ancient newari watersupply systems in nepals kathmandu valley

Ancient Newari Water-Supply Systems in Nepal's Kathmandu ValleyAuthor(s): Jonathan C. SpodekSource: APT Bulletin, Vol. 33, No. 2/3 (2002), pp. 65-69Published by: Association for Preservation Technology International (APT)Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1504758 .

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Ancient Newari Water-Supply Systems in

Nepal's Kathmandu Valley

JONATHAN C. SPODEK

The traditional water sources in

and around the city of Patan are

examined in their physical and

cultural contexts.

To

Bodhnath

Kmand Changu N•grako

Swayambunath/ t

Airport Narayan A Bode

To Lubhu Kodari Okm 5km

Godavari

Near the base of Mount Everest in the Indian subcontinent, Nepal's Kath- mandu Valley is a place of immense cultural richness. The Kathmandu Val- ley, with its seven World Heritage Zones, evokes wonder in the visitor with its sheer number of religious structures and monuments. Beyond these monuments and their immediate environs, however, there are other, less well- known sites and resources important to the physical and social well-being of the indigenous people, the Newari. The settlements in the valley, most notably the city of Patan, are characterized by a tight urban fabric relieved only by public squares, which often include wells, waterspouts, drinking fountains, or other access to potable water. The watering places in and around Patan are of particular interest because they reflect the architectural, artistic, social, and engineering heritage of this ancient people. Unfortunately, the international pressure to preserve the monuments of the Kathmandu Valley's World Heritage Zones has overshadowed and in some ways adversely affected these sites of critical local importance.

This paper examines the traditional water sources of the Newari people in and around the city of Patan by situat- ing these sites in their physical and cultural contexts. Moreover, it highlights the ongoing challenges preservationists face in maintaining key components of daily life in Newari communal society.

The Kathmandu Valley

The Kathmandu Valley is a geographic basin, covering roughly 180 square miles, of fertile agricultural lands in the middle ranges of the Himalayas. The name Nepal originally applied only to this valley, the cultural core of the coun- try. Early agricultural and trade settle-

ments in the valley prospered largely due to their central location along the ancient trade routes between India and Tibet. The use of these trade routes has kept this landlocked valley from cultural isolation.

The valley is strewn with small traditional villages, shrines, and temples, with the royal cities of Kathmandu, Patan, and Baktapur dominating the area (Fig. 1). During the golden age of the valley in the Malla period from the thirteenth to the eighteenth centuries, the three cities competed to outdo each other in architectural and urban development. These small kingdoms, or city- states, existed independently under related Malla rulers until 1768, when they were unified into a single state under the Shah dynasty. It was during the Malla period that the sites where the Newari obtained their water in the valley, and in Patan in particular, under- went the most elaborate development.

The Newari, a people of mixed ethnic and cultural origin, are regarded as the original inhabitants of the Kath- mandu Valley. They dominated the life and culture of the three kingdoms and supplied the independent rulers prior to unification under the Shah in the eighteenth century. Although today many ethnic groups make up modern Nepal, the Newari continue to maintain their cultural heritage by preserving their language and customs. The artistic skill of the Newari is displayed in their stone sculptures, shrines, and temples, as well as in the architectural structures they built to mark their public water sources. These structures incorporate stone carving, woodcarving, metalwork, and terra-cotta work and date before the Shah dynasty.

The history of the Kathmandu Valley can be divided into three periods or dynasties: the Licchavi period (A.D.

65

Fig. 1. Map of Kathmandu Valley. Drawing by the author.



66 APT BULLETIN

Fig. 2. Pati (public shelter) near the stepwell in Lubhu. All photographs by the author.

300-900), the Transitional period (A.D. 900-1200), and the Malla period (A.D. 1200-1768). The last period is well- represented in the valley today through its urban development and architecture. While ancient structures associated with the water supply are not restricted to the urban areas, they are concentrated in the three principal cities of Kathmandu, Patan, and Baktapur.

Patan

The Kathmandu Valley was placed on UNESCO's World Heritage List in 1979.1 The historic Dubar (palace) Square of Patan, including its immediate urban setting, is one of seven Monumen- tal Zones of this World Heritage Site.

