbanization and resultant congestion; the precipitating factors of the Vietnam War and the civil rights movement, and the seeming inability (or unwillingness) of institutions such as the church, family, and schools to adopt to societal needs.

‘Reprints may be obtained from: Professor Robert C. Mifjus, Chairman, Faculty of Management Sciences, 414 Hagerty Hall, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210.

357

358 ANTHONY AND MILJUS

Among youth this unrest has manifested itself in a variety of ways such as: the hippie movement described by Adler (1968) deviant dress and appearance; the lyrics of their songs; communal living experiences; pressure for more participation in economic, political, and educational institutions (including a desire for more relevant courses), and a movement toward leisure activities and to jobs with more “honest work” in them (Seligman, 1965). Less acceptable forms of social behavior; e.g., campus disruptions, bombings, and political acts of terror have also occurred among some youth segments (Bernstein, 1970).

The manifestations briefly touched upon above are frequently referred to as some form of alienation. However, since the concept of alienation has not as yet been firmly established (Seeman, 1959; Browning, Larimer, Kirk, and Mitchell, 1961; Dean, 1961; Clinard, 1964), we view them as anemic conditions in the tradition of Durkheim. In his seminal works on suicide, the division of labor, and moral individualism, and the theory of religion, Durkheim (Giddens, 1972) describes the disintegration of traditional European societies (during the 1800s) founded upon rigid custom, ascribed status, rule by fiat, and conformity to a common consciousness or shared system of values. These social bonds are shattered with the onslaught of industrialism, division of labor, specialization, and the proliferation of special national and economic interests. While looking favorably upon industrialism (especially occupational interdependencies), Durkheim maintained that new values, aims, and norms regulating individual aspirations, inner responsibilities to others and mutual obligations would need to emerge in order to preserve organic solidarity within society. In their absence a collective or social malaise- despair, boredom, anxiety, insecurity, pessimism, anarchy, escape from reality-would prevail.

The parallels between Durkheim’s era and the current social situation, described by Trist (1970) and Price (1970) as the crisis of transition from an industrial to a postindustrial society, are evident. Given the gravity of the problem, it becomes encumbent upon each institution to adapt and provide creative leadership. Educational institutions, for example, should seek to project future needs and accordingly offer learning experiences.

An often stated advantage of vocational-technical education is that it allows a student to study subject matter and learn skills which are perceived by him to have direct relevance to his life and future occupation. For example, he may study principles of electronic circuitry in the morning and repair televisions (for which he is compensated) during the afternoon in a school-sponsored cooperative work program. It is often argued that such immediate relevancy and reinforcement are frequently missing when the student studies, for example, English literature, history, or other academic subjects.

ANOMIEANDEDUCATION 359

It may be hypothesized that by allowing students to study subject matter they perceive as being meaningful now and job relevant, vocational- technical education is associated with lower feelings of anomie than are general or academic education. This may be the case especially where vocational-technical graduates are able to obtain occupations in which they were trained. Studies by Wiepert (1965), Kenniston (1967), and Whitaker (1967) indicate that student unrest or activism is positively correlated with social status and is higher among those with an academic rather than a job-centered value orientation. Further research obviously is needed to more clearly delineate the nature and direction of these relationships, and to more accurately portray the type of students who pursue various post-high school educational experiences.

METHOD

This study examines the question of whether or not graduates of a public postsecondary technical institute reflect lower feelings of anomie than do students without a similar technical education background (Anthony, 197 1).

Subjects. Two sample groups of students who graduated from the Columbus, Ohio Public High School System, were selected. The first sample group comprised 127 male high school graduates who also graduated from Columbus Technical Institute (CTI) during the 1965-1969 period. The 19651969 graduating classes were selected because very few individuals graduated from CT1 prior to 1965 since it is a relatively new institute. Also, female students were not included since they represented less than 5% of all CT1 graduates at the time of the study.

Columbus Technical Institute is a postsecondary, 2-yr technical institute under the direction of the Ohio Board of Regents. It offers 2 yr associate degrees in applied science and business. Most of the courses of study available at CT1 are classified under the Trades and Industry or Technical occupational categories of the U.S. Office of Education and include: Accounting Technology, Electrical Engineering Technology, Restaurant Management, Secretarial Science Technology, Business Data Processing, etc.

The second sample consisted of Columbus high school male graduates primarily from the 1962 through 1967 graduating classes who did not attend CTI. A table of random numbers was used to select 800 names from the graduation lists supplied by the Columbus Board of Education. Since an effort was made to obtain the same number of responses in each sample group, it was necessary to select a larger number of high school graduates with the realization that their addresses most likely would not be as current as the

360 ANTHONY ANDMILJUS

addresses of CT1 graduates (CT1 makes a concerted effort to maintain current addresses).

