water and environmental engineering by m. habibur rahman & abdullah al-muyeed
Post on 16-Jan-2016
256 Views
Preview:
DESCRIPTION
TRANSCRIPT
-
RA
HM
AN
& A
L-M
UY
EE
D
-
Waterand
Environmental Engineering
-
M. Habibur Rahman Abdullah Al-Muyeed
Waterand
Environmental Engineering
-
M. Habibur Rahman Abdullah Al-Muyeed
Waterand
Environmental Engineering
-
Water and
Environmental Engineering
First Edition: June 2012
Published by:
ITN-BUET
Centre for Water Supply and Waste Management,
BUET, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh
All rights reserved by
ITN-BUET
Centre for Water Supply and Waste Management
This book or any part of it cannot be reproduced in any form or by any
means without written permission of the publisher.
ISBN: 978-984-33-4356-7
Drawing: Tahmid Ritu, Tanjil Hasan, M. Saiful Islam
Layout & Design: Tahmid Ritu, Abdullah Al-Muyeed
Print: Mati ar Manush
v
Dedicated toAll our beloved students
-
Water and
Environmental Engineering
First Edition: June 2012
Published by:
ITN-BUET
Centre for Water Supply and Waste Management,
BUET, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh
All rights reserved by
ITN-BUET
Centre for Water Supply and Waste Management
This book or any part of it cannot be reproduced in any form or by any
means without written permission of the publisher.
ISBN: 978-984-33-4356-7
Drawing: Tahmid Ritu, Tanjil Hasan, M. Saiful Islam
Layout & Design: Tahmid Ritu, Abdullah Al-Muyeed
Print: Mati ar Manush
v
Dedicated toAll our beloved students
-
vi vii
About AuthorsProf. Dr. M. Habibur Rahman received B.Sc. Eng. (Civil) and M.Sc Eng. (Civil and Environmental) from Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET), Dhaka and Ph.D from University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK as a Commonwealth scholar. Immediately after graduation he joined the faculty of Civil Engineering, BUET, Dhaka, where he served as Lecturer, Assistant Professor, Associate Professor, Professor and Division Chief. He served as Director of International Training Network, ITNBUET as well, awarded Commonwealth Academic Staff Fellowship and worked as a Visiting Professor during 1999-2000 for 1 year at Loughborough University, Leicestershire, UK. He has more than 30 years of teaching, research and professional experiences in Civil and Environmental Engineering. He worked as a Consultant to more than 50 major Civil, Water Supply, Sanitation and Environmental Management projects of national importance including some UNCRD-Japan, World Bank, IDB and WHO projects. The author worked as a Member of the PMU Steering Committee for Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation Water Supply Project (Government of Bangladesh - World Bank); Member of the Scientific and Technical Council of International Water Supply Association; Member of the Executive Board of International Water Supply Association ASCEN Region; Board Member of International Water Association; Board Member of Asian Academic Network for Environmental Safety & Waste Management; and, also as a Board Member of the Asia Pacific Association of Hydrology & Water Resources. He is also the Chairman of the Technical Committee of National Domestic Biogas and Manure Program, Member of the Technical Committee of Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant Project, Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh and Member of the Trustee Board of the Climate Change Trust Fund, Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. He authored or co-authored more than 160 papers in National and International Journal and Conference Proceedings and authored or co-authored chapters of more than 10 books. He is the contributory author of Bangladesh National Building Code1993. He also authored a text book titled, Solid and Hazardous Waste Management, published by ITN-BUET in 2010. At present, he is working as Pro-Vice Chancellor of BUET. The author can be reached at the mail: habibr@ce.buet.ac.bd and habibr82@yahoo.com
Dr. Abdullah Al-Muyeed received Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering and Master of Science in Civil Engineering (Environmental) from Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET), Dhaka and Ph.D from the
University of Tokyo, Japan, as a prestigious Monbusho scholar. His professional experiences cover graduate and post graduate level teaching and research in renowned universities of Bangladesh and abroad since 2002. The author has more than 35 technical papers in National and International Journal and Conference Proceedings. He also worked as Environmental Consultant in different projects funded by World Bank/DANIDA/JICA etc. He also worked as honorary editor and reviewer in distinguished journals of international publishers. He worked as Reviewer in the research project funded by University Grant Commission, Bangladesh. He is also a distinguished Specialist on Solid Waste Management of International Training Network, ITNBUET. He also authored a text book titled, Solid and Hazardous Waste Management, published by ITN-BUET in 2010. At present, he is working as Associate Professor in the Dept. of Civil Engineering of the Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Dhaka. The author can be reached at the mail: muyeed.ce@aust.edu and amuyeed@yahoo.com .
