women participation in labour market

1

Gender & Economy-Lecture Three

A Lecture at Department of Conflict, Peace and Development

Studies, TU

‘Women Participation in Labour Market’

Date: 30/05/2016

Lecture By Keshab Giri

2

Last Lecture Meaning of the Terminologies

Livelihood Strategies & Gender

Gender and Labour Market

Conclusion

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Today’s Lecture Women in Labour Market in different Economic Ages

Women in Labour Market: Overview and Characteristics

Women in Labour Market in Asia, South Asia, and Nepal

Women in Labour Market: Benefits and Costs

Reasons behind lesser participation of Women in Labour Market and Ways to

Overcome them.

Conclusion

4

Women in Labour Market in Different Economic Ages

Agro-Economy

Industrial Economy

Service Economy

Knowledge Economy

5

Women in Labour Market in Different Economic Ages

Agro-Economy

Industrial Economy

Labour Codes, Definition of Work, Work

Environment Rules and Regulations, etc.

inscribed in this age.

Men as breadwinners and Women as

housewives.

Visible disadvantages on the part of women for

getting into Labour Force.

6

Women in Labour Market in Different Economic Ages

Post-Industrial Service Economy

Without a product, there wouldn’t be

service. All intertwined.

Less Physically arduous than Agricultural

and Industrial Work

Shift Work/Evening Work/Week-end Work

It was argued that many areas of service

industry such as health, education, etc. were

suitable to women given their nature.

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Women in Labour Market in Different Economic AgesKnowledge Economy

Use of Brain than Brawn

Non-Standard Working Hours

Spatial Flexibility

But Job Insecurity?

Male Outnumber Female in STI Education.

Even Lower levels of women in the skilled technology

workforce in the private sector (UNESCO, 2007)

Women’s progression high level decision making

position/management position peters out in STEM/STI

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Women in Labour Market in Different Economic AgesKnowledge Economy

Such Knowledge Divide is even worse in Developing

Countries (WISAT, 2012)

Despite similar abilities, less women graduates in STEM.

Female parity in the science, technology and innovation

fields is greater when women have greater parity in

countries with government policies that support health and

childcare, equal pay, and gender mainstreaming.

While women’s enrolment in bio and health-related

sciences is high in general, female representation drops

dramatically in physics and engineering, and in the

transition to the S&E workforce.

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Women in Labour Market: Overview Higher Level of Women

Participation in East Asia, Nordic

Countries, Oceania, and East

African.

MENA and South Asia the worst

sub-regions for women to be

employed.

Level of Income and Women

Participation in Labour Market has U-

shape relationship (Duflo, 2012)

10

Women in Labour Market: Main Features 3 Major Characteristics of Women in Work Force:

What are they?

1. ?

2. ?

3. ?

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Women in Labour Market: Main Features 3 Major Characteristics of Women in Work Force:Predominantly Unpaid WorkEven when they work, they are more likely to work part-time compared to men who mostly work full-time.

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Women in Labour Market: Main Features The Worst Areas for Women at ‘Work’ are the ones that have very high levels of Women in ‘Unpaid Work’ Higher income countries and Middle Income Countries most likely to have women in paid employment.

13

Women in Labour Market: Main Features Unequal Pay : Wage gap in the World 23% (ILO, 2016), in OECD about 16% (Ghazala Azmat, 2015). It will take another 70 years to fill the wage gap (ILO, 2016).

Pakistan India Bangladesh Sri Lanka Bhutan Nepal0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

GDP Per Capita for Women Compared to Men in South Asia (Percentage)

Source: (Govind Kelkar, 2005)

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Women in Labour Market: Main Features Unequal Pay : But in those conditions, Wage Gap could be aiding to economic

growth (Stephanie Seguino, 2000 & 2010)-

Export Oriented Economy

Semi-Industrialized Economy

Labour Intensive Industries such as textiles, toys, etc.

“more tractable and subservient to managerial authority, less prone to organize into

unions, more willing to accept lower wages because of their own lower reservation

and aspiration wages, and easier to dismiss using life-cycle criteria such as marriage

and childbirth” (UNESCAP 2002, p. 94)

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Women in Labour Market: Main FeaturesSectoral and Occupational Segregation:

ILO Report, 2015 & 2016

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Women in Labour Market in Asia Women as “Buffer Workforce”- both within labour markets and as flexible and

expanded workers, concentrated in informal jobs and within the household as

‘secondary earners’.