Instruments. A mail questionnaire was sent to members of each sample group. The questionnaire is a modification of the one employed by Eninger (1965) in his study of vocational graduates. Two follow-up mailings were also utilized in an effort to increase the response rate. Eighty-three usable questionnaires were returned by CT1 graduates for a 66% response rate. A lower proportion of non-CT1 graduates responded; 186 usable questionnaires were returned for a 23% response rate. This latter proportion is disappoint- ingly low but attributable mainly to high mobility among this group, as confirmed by telephone follow-ups. On the positive side, both sample groups are very comparable with respect to a number of independent variables. Table 1 summarizes the mean values of certain of these variables.

As evident in Table 1, a typical respondent from both groups is about 23 yr old, graduated from high school in 1964 with an accumulative grade point average of about 2.6 on a 4.0 scale. He spent a total of 2000 hr in classrooms for all types of formal education after high school, approximately 1000 of which were spent in college classrooms. He received about 300 hr of on-the-job training and around the same number of hours of military training. In addition, he spent about 100 wk in the military and a total of around 200 wk in the labor force (employed or looking for a job).

Although not presented in Table 1, values for additional independent variables indicate that the respondents graduated from similar high schools in Columbus and that most studied either college preparation or general curricula. Around 93% in each group are white and about 5% in each group indicated that they have a health or physical disability that affected their employment.

Concerning differences between the two sample groups, 12% more of the CT1 respondents were married (significantly different at the .05 level), and the non-CT1 respondents spent 34 wk more in the military (significantly different at the .05 level). While both groups averaged comparable hours of formal training and education following high school graudation, the non-CT1 respondents attended colleges and universities and the majority studied in the social sciences and education. CT1 respondents, in turn, focused more on mathematics, engineering, and technical oriented subjects.

RESULTS

The instrument used to measure anomie is the Srole Anomie Scale (Srole, 1956) which consists of the following five statements:

1. In spite of what people say, the lot of the average person is getting worse.

ANOMIE AND EDUCATION

TABLE 1

Independent Variables for which a Mean was Computed

361

Variable CT1 High school F ratio T test

(n=83) (n=186) value value

Age in years Year of high school graduation High school accumulative grade averageQ Hours of educationb Hours of college educationc Hours of on-the-job training Hours of military training Weeks of military service Weeks in the labor force

23.4 23.5 0.054 0.238

1963.9 1964.0 0.003 0.061

2.51 2.62 0.1323 -0.858

1834.0 1952.0 1.421 0.834

1295.0 923.0 1.732 1.132

345.0 302.0 0.853 -1.984

271.0 339.0 0.894 -1.004 84.1 112.3 4.419 -2.36od

252.5 203.1 3.641 1.840

Where A=4, B=3, C=2, D=l, F=O. bllleasured as total actual hours spent in the classroom for all forms of education after

graduation from high school. Includes CT1 education for CT1 sample. CMeasured as total actual hours spent in the classroom. Includes CT1 education for

CT1 sample. dDifference is significant at .05 confidence level.

2. It’s hardly fair to bring children into the world the way things look for the future.

3. These days a person doesn’t really know who he can count on. 4. Nowadays a person has to live pretty much for today and let

tomorrow take care of itself. 5. There’s little use in writing to public officials because they often

aren’t really interested in the problems of the average person.

The respondents indicated on a Likert-type scale whether they agreed, disagreed, or are neutral with regard to each statement. Table 2 presents the results for each statement and a composite score. The Kolmorgorov-Smirnoff two-sample test for ordinal nonparametric data was utilized to determine whether the differences between the groups for each of the statements was significant at the .05 confidence level (Siegel, 1956).

Responses to the scale are interpreted in the following manner: the higher the degree of agreement with a statement, the higher the degree of anomie. As indicated in Table 2, there are very few significant differences relative to anomie between the two groups. However, there are some interesting variations. In general, the CT1 respondents tend to be more optimistic than their counterparts, although a noticeable proportion of both groups (ranging from a fourth to a third) gave from neutral to anemic responses. This was especially true with respect to the lot of the average

TABLE 2

Anomie of Sample Respondents as-Measured by the Srole Scale’ (Percentage Distribution)

Statement High school Kolmogorov-Stinoff

(n=186) D valueb

First SD D N A SA total

Second SD D N A SA total

Third SD D N A SA total

Fourth SD D N A SA total

Fifth SD D N A SA total

Composite SD D N A SA total

24 43 12 17

-4 3 100 100

45 35 29 38 15 11

8 11

2 100

23 39 18 11

-3 100

56 43 30 34

7 7 5 10

r -6 100 100

32 18 39 37 22 18

5 .I5

-2 12 100 100

36 28 36 36 15 13

9 15

-4 100

-4 100

.07 22 38 13 22

_s 100

20 35 18 22

3 100

.lO

.07

-13

.18c

.lO

Where: SDstrongly disagree, D=disa@ee, N=neutral, A=agree, SA=strongly agree. kritical D value is .179 for a two-tailed large sample test at the .05 confidence level.

Thus, if the computed D exceeds this value the null hypothesis is rejected. That is, the difference is significant at the .05 confidence level.

Wfference is sign&ant at .05 confidence !evel.

ANOMIE AND EDUCATION 363

person growing worse, the bringing of children into the world, and knowing who one can really count on statements. CT1 respondents are much more positive about the future and have significantly greater faith in public officials and their response to the average person.

As stated previously, feelings of anomie on the part of CT1 graduates were expected to be lower if the graduates obtained jobs in occupations for which they were trained. It is assumed that the job serves as a reward experience reinforcing specific effort put forth during 2 yr of training. This would particularly be the case, if the CT1 graduates feel that the technical training prepared them well for the job.

The CT1 respondents were asked to rate the training relatedness of their first and present jobs, and also to rate the adequacy of their CT1 training for their first job. The results of these ratings for their present job are presented in Table 3.

As evident in Table 3, over three-fourths of the CT1 graduates accepted jobs immediately after graduation that they rated as being related to their training. Of these, 60% believed that they were exceptionally well prepared for their jobs by virtue of their CT1 education while very few felt poorly prepared. Almost 16% of the CTI respondents accepted jobs not related to their training, while 6% of the respondents had not held a job since graduation either because they entered the Armed Services, continued in a regular 4 yr college or had not located a job.

In addition, CT1 graudates were asked to rate the training relatedness to their present or current job. About 84% of the graduates held a job at the time they completed the questionnaire. Of these, 70% reported holding a job that was the same occupation studied or an occupation closely related to that studied at CT1 as shown in Table 4. The remainder felt that their present job was only slightly related or completely unrelated (10%) to their CT1 education.

DISCUSSION

The results indicate that even though the differences between the two sample groups are not large, the technical school graduates in this study generally evince a less pessimistic attitude about their current situation and the future. Whether or not the technical school sample possessed this attitude prior to ever attending CT1 is of course difficult to predict. Conversely perhaps CT1 has had some impact; it might be that these technical school respondents believe that the “system” has worked for them. They invested 2 yr studying for a job in a skilled occupational area and, after graduation, the great majority obtained related jobs. Apparently, for them, the traditional Protestant Ethic paid off-hard work and sacrifice leads to reward and

364 ANTHONY AND MILJUS

TABLE 3

Training Relatedness of CT1 Respondents’ First Job after CT1 Graduation (Percentage Distribution)

Found job related to training 78 (n=65) Exceptionally well prepared for job 60 WelI prepared but gaps in training 37 Poorly prepared for job 3

Total 100%

Found job not related to training 16 (n=13) Decided they liked other work 33 Learned new skill in service 20 Learned new skii in school 20 No job available in trained area 20 Not accepted as apprentice 7

Total 100%

No job held since CT1 graduation 6 (n=5)

Total 100% (n=83)

TABLE 4

Training Relatedness of CM Graduates’ Present Job (Percentage Distribution)

Same occupation studied at CT1 ............................... 47 Highly related occupation .................................. 23 Slightly related occupation ................................. 20 Completely unrelated occupation .............................. 10

Total .......................................... 100%

achievement. Whether or not they can adapt and their attitudes will persist as the economic system continues to undergo certain structural changes remains to be examined.

Concerning the non-CT1 group, we need to know much more about their subsequent career experiences in order to gain greater understanding of their registered attitudes. For example, a large proportion were in college at the time of the survey; hence, their futures were still indeterminate. An economic recession was beginning to emerge and campus unrest in opposition to Viet Nam prevailed throughout the nation.

Also, within the nontechnical school group, we need to know much more about those high school graduates who did not enter college. What occupations did they acquire and what were their experiences relative to earnings, promotion, unemployment, etc.? Controlling for these factors and

ANOMIE AND EDUCATION 365

then examining comparative anomie scores might prove more fruitful. Obviously larger sample sizes will be necessary for such analyses.