-
vi vii
About AuthorsProf. Dr. M. Habibur Rahman received B.Sc. Eng. (Civil) and M.Sc Eng. (Civil and Environmental) from Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET), Dhaka and Ph.D from University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK as a Commonwealth scholar. Immediately after graduation he joined the faculty of Civil Engineering, BUET, Dhaka, where he served as Lecturer, Assistant Professor, Associate Professor, Professor and Division Chief. He served as Director of International Training Network, ITNBUET as well, awarded Commonwealth Academic Staff Fellowship and worked as a Visiting Professor during 1999-2000 for 1 year at Loughborough University, Leicestershire, UK. He has more than 30 years of teaching, research and professional experiences in Civil and Environmental Engineering. He worked as a Consultant to more than 50 major Civil, Water Supply, Sanitation and Environmental Management projects of national importance including some UNCRD-Japan, World Bank, IDB and WHO projects. The author worked as a Member of the PMU Steering Committee for Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation Water Supply Project (Government of Bangladesh - World Bank); Member of the Scientific and Technical Council of International Water Supply Association; Member of the Executive Board of International Water Supply Association ASCEN Region; Board Member of International Water Association; Board Member of Asian Academic Network for Environmental Safety & Waste Management; and, also as a Board Member of the Asia Pacific Association of Hydrology & Water Resources. He is also the Chairman of the Technical Committee of National Domestic Biogas and Manure Program, Member of the Technical Committee of Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant Project, Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh and Member of the Trustee Board of the Climate Change Trust Fund, Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. He authored or co-authored more than 160 papers in National and International Journal and Conference Proceedings and authored or co-authored chapters of more than 10 books. He is the contributory author of Bangladesh National Building Code1993. He also authored a text book titled, Solid and Hazardous Waste Management, published by ITN-BUET in 2010. At present, he is working as Pro-Vice Chancellor of BUET. The author can be reached at the mail: habibr@ce.buet.ac.bd and habibr82@yahoo.com
Dr. Abdullah Al-Muyeed received Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering and Master of Science in Civil Engineering (Environmental) from Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET), Dhaka and Ph.D from the
University of Tokyo, Japan, as a prestigious Monbusho scholar. His professional experiences cover graduate and post graduate level teaching and research in renowned universities of Bangladesh and abroad since 2002. The author has more than 35 technical papers in National and International Journal and Conference Proceedings. He also worked as Environmental Consultant in different projects funded by World Bank/DANIDA/JICA etc. He also worked as honorary editor and reviewer in distinguished journals of international publishers. He worked as Reviewer in the research project funded by University Grant Commission, Bangladesh. He is also a distinguished Specialist on Solid Waste Management of International Training Network, ITNBUET. He also authored a text book titled, Solid and Hazardous Waste Management, published by ITN-BUET in 2010. At present, he is working as Associate Professor in the Dept. of Civil Engineering of the Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Dhaka. The author can be reached at the mail: muyeed.ce@aust.edu and amuyeed@yahoo.com .
-
sanitary engineering. It also describes the general description of public health, ecology, biodiversity, aerobic-anaerobic degradation and ethics in environmental engineering profession. Special emphasis is given to this issues perspective to Bangladesh. The second chapter includes water pollution and its effects on streams, lakes, groundwater and oceans. Chapter three comprises of water demand, consumption, and frequency of water demand and estimation of demand in water supply system. The next chapter describes different source of water, aquifer and its types, safe yield and source contamination of water. Chapter five describes about pumps, classification of pumps, pump curves, flow meter and pump hydraulics.
Chapter six describes different mechanisms to treat drinking water and how to treat water from a water source following standards. Here, Bangladesh WHO and EPA standards are reported to treat water for dinking purpose. Chapter seven discusses the specific arsenic treatment technologies as it is treated as the most toxic substance present in ground water of Bangladesh. Chapter eight discusses briefly about tubewell technologies and mechanism of well construction
Distribution hydraulics and mechanism of water are explained in details in chapter nine. The following chapter discusses the plumbing system that present in Bangladesh. Chapter eleven discusses water demand management and loss control where cost, auditing and economical values of water are discussed. Chapter twelve depicts physical integrity of water where structural failure of different components of pipeline is described. Chapter thirteen describes water safety plan and components of it. The next chapter describes different options of alternative water supplies, especially water scarcity if present in the rural Bangladesh.
Finally, chapter fifteen describes briefly the sustainable water management (SuWM) of developing countries, especially for Bangladesh. In this chapter, the elements, principles, technological options, operations and maintenance of SuWM are briefly discussed.
However, in first edition of this text book, combination of SI and British unit is used in calculations and examples as both the units are widely used in the engineering curricula of Bangladesh. But, it is expected that the next edition will be separately either SI or British unit.
viii ix
PrefaceOne of the foremost objectives of International Training Network of the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (ITN-BUET) has been to reorient the curricula of environmental engineering education in Bangladesh with emphasis on low-cost technologies, community participation, community management, hygiene promotion, safety issues in both solid waste and water supply-sanitation. During the process of curricula development, ITN-BUET, BUET, Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology (DUET), Khulna University of Engineering and Technology (KUET), Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology (RUET), Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology (CUET), Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology (AUST), Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) acknowledged the need for developing textbooks on Environmental Engineering education in the academic arena of the universities to support the reoriented curricula. It was felt that there are very few standard materials available on environmental engineering, particularly focused on water pollution, water supply & demand management, distribution mechanics of water network, leakage, risk management, physical integrity of distribution main, plumbing and water safety plan issues of engineering curricula of Bangladesh. It was therefore decided to develop a textbook on Water and Environmental Engineering.
The book has been developed for both undergraduate and graduate students studying environmental engineering focused on water supply, water treatment and distribution & management in engineering aspect and their teachers at technical institutions in Bangladesh. It is also meant for professionals already working in this water sector, who can use the textbook for reference. The development of this textbook was a challenging process. All concerned authorities wanted to make sure that the textbook would be useful for the students studying in this field, teachers, technicians and professionals working in drinking water sector. To facilitate this from the beginning staff members of the ITN centre in Dhaka, faculty members from the engineering universities of Bangladesh, teachers and technical institutions, professionals working in water sector and officials from bilateral organizations were asked to prepare manuscript following the syllabus of environmental education in engineering sector and therefore the contents of the book were finalized. After, several months of cont inual e f forts f rom the authors and receiv ing comments/suggestions from professionals of this sector through both formal and informal discussion, the final manuscript of this book is updated.
This book comprises of 15 chapters where the first chapter covers general description of environmental engineering and historical background of civil and
-
sanitary engineering. It also describes the general description of public health, ecology, biodiversity, aerobic-anaerobic degradation and ethics in environmental engineering profession. Special emphasis is given to this issues perspective to Bangladesh. The second chapter includes water pollution and its effects on streams, lakes, groundwater and oceans. Chapter three comprises of water demand, consumption, and frequency of water demand and estimation of demand in water supply system. The next chapter describes different source of water, aquifer and its types, safe yield and source contamination of water. Chapter five describes about pumps, classification of pumps, pump curves, flow meter and pump hydraulics.
Chapter six describes different mechanisms to treat drinking water and how to treat water from a water source following standards. Here, Bangladesh WHO and EPA standards are reported to treat water for dinking purpose. Chapter seven discusses the specific arsenic treatment technologies as it is treated as the most toxic substance present in ground water of Bangladesh. Chapter eight discusses briefly about tubewell technologies and mechanism of well construction
Distribution hydraulics and mechanism of water are explained in details in chapter nine. The following chapter discusses the plumbing system that present in Bangladesh. Chapter eleven discusses water demand management and loss control where cost, auditing and economical values of water are discussed. Chapter twelve depicts physical integrity of water where structural failure of different components of pipeline is described. Chapter thirteen describes water safety plan and components of it. The next chapter describes different options of alternative water supplies, especially water scarcity if present in the rural Bangladesh.
Finally, chapter fifteen describes briefly the sustainable water management (SuWM) of developing countries, especially for Bangladesh. In this chapter, the elements, principles, technological options, operations and maintenance of SuWM are briefly discussed.
However, in first edition of this text book, combination of SI and British unit is used in calculations and examples as both the units are widely used in the engineering curricula of Bangladesh. But, it is expected that the next edition will be separately either SI or British unit.
viii ix
PrefaceOne of the foremost objectives of International Training Network of the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (ITN-BUET) has been to reorient the curricula of environmental engineering education in Bangladesh with emphasis on low-cost technologies, community participation, community management, hygiene promotion, safety issues in both solid waste and water supply-sanitation. During the process of curricula development, ITN-BUET, BUET, Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology (DUET), Khulna University of Engineering and Technology (KUET), Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology (RUET), Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology (CUET), Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology (AUST), Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) acknowledged the need for developing textbooks on Environmental Engineering education in the academic arena of the universities to support the reoriented curricula. It was felt that there are very few standard materials available on environmental engineering, particularly focused on water pollution, water supply & demand management, distribution mechanics of water network, leakage, risk management, physical integrity of distribution main, plumbing and water safety plan issues of engineering curricula of Bangladesh. It was therefore decided to develop a textbook on Water and Environmental Engineering.
The book has been developed for both undergraduate and graduate students studying environmental engineering focused on water supply, water treatment and distribution & management in engineering aspect and their teachers at technical institutions in Bangladesh. It is also meant for professionals already working in this water sector, who can use the textbook for reference. The development of this textbook was a challenging process. All concerned authorities wanted to make sure that the textbook would be useful for the students studying in this field, teachers, technicians and professionals working in drinking water sector. To facilitate this from the beginning staff members of the ITN centre in Dhaka, faculty members from the engineering universities of Bangladesh, teachers and technical institutions, professionals working in water sector and officials from bilateral organizations were asked to prepare manuscript following the syllabus of environmental education in engineering sector and therefore the contents of the book were finalized. After, several months of cont inual e f forts f rom the authors and receiv ing comments/suggestions from professionals of this sector through both formal and informal discussion, the final manuscript of this book is updated.
This book comprises of 15 chapters where the first chapter covers general description of environmental engineering and historical background of civil and
-
x xi
Preface
Acknowledgement
List of Tables
List of Figures
Chapter 1 Introduction to Environmental Engineering
1.1 Environmental engineering
1.2 Sanitary engineering
1.3 Public health
1.4 Ecology and environment
1.5 Biodegradation
1.6 Aerobic and anaerobic decomposition
1.7 Climate change
1.8 Biodiversity
1.9 Ethics
1.10 Environmental engineering as a profession
1.11 Water supply and sanitation
1.12 Water supply system
1.13 Public water supply
1.14 Elements of public water supply
1.15 Planning a municipal water supply system
1.16 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2 Water Pollution
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sources of water pollution
2.3 Effect of pollution on streams
2.4 Effect of pollution on lakes
2.5 Effect of pollution on groundwater
2.6 Effect of pollution on oceans
2.7 Heavy metals and toxic substances
2.8 Conclusion
References
viii
ix
xviii
xxii
1
3
7
8
8
13
14
17
20
27
33
34
54
55
55
63
65
66
69
71
71
74
86
90
92
93
96
97
ContentsAcknowledgementWe would like to express our sincere thanks to all those who have inspired us for the development and publication of this textbook. Formal and informal comments/suggestions from friends and colleagues of BUET, AUST, DUET, CUