Anatomy of Metaphors: the ultimate guide to creating

a powerful metaphor

by LUCIA TREZOVA Prague, April 2014

Metaphor is originally a figure of speech

based on resemblance = one thing is used

to refer to another thing in order to show or suggest that they are somehow similar.

METAPHOR IS A TYPE OF ANALOGY

„Knowledge is power“

„You are my star“

WHAT ABOUT VISUAL METAPHORS?

Since metaphors don’t have to be only verbal, the essence of the metaphor is: experiencing one thing

or thinking about one thing in terms of another

What is a metaphor’s

structure ?

EACH METAPHOR CONSISTS OF TWO ELEMENTS: A TARGET AND A SOURCE

Both: target and the source are part of, in principle, infinitely expanding networks of related meanings, necessary for producing

metaphors, called connotations.

The target is what we try to describe, to make a meaning of by using metaphor.

The source is a „vehicle“, the concept that is used to predicate something about the target.

Metaphors connect two conceptual domains: the target domain and the source domain.

The target and the source are parts of networks of connotations.

Consider the metaphor: „LOVE IS A BATTLEFIELD“

„Love“ is a target „ Battlefield“ is a source.

These networks of connotations are based on individual meanings and cultural meanings.

Love concept includes connotations

such as: „lovers“ and „passion“, and „sex“, „inspirations“, „creativity“, „respect“, „marriage“, „children:, but also „sacrifices“ and „cheating“, „disappointment“, „reason to revenge“, „losses“, „grief“, „misery“, etc.

Battlefield concept includes

connotations such as: „war“ „soldiers“, „victims“, „wounds“, „pain“, „sorrow“, „victories“, „defeats“, „weapons“, „fighting strategies“, ally-making, etc.

By metaphor we are

invited or forced

to see and think of

a TARGET „A“ in terms of a SOURCE „B“

...BECAUSE „A“ IS LIKE „B“

How are metaphors

construed ?

To understand the metaphor „Love is a battlefield“ we

must make an imaginative leap to recognize the

resemblance to which a metaphor alludes.

Thus, using and understanding metaphors involves a

function of „transference“ - transferring certain qualities from one object – the source to another object –the target.

THE FUNCTION OF TRANSFERENCE

from „Battlefield“ to „Love“

There must be some sort of similarity between the

target and the source which enables metaphor-making.

That is, at least one feature, of all their features, the source

and the target must have common.

This common feature tightly associated with the source is

then projected = mapped into the target.

THE FUNCTION OF MAPPING

from „battlefield“ .......................... to „love“

war making victims, causing losses and misery, being costly in terms of material or in terms of lives, = A HIGH CHANCE OF BEING HURT

... to be a victim of grief love causing depression, losses and misery = A HIGH CHANCE OF BEING HURT

When the mapped feature is recognized and transferred, then all meanings related to both domains: the source category and the target category must be called in a play.

That is, each category is mentally expanded to include

connotations linked to it: all emotions, attitudes, knowledge, etc. creating the dense networks of meanings.

THE FUNCTION OF EXPANDING CATEGORIES

ONLY THOSE RELATED AND INTERCONNECTED MEANINGS

ENABLE US TO CONSTRUE THE WHOLE COMPREHENSIVE METAPHOR

TO CONSTRUE A METAPHOR REQUIRES 3 STEPS:

1. Identify mappable feature common for the source and the target

3. Put the meaning of a mapped feature into the dense network of other related meanings associated with both: the target and the source domains - in order to make inferences

to „love“ love battlefield

Mappable feature

from „battlefield“

Expanding categories and making inferences Projecting mapped feature

2. Project mappable feature/s to the target

These networks of connoted meanings must be „stored in our heads“ in

order to produce or to understand the metaphor.

Some of them are purely personal, some are widely shared: cultural.

SHARED MEANINGS ARE CRUCIAL...

Individual meanings are rooted in a specific person’s background, his/her personal experience, education, autobiographical history, beliefs, knowledge of a particular person, etc.

Cultural meanings are rooted in culture of a specific society: in its values, norms, in hegemonic knowledge and attitudes, based on history of society, its literature, art,

pop-culture, etc.

To construe a metaphor for the wide audience „shared meanings“ – those known to both: to producer of metaphor as well as to its interpreter are the crucial. Those shared meanings

are, therefore, mainly cultural connotations.

Sometimes metaphor suggest mapping the single feature, but mostly, it is not an isolated feature, but a number of features which might be mapped. It is up to interpreters which feature they decide to project on the target.

Since mappable features are not always made explicit, different

interpreters may select different features for mapping and therefore infer slightly or vastly different meanings.

Even the same mapped feature may lead to different meanings because

of specific personal connotations for the interpreter. Moreover, if the interpreters may not recognize a mapped feature they

will not catch the meaning of the metaphor at all.