Similarly, we need to know more about those who received military training, and examine its transferability into the civilian labor market and resultant impact upon attitudes. In our study, only 60% of the non-CT1 group who served in the Armed Services, reported receiving any specific skill training. About a half of this proportion received training in such areas as electronics, medical, mechanical, or military police-each of which may be readily transferable. Again greater sample size and careful controls may reveal interesting comparisons with a group similar to our CT1 sample.

In summary, findings of this study although based on small numbers lend some support for Kaufman’s (1969) recommendations “. . . that vocational education as a ‘way of learning’ be incorporated in the regular so-called academic curriculum so that many of the positive, non-skill charact- eristics of the vocational curriculum become part of the educational process.” Vocational education curricula might be utilized to make all education more relevant to students so they may want to learn. This suggests that perhaps it is not the learned skill as such that reduces anomie but rather the way in which any skill (or for that matter any subject) is taught and internalized that diminishes anomie. Vocational education may be seen as one method to facilitate the learning of a subject in such a manner that the needs, interests, and aspirations of youth are satisfied to such an extent that feelings of anomie may be reduced.

REFERENCES

Adler, N. The antinomiam personality: The hippie character type. Psychiatry, 1968, 31, 325-338.

Anthony, W. P. A study of the effectiveness of public post-secondary vocational-technical education in preparing students for the labor force. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1971.

Bernstein, S. Alternatives to violence: Alienated youths and riots, race, and poverty. New York: Association Press, 1967.

Browning, C., Larimer, M., Kirk, H. D., & Mitchell, G. D. On the meaning of alienation. American Sociological Review, 1961, 26, 780-781.

Chnard, M. B. The theoretical implications of anomie and deviant behavior. In M. B. Clinard, Anomie and deviant behavior: Discussion and critique. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1964, Pp. 37-38.

Dean, D. G. Alienation: Its meaning and measurement. American Sociological Review, 1961, 26, 753-758.

Giddens, A. (Editor). Emile Durkheim: Selected writings. London: Cambridge University Press, 1972.

Eninger, M. A. The process and product oft and i high school vocational education: the product. Pittsburgh: The American Institute for Research, 1966, l-22, l-29.

Friedenberg, E. Z. Coming of age in America. New York: Vintage Books, 1965.

366 ANTHONY AND MILJUS

Kaufman, J. J. The role of vocational education in the transition from school to work. In A. R. Weber, F. H. Cassell and W. L. Ginsberg (Eds.), Public-private manpower policies. Madison, Wise.: Industrial Relations Research Assoc., 1969.

Kenniston, K. The sources of student dissent. Journal of Social Issues, 1967, 23, 108-137.

Miljus, R. C. Memo to executives: Understanding college youth and their rebellion. Business and Society, 1970, 11, 8-l 3.

Nagai, Yonosuke. The United States is disintegrating. Psychology Today, 1972, 5, 24-27, 93-94.

Price, C. R. Between cultures: The current crisis of transitions. In Warren H. Schmidt (Ed.), Organizational frontiers and human values. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1970.

Rock, W. P. Alienation: yes, patriotism: yes The Center Magazine, 1971, 4, 2-11. In this same issue, such astute writers as John Wilkinson, Martin Marty, Stringfellow Barr, Edward Fiske, James Firm, Adam Shaff and others respond to the question “Is There a New Man?” pp. 13-23.

Rosak, T. The making of a counter culture. New York: Anchor books, 1969. Seeman, M. On the meaning of alienation. American So&logical Review, 1959, 24,

783-791. Seligman, B. B. On work, alienation and leisure. American Journal of Economics and

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Beacon Press, 1970. Srole, L. Social integration and certain corollaries: An exploratory study. American

Sociological Review, 1956, 21, 709-716. For a thorough discussion of Srole’s Anomie Scale, its use, reliability, and validity, See: John P. Robinson and Philip R. Shaver, Measures of social psychological attitudes. AM Arbor: Survey Research Center, 1969, 172-175.

Trist, E. L. Urban north america: The challenge of the next thirty years. In Warren H. Schmidt (Ed.). Organizational frontiers and human values. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1970.

Whitaker, D. N. Psychological characteristics of alienated, nonconformist, college-age youth as indicated by avL, opi, acL, and ViB-m/w group profiles. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1967.

Wiepert, G. P. A study of the incidence of alienation in a college population and its relationship to certain demographic variables. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1965.

Received: June 26, 1972.