Despite Asia being pivot of world economic recovery and growth after recession &

growing employment rate for women, not so rosy situation for women in terms of

quality of jobs.

Different Sub-regions in Asia have different employment pattern for women.

Despite strong employment rate for women in East Asia, lucrative jobs dominated by

men.

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Women in Labour Market in Asia Entrepreneurial Skills of Women largely

unexplored.

No formal work arrangements, access to

benefits or social protection programmes and

more “at risk” to economic cycles.

As a result- “vulnerable”.

Such workers lack the social protection and

safety nets to guard against times of low

economic demand and often are incapable of

generating sufficient savings.

Wage a

nd Sa

laried

Work

er

Emplo

yer

Own-Acco

unt H

older

Contrib

uting

Family

Worker

0102030405060

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2.6

50.2

13.1

30.4

1

31.237.4

Distribution of total employment by status in employment, Asia,

by sex,2009

Male Female

Perc

enta

ge

Source: ILO, Trends econometric models, October 2010.

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Women in Labour Market in Asia Source: ILO, 2011

Compared to World, Asia has more share of

population at workforce with vulnerable

employment. It is worst for South Asia.

Women constitute higher share of

vulnerable employment both in the World and

every sub-regions of Asia.

Women in South Asia are the largest in terms

of women in vulnerable jobs.

Trend is same in both time periods.

World East Asia South East Asia and The Pacific

South Asia020406080

100

53.5 60.2 66.281.1

51.8 55.7 62.578.1

56.8 65.7 71.388.5

Vulnerable employment shares, Asia, by sex, 1999 (% of total

employment)

Aggregate Male Female

World East Asia South East Asia and The Pacific

South Asia020406080

100

50.1 50.8 61.878.5

48.9 47.8 58.975.8

51.9 54.6 65.784.5

Vulnerable employment shares, Asia, by sex, 2009 (% of total

employment)

Aggregate Male Female

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Women in Labour Market in Asia Agriculture:Source: ILO, Trends econometric models, October 2010.Women are predominantly employed in Agriculture (except developed economies) followed by Services, for men it is bit more diversified.Agriculture is often the least well-covered sector as far as national occupational safety and health regulations are concerned. Women are the main producers of food while men manage most of the commercial crops (ILO, 2010).

04080 48.2 50.3

3.941.5

7543.7

7118.2 15 15.3 22.2 4.5 14.4 13.633.6 34.7

80.836.3 20.5 41.9

15.5

Distribution of total employment (Female) by sector of employment (%), Asia and

Sub-regions, by sex, 2009

Agriculture Industry Services

0204060 38.9 33.6

4.433.6

64.444.1 46.4

26.2 24.6 34.2 31.87 20.4 21.435 41.9

61.434.6 28.6 35.5 32.2

Distribution of total employment (Male) by sector of employment (%), Asia andSub-regions, by sex, 2009

Agriculture Industry Services

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Women in Labour Market in Asia Services: Source: ILO, Trends econometric models, October 2010.Women in Asia accounted for more than 50 per cent of the workforce in health and social work, education, private households, hotels and restaurants, and financial intermediation. But they do not tend to hold upper management position or higher ranks. For example, more nurses and less doctors, less principles at schools, more primary level teachers and less university lecturers, less hotel managers, etc. (UN, 2010; ILO, 2009).

04080 48.2 50.3

3.941.5

7543.7

7118.2 15 15.3 22.2 4.5 14.4 13.633.6 34.7

80.836.3 20.5 41.9

15.5

Distribution of total employment (Female) by sector of employment (%), Asia and

Sub-regions, by sex, 2009

Agriculture Industry Services

0204060 38.9 33.6

4.433.6

64.444.1 46.4

26.2 24.6 34.2 31.87 20.4 21.435 41.9

61.434.6 28.6 35.5 32.2

Distribution of total employment (Male) by sector of employment (%), Asia andSub-regions, by sex, 2009

Agriculture Industry Services

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Women in Labour Market in AsiaIndustry: Source: ILO, Trends econometric models, October 2010. Feminization of Manufacturing: In 1990s, women dominated in export oriented labour-intensive manufacturing in many East Asian Countries (70-90%).Why? “more tractable and subservient to managerial authority, less prone to organize into unions, more willing to accept lower wages because of their own lower reservation and aspiration wages, and easier to dismiss using life-cycle criteria such as marriage and childbirth” (UNESCAP 2002,p. 94)

04080 48.2 50.3

3.941.5

7543.7

7118.2 15 15.3 22.2 4.5 14.4 13.633.6 34.7

80.836.3 20.5 41.9

15.5

Distribution of total employment (Female) by sector of employment (%), Asia and

Sub-regions, by sex, 2009

Agriculture Industry Services

0204060 38.9 33.6

4.433.6

64.444.1 46.4

26.2 24.6 34.2 31.87 20.4 21.435 41.9

61.434.6 28.6 35.5 32.2

Distribution of total employment (Male) by sector of employment (%), Asia andSub-regions, by sex, 2009

Agriculture Industry Services

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Women in Labour Market in Asia Informal Economy

Except few developed counties, agriculture is

predominantly informal while non-agriculture sector

also employment also feature in bulk in IE (Heintz

2010, pp. 11-12). Also see the Quality of informal

employment (Chen, et

al, 2004)

Source: ILO & ADB

(2011).

Country/Region

Year InformalEmploymentas % of non-agriculturalemployment

Women’s Informal

Employment as% of women’s

non-agriculturalemployment

Men’s Informal

Employment as

% of men’snon-

agriculturalemployment

Asia 1994/2000

65 65 65

Nepal 2008 86.4 91.8 83.8India 2004/0

588.0 84.0

Bangladesh 2005 87.7 91.3 86.6

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Women in Labour Market in South Asia

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Women in Labour Market in Nepal Source: NRB & NCBS, 1998/99 & 2008 in ILO, 2014: Nepal Labour Market Update.Statistics here by and large correspond to earlier analyses and findings. What were the results from earlier researches?

1. ?2. ?3. ? 4. ?

Why unemployment rate for Nepali

Women is low despite lower LFPR

compared to Nepali Men?

Key Labour Market Indicators for Nepal 1998/99 & 2008 Respectively

Labour Force Participation

Rate (%)

Male 90.2 87.5Female 81.9 80.1

Unemployment Rate (%)

Male 2.0 2.2Female 1.7 2.0

Employment in

Manufacturing (%)

Male 7.7 8.5Female 3.9 4.9

Employment in Forestry

and Agriculture

(%)

Male 66.8 62.1Female 85.2 84.3

Share of paid employees in

totalemployment

(%)

Male 24.3 26.7Female 7.7 8.3

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Women in Labour Market in Nepal Irrespective of the graph and notwithstanding minute nuances, FLFPR in South Asia is broadly similar. Uniformity in Measurement in relation to gender data is a big issue.

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More Women in Labour Market: Results Macro & Micro Level:

It is now well supported by evidences that gender equality in terms of greater Female participation in Labour

Market brings sustainable economic growth with “a positive spiral with cumulative effects”. Read Klasen

(1999, 2005); Dollar, David and Roberta Gatti (1999) among many others.

Stephan Klasen (1999) gives three mechanisms through which gender equality influences economic

prosperity. What are they? Clues:

Family mediated pathways…..?

Market mediated pathway……?

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More Women in Labour Market: Results Macro Level:

Greater Participation of Women in Labour Market also

helps to offset shrinking population/ ageing population

(IMF, 2012, on Japan).

Doesn’t it seem paradoxical?

More working women might reduce fertility rate and might

contribute towards ageing population in future, isn’t it?

Wait, what we said in first lecture? Clue: France,

Denmark, UK, Sweden….?

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Less Women in Labour Market: Costs Impact on Efficiency of Manpower due to Segregation:

Market Distortion Effect (Klasen, 1999)

Overcrowding Model

Negative Feedback Loop & Greater Inequality: Further Deterred

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Why Less Women at Work? Structural FactorsSocio-Cultural FactorState PoliciesInequality in Education and HealthInheritance and Ownership of Property/LandPatriarchy

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Why Less Women at Work? Feminist Perspectives

Essentialism and Difference Feminism

Liberal Feminism

Constructivism

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What Could be Done to Bring more Women in Labour Market?

Contribute to the Discussion

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What Could be Done to Bring more Women in Labour Market?

