Ancient Jordanian cultures climate

•Paleolithic Period (500,000-17,000 BC)The climate during this period was considerably wetter than today, which includes us. Jordan has been affected by the global warming through ages. And therefore large areas of modern-day desert were open plains ideal for a hunting and gathering subsistence strategy.

• Neolithic Period (8500-4500 BC)From the basic shifts in settlement patterns was prompted by the changing weather of

the eastern desert. The area grew warmer and drier, gradually becoming virtually uninhabitable throughout much of the year. The distinction between the desert to the east and the "sown" areas to the west dates back to this watershed climatic change, which is believed to have occurred from around 6500-5500 BCE.

Human presence at Malia during the Neolithic period (6000-3000 B.C.)

• Chalcolithic Period (4500-3200 BC)Chalcolithic man relied less on hunting than in Neolithic times, instead focusing

more on sheep and goat-breeding and the farming crops that grow in warm environments such as: wheat, barley, dates, olives and lentils.

• Early Bronze Age (3200-1950 BC)A sharp climatic change at this time resulted in less rainfall and higher

temperatures across the Middle East. The predominant theory is that many of these Early Bronze Age towns were victims of changes in climate and political factors which brought an end to a finely-balanced network of independent

Earth's axial tilt is the main cause of the seasons. The earth’s axial tilt is not a fixed quantity but changing over time in a cycle with a period of 41,000 years Milankovitch theory describes the collective effects of changes in the Earth's movements upon its climate which lead to an ice age, but the 20th century instrumental temperature record shows a sudden rise in global temperatures attributed to greenhouse gas emissions.

Due the 498,050 years from the Paleolithic Period to Early bronze age the climate has changed a lot and by the mentioned records the climate became more drier by ages.

Definition :

Soil is composed of particles of broken rock that have been altered by chemical and environmental processes that include weathering and erosion .

Soil formation greatly depends on the climate, Seasonal and daily temperature fluctuations affect the effectiveness of water in weathering parent rock material and affect soil dynamics.

It is used in agriculture, where it serves as the primary nutrient base for plants.

Soil material is a critical component in the mining and construction industries. Soil serves as a foundation for most construction projects. Massive volumes of soil can be involved in surface mining, road building and dam construction.

Soil pollution causes

•Industrial wastes, such as harmful gases and chemicals, agricultural pesticides, fertilizers and insecticides are the most important causes of soil pollution. •Ignorance towards soil management and related systems. •Unfavorable and harmful irrigation practices. •Improper management and maintenance •Leakages from sanitary sewage. •Acid rains, when fumes released from industries get mixed with rains. •Fuel leakages from automobiles, that get washed away due to rain and seep into the nearby soil. •Unhealthy waste management techniques, which are characterized by release of sewage into the large dumping grounds and nearby streams or rivers.

Effects of Soil Pollution

•Decrease in soil fertility and therefore decrease in the soil yield

•Loss of soil and natural nutrients present in it.

•Generally crops cannot grow and flourish in a polluted soil. Yet if some crops manage to grow, then those would be poisonous enough to cause serious health problems in people consuming them.

•Foul smell due to industrial chemicals and gases might result in headaches, nausea etc. in many people.

Soil management

Soil Management, the basis of all scientific agriculture, which involves several

essential practices:

•Tillage

The purpose of tillage is to prepare the soil for growing crops. This preparation is traditionally accomplished by using a plow that cuts into the ground and turns over the soil. This removes or kills any weeds growing in the area and loosens and breaks up the surface layers of the soil.

•Maintenance of organic matter

Organic matter is important in maintaining good physical conditions in the soil. It contains the entire soil reserve of nitrogen and significant amounts of other nutrients, such as phosphorus and sulfur.

•Nutrient supply

Among soil deficiencies that affect productivity, deficiency of nutrients is especially important. The nutrients most necessary for proper plant growth are nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, iron, calcium, sulfur, and magnesium, all of which usually exist in most soils in varying quantities

( Next slide shows the primary, secondary and micro-nutrients).

•Soil pollution

The increasing amounts of fertilizers and other agricultural chemicals applied to soils since World War II, plus industrial and domestic waste-disposal practices, led to increasing concern over soil pollution. Soil pollution is the buildup in soils of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive materials, or disease-causing agents, which have adverse effects on plant growth and animal health

•Pesticide residues

The effectiveness of a pesticide as well as the hazards of harmful residues depend largely on how long the pesticide remains in the soil.