Historically, Patan was the seat of the valley's largest kingdom. Today, it ranks second in size among the three major cities. Located south of Kathmandu across the Bagmati River, Patan is virtu- ally contiguous with its neighboring city as a result of modern development. Sometimes called Chakrakara, or "the city in a circular form," Patan was originally laid out in the third century B.C. in the form of a circle with a Bud- dhist stupa, a mounded structure con- taining religious relics, at each of its cardinal points. Another name for the city is Lalitpur, or "city of beauty," referring to the elaborate architecture and public spaces built during the Malla

period. The magnificent temples, shrines, and stupas in Patan are interwo- ven throughout the tight urban fabric. The structures constructed during the Malla period, both religious and domes- tic, are adorned with exquisitely crafted and carved ornament.

Daily life in Patan has always re- volved around its public water supply. Houses are built around a chowk, or courtyard, which provides the social center for the neighborhood. Each tole (quarter, ward, or street) has a public square. These squares are not formal plazas, but simply open areas that re- lieve the closely built environment. The

public squares generally consist of a temple or shrine, a shelter for travelers making a pilgrimage, and public access to water. The shelter might be a dharma'-la (Sanskrit for "charitable asylum"2), which is an enclosed rest house, or it might be a pati, a simple raised platform cover with a roof structure (Fig. 2). These shelters function as places for people to rest and socialize, as well as for travelers to stay overnight. Patan's Durbar Square boasts three of the most elaborately built watering places: the Tusha Hiti, the Lva Hiti, and the Mangah Hiti. The latter features a public sunken stepwell with carved stone waterspouts (Fig. 3). The Tusha Hiti and the Lva Hiti are found within two of the three palace chowks.

For centuries, people have gathered at the nearest chowk to draw water for drinking, cooking, washing, and ritual bathing. In addition to their utilitarian function of providing water, these sites are an integral part of the culture, play- ing a central role in the social, spiritual and communal life of the Newari people.

Components of Public Water Sources

Potable water in the cities and villages of Kathmandu Valley was historically - and is still today in many places - obtained from a series of man-made ponds and running fountains in stepwells. These are part of a sophisticated water-supply network found throughout the valley.

Fig. 3. Mangah Hiti (stepwell), Durbar Square, Patan.



ANCIENT NEWARI WATER-SUPPLY SYSTEMS 67

Fig. 4. Stone waterspout in the Mangah Hiti, Patan.

Man-made ponds. Man-made ponds (called pokari in Nepali; phuku in Newari)3 are urban reservoirs. Located throughout the cities or on their outskirts, these brick-lined reservoirs have steps around their perimeters to provide safe access to the water. They vary in size from large lakes associated with palace compounds to bathtub-size ponds. It has been difficult to date any of the ponds to before the Malla period. Inscriptions found on the stone surrounding Rani Pokari or Queen Lake, in the northeast section of Kathmandu, date this pond to the seventeenth century, during the Malla period.4

Stepwells. Stepwells (dungecdirai, Nepali for stone tap; hiti, Newari for stepwell, or gahiti, for deep stepwell) are continuously running water taps with the spouts carved in animal form. The spouts are carved from local grayish- green basalt (Fig. 4). The taps are located at the bottom of stepped, or terraced, pits. The waterspouts are interconnected by clay piping, and operate through gravity. The size and depth of the stepwells vary greatly depending on the location within the city and position in the chain of wells. Some stepwells have only one waterspout, while others have many more. The stepwells, with their imaginative waterspouts, are the most architecturally distinctive of these ancient watering places.

Numerous decorative features of the stepwells - such as individual stone

sculptures, stone taps, and friezes - survive from the Transitional period, but these earlier elements have often been incorporated into structures dating primarily from the Malla period. Many carved stone taps can even be dated stylistically to the earliest Licchavi period. Interestingly, a number of these survive not only as taps in the later stepwells, but also in other structures or in paved roads. While inscriptions and/or stylistic appearance allows certain decorative elements of the stepwells to be dated to the Licchavi or Transi- tional periods, the stepwells themselves rarely date from more than five hundred years ago.s

Drinking fountains. Drinking fountains (tutedhara in Nepali; jahdi~ in Newari) are manually filled stone containers or troughs, with spigots for drinking. These are often located at temples and in courtyards near a well or stepwell. These spigot fountains are rarely in use today.