Fiscal Policies: Tax Codes:

Individual Income Taxation in place of Family Income Taxation

Lenient Taxation when Women are the Breadwinner

Expenditure Measures:

Paid Maternity Leave and mandatory Paternity Leave Subsidised Child Care Facilities, Read (Gong, Breunig, and King, 2010)

Longer maternity leave can have adverse effect on women’s skill development and professional

ascendency (Ruhm, 1998), so availability of flexible hours on return to work.

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What Could be Done to Bring more Women in Labour Market?

Fiscal Policies: Pension Reform: Special credit to women with

children, maternity leave doesn’t impact pension,

etc.

Women’s Education and Better Rural

Infrastructures:

Easy Access to Finance and Credit for Women:

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What Could be Done to Bring more Women in Labour Market?

Policies on Women’s Labour

Reform Labour Codes:

Working Hours

Honour Reproductive Unpaid Works

Family Policies:

Equal Division of Unpaid Work in Household

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What Could be Done to Bring more Women in Labour Market?

Policies on Women’s Labour

Remove Legal Barriers for Women in Labour

Market: Such as Driving ban, ban on front-line

combat, etc.

Quota system could work as in India.

Not only formulate law and policies on gender

equality, educate men and women on those laws

Put it compulsorily on School/College/University

curricula.

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What Could be Done to Bring more Women in Labour Market?

37

Recap Women in Labour Market in different Economic Ages

Women in Labour Market: Overview and Characteristics

Women in Labour Market in Asia, South Asia, and Nepal

Women in Labour Market: Benefits and Costs

Reasons behind lesser participation of Women in Labour Market and Ways to

Overcome them.

Conclusion

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ConclusionAlthough Service Economy holds immense potentials for Women, Women are lagging

behind

Women are employed predominantly in informal economy that has higher levels of

vulnerabilities and the least protection and returns.

Even in formal economy, men enjoy the cream jobs.

Situation in South Asia is worse and Nepal isn’t much different despite higher levels of

FLFPR.

Government fiscal policies and other policies must be women employment friendly.

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Selected Bibliography• ILO (2016) Women at Work: Trends 2016. Geneva: ILO Office.•Kelkar, Govind (2005) Development Effectiveness through Gender Mainstreaming: Gender Equality and Poverty Reduction in South Asia. Economic and Political Weekly, 40(44/45), pp. 4690-4699.

•Kabeer, Naila (2016) Gender Equality, Economic Growth, and Women’s Agency: the “Endless Variety” and “Monotonous Similarity” of Patriarchal Constraints. Feminist Economists, 22(1), pp. 295-321.

• UN (2008) Women 2000 and Beyond. New York: United Nations- Division for the Advancement of Women, Department of Economic and Social Affairs.

•Agarwal, Bina (1990) Social security and the family in rural India coping with seasonality and calamity, Journal of Peasant Studies, 17(3), pp. 341–412.

•Kabeer, Naila (2015) Gender, Poverty, and Inequality: a brief history of feminist contributions in the field of international development. Gender and Development, 23(2), pp. 189-205.

•ILO and ADB (2011) Women and Labour Markets in Asia: Rebalancing towards Gender Equality in Labour Markets in Asia. Bangkok: ILO Regional Office for Asia and Pacific and ADB.

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Selected Bibliography Elborgh-Woytek, K. et al, (2013) Women, Work, and the Economy: Macroeconomic Gains from Gender Equity. IMF Staff Discussion Note. IMFDollar, David and Roberta Gatti (1999) Gender Inequality, Income, and Growth: Are Good Times Good for Women? World Bank Policy Research Report Working Paper Series No. 1, World Bank, Washington, D.C.IMF (2012) Country Report No. 12/208, Japan (Washington).Heidi Gottfried, Karin Gottschall, Mari Osawa, Sylvia Walby, eds. Gendering the Knowledge Economy: Comparative Perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.WISAT (2012) National Assessment on Gender Equality in the Knowledge Society: Gender in Science, Technology and Innovation. Ontario: The Elsevier Foundation.ILO (2016) Women at Work: Trends 2016. Geneva: ILO Office.

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Question Time

Please introduce yourself before presenting your question.

Do try to make it brief and precise.

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Next LectureGender Division of Labour and New Skills in South Asia

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Thank you

Thank you for your Patience!