INTERPRETATION OF METAPHORS DEPENDS PURELY ON THE WORK OF THE INTERPRETER

THIS ALL MAKES METAPHOR THE RISKY WAY OF COMMUNICATION

What causes that metaphors are understood

and interpreted rather consistently? CONTEXT

4 CONTEXTUAL FACTORS

GUIDE RECOGNITION OF THE MAPPABLE FEATURES

AND PRODUCTION OF RELEVANT INFERENCES

Metaphors are always pragmatic: they function is either argue or persuade or to instruct. Identifying the goal of the author is the first clue to interpret the metaphor: who made it and why. Metaphors are often highly ideological: they convey specific meaning and impose a rigid structure on the target, but contrary, sometimes they are poly-semantic and open to wider interpretation.

INTENTIONS OF THE AUTHOR

Genres are formed by conventions, and the grammar of the genre, its style, we are familiar with, gives us important clues how to interpret the metaphor. Medium, in which metaphor occurs, gives us also hints what kind of a message we might to encounter. Our ability to read the codes of different genres as well as codes of a particular medium correctly is, therefore, essential.

GENRE AND MEDIUM

is created by all discourses to which metaphor alludes, or against which the metaphor demarks: e.g. other ads, other brands and their benefits, etc. Broadly speaking – by all other „texts“ used in the product category, in neighboring categories, in a product segment or in a market generally, which are assumed to be available and known to the metaphor’s recipient. All these texts are used as clues to interpret the metaphor.

LOCAL CONTEXT

Since it is often connotations rather than denotations which are mapped from the source to the target and the source may have very different salient connotations from one culture to another, cultural differences can matter a lot while interpreting a metaphor. Specific cultural meanings or meanings limited to given sub-culture are often the most important clues for metaphor’s interpretation.

BROAD CONTEXT

In advertising business metaphors are often multimodal.

Multimodal metaphors are those whose

targets and sources are rendered in at least two different communication channels=

modes: 1. visual or 2.written language or 3.spoken

language or 4.non-verbal sounds or 5. music

Lets’ analyze the following multimodal metaphor:

There are 2 modes: the pictorial representation and written words

Metaphor Target: Heineken beer Metaphor Source: a ventilation fan Source domain connotations: bars, nightclubs, „busy days“, films Noir, lone wolfs – cynical, but honest private eye detectives, urban setting, femme fatal, love affair, sex,

cigarette smoke, etc... Common = mapped feature: refreshing

Metaphor is simple: Heineken beer is like ventilation fan - will refresh you in your gloomy or „hot“ days

Lets’ analyze the following unimodal metaphor:

There is just one mode: the pictorial representation

Metaphor Target: Mini Cooper Metaphor Source: a boxing glove Source domain connotations: box, competition, tough guys, winners, celebrations, beautiful women, money, recognition, etc.... Common = mapped feature: power, strength

Metaphor is simple: Mini Cooper is like a boxing glove, rather small, but able to make a strong hit

9 steps to creating a powerful

metaphor.

Choose your product or your service you want to depict, explain, describe, make meaningful by using the metaphor. It will be your metaphor target.

1.

Decide which benefit, characteristic of your product or service you want to stress and highlight by the metaphor.

2.

Select the source (domain) which will communicate your intended feature best.

Make sure your source domain have at least one (and that desired feature) common with your target. It will be your mapped = projected feature.

3.

Remember, that the source domain, apart from the selected feature, might convey also a variety of other meanings due to its other connotations.

Make sure that any connotation of your selected source (domain) will not harm your product or your service image.

4.

Make sure your target domain (product or service) and the source domain belong to disparate categories. Talking about your mobile phone in terms of mp3 player would likely be silly. And definitely not a metaphor.

5.

Decide on your mode. Your communication channels might be

visual or written language or spoken language or non-verbal sounds or music, or employ a multimodal metaphor.

6.

Check the context.

Investigate the local context: how your metaphor’s meaning fits to the code system of your market segment or to meanings of the messages sent by your competitors.

Get to know the potential interpreters of your

metaphor – their culture and also subculture.

7.

Test your metaphor on your target audience. The fact that you or your creative agency like and understand the metaphor is not

enough.

8.

Make sure your audience understands the metaphor. Make sure the all metaphor’s meanings are in line with

your brand image (neither contradictory, nor harmful). Make sure the metaphor’s message is perceived as

consistent with the rest of your brand communication.

Use semiotic research, free associations technique, etc.

Be creative. Try to avoid clichés and conventionalized metaphors.

Let your lateral thinking fly!

9.

Go ahead and good luck!

Special thanks to Charles Forceville whose work on pictorial metaphors was extremely inspirative for me.