Water holes. Water holes (kuva in Newari) are simple, circular, excavated shallow wells at natural springs. Deeper wells (inara in Nepali; ti~in Newari) excavated to the level of the ground water provide an additional source of water for the city but do not play a role in the social and cultural life as do the stepwells and ponds.

The ponds and stepwells provide good examples of Newari craftsmanship and design. Walls and floors are laid with elaborate carvings and brickwork. The waterspouts of the stepwells are finely carved in stone, usually in the forms of mythical creatures.

Beyond their architectural and artistic significance, these places have spiritual significance, as water is considered sacred. The stepwells and ponds are venues for ritual bathing. Small shrines or carvings in the stepwells often repeat the imagery found in the larger religious shrines constructed in the vicinity of the fountains (Fig. 5).

Water-Supply System The traditional Newari water-supply components are not only fascinating visible features of the urban and cultural landscape; they are also examples of early public engineering systems. Hy- drologists have determined the sources of many stepwells to be underground aquifers and springs found throughout the Kathmandu Valley. In addition to these natural sources, some of the man- made ponds are believed to play an important role in charging parts of the underground water system. There are instances where natural water sources do not provide consistent water supply or adequate water pressure to maintain a specific series of public watering places; in these cases, the ponds fulfill those needs.6

Fig. 5. Hiti (stepwell) in Baktapur with shrine above stone tap.



68 APT BULLETIN

A sophisticated gravity-propelled distribution system of clay and terra- cotta piping links these aquifers to a series of ponds and/or stepwells. Water flows from the source to the first stepwell in the chain via underground clay pipes. The water discharges at the stepwell through a carved stone waterspout and is collected in a drain below. The underground drainpipe of the first stepwell supplies water to the subsequent stepwell in the system. This arrangement explains why the stepwells are placed deeper and deeper below ground level in the supply chain.

The components of the underground distribution system are just as remark- able as the stepwells' visible features. Many of the original supply and drain lines still function today. While many of these lines are presumed to have been rebuilt or improved during the Malla period, there are cases of pipelines with inscriptions from earlier periods. In- scriptions dating from A.D. 590 are on the water supply lines for the Mangah Hiti, one of the three stepwells in Patan's Durbar Square.7 Locals still draw water daily from the Mangah Hiti.

Preservation Context

The upkeep of Patan's ponds and stepwells is sporadic at best. Historically, the responsibility for maintenance resided with local Newari families, organized into guthi, or groups with specific social and religious obligations. Gfithi were assigned to specific shrines, public structures, stepwells, or ponds. The practice of forming githi, along with the traditional caste system, is breaking down in modern Nepal, with the push toward normalization of ethnic groups. The decline of this social system, including the loss of associated financial support, has resulted in the deterioration of the stepwells and ponds. Added to the difficulty of maintaining these ponds and stepwells is their ambiguous legal status. In many cases, it cannot be determined whether they are publicly or privately owned.8 This complicates the problem of upkeep and has led to the neglect or abandonment of certain sites (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Abandoned hiti (stepwell) in Lubhu.

New development poses a real threat to the ponds and stepwells of Patan. Development throughout the Kath- mandu Valley is occurring with little oversight. A 1999 report by the World Heritage Committee recommended that the Kathmandu Valley be placed on its List of World Heritage in Danger. A further recommendation was to remove certain areas in the valley from World Heritage Monumental Zones, based on the serious degree of uncontrolled development and the deterioration of the integrity of the Monumental Zones. The committee specifically noted the Nepalese government's inability to control development, retain historic buildings in situ, and address illegal construction and alteration of historic structures. The report stated that "the demolition and new construction or alterations of historic buildings within the Kathmandu Valley have persisted in spite of the concerted international and national efforts, resulting in the loss or continuous and gradual deterioration of materials, structure, ornamental features, and architectural coherence...."9 This assessment applies to the ancient watering places of Patan. There, and throughout the valley, efforts have been made to develop municipal water systems. By obviating the need for stepwells and ponds, municipal water systems would come at great social and cultural expense.

The city of Patan, working with the Nepali government's Department of Archeology, took the first step toward preservation by undertaking an inventory of its stepwells in 1995. This inventory was limited to the stepwells themselves and did not investigate the sources of the water or the distribution system. Locating the underground aquifers, springs, and piping would be a more protracted process, involving expensive and time-consuming underground trac- ing efforts. On several occasions, distribution piping has been broken or dis- rupted during excavation for new construction or infrastructure improve- ment, resulting in the interruption of the water supply to one or more stepwells. Repair or rerouting of piping is difficult due to the dense and irregular urban structure and to poor government oversight of public works.

UNESCO recognizes the traditional water supply system as a unique feature of the cultural heritage of the Kath- mandu Valley. In particular, the organi- zation has focused on the stepwells of the city of Kathmandu. UNESCO Kath- mandu is currently assisting the Kath- mandu Metropolitan City Office in the restoration of its stepwells. The first project in Kathmandu was completed in 1999 through this partnership. Three more stepwells are currently being reha- bilitated in Kathmandu, with additional financial support from the Japanese Embassy. Another 21 stepwells have been identified for restoration by UN- ESCO Kathmandu.l? To date, neither UNESCO nor any municipal agencies outside of Kathmandu have made an effort to extend the restoration program to Patan or other settlements.

Summary

While individual stepwells in Patan stand out as superb examples of architectural structures, it is the entire system of ponds, stepwells, and fountains that merits closer survey and documentation. The evolution and continuous use of these water-supply systems during the last fifteen hundred years has made them an integral part of the architectural, artistic, and social fabric of Patan and Newari society. As important gathering spaces for daily ritual, refreshment, and



ANCIENT NEWARI WATER-SUPPLY SYSTEMS 69

rest, the stepwells in particular have developed into rich architectural com- plexes. It is no wonder they have historically attracted private and royal dona- tions for their preservation. These sites are also important reminders of the Newari's early engineering achievement in providing potable water to the inhabitants of Patan and its environs, thus developing a viable and enduring part of the city's infrastructure.

Lack of funding, uncertainty of ownership, poor infrastructure documentation, and lack of control over new development with regard to these watering places are grave concerns of Patan's preservationist and architectural com- munity. With the attention drawn to the Kathmandu Valley from the World Heritage Committee and the interest from UNESCO in Kathmandu's water supply system, it is hoped that funding can be secured for additional inventory work on the distribution system and the less visible components of Patan's public water network.

JONATHAN C. SPODEK is an architect and assistant professor of architecture at Ball State University. In Patan, Nepal, during the summer of 1999, he developed and presented a short course on historic preservation for archi- tects, engineers, UNESCO staff, government officials, and students. He continues to consult with architecture/planning students and preservation professionals in the Kathmandu Valley region.

Notes

1. The Kathmandu Valley was added to the World Heritage List in 1979 under the 1978 version of the Operational Guidelines meeting cultural criterion iii (be unique, extremely rare, or of great antiquity), criterion iv (be among the most characteristic examples of a type of structure, the type representing, an important cultural, social, artistic, scientific, technological, or industrial development), and criterion vi (be most importantly associated with ideas or beliefs, with events or with persons, of out- standing historical importance or significance).

2. Mary Shepherd Slusser, Nepal Mandala: A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley, vol. 1, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), 146.

3. Nepali, closely related to Hindi, is the official national language of Nepal, as established under the Shah dynasty. There are many other languages spoken in modern Nepal. Newari, the principal language of the Kathmandu Valley prior to the Shah dynasty, is still spoken by the Newari ethnic group.

4. T. W. Clark, "The Rani Pokhri Inscription, Kathmandu," Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 20 (1975): 173.

5. See Shobha Shrestha, "Inventory: City of Patan. Chapter 2, Hiti (Stepwells)," draft report for His Majesty's Government of Nepal, Min- istry of Education, Culture, and Social Welfare, Department of Archeology, 1995, 1.

6. Interview with Hari K. Shrestha, Assistant Professor of Engineering, Nepal Engineering College, Bhaktapur, Nepal, June 1999.

7. Shobha Shrestha, 97.

8. The 1995 inventory conducted by Shobha Shrestha determined ownership for approxi- mately half of Patan's stepwells.

9. "Report of the Twenty-Third Extraordinary Session of the Bureau (WHC-99 / Conf. 209/6) Relating to the State Of Conservation of Prop- erties Inscribed on The World Heritage List," Nov. 29-Dec. 4, 1999.

10. "The Heritage of Stone Spouts," UNESCO Kathmandu Newsletter 1 (Nov. 2000), 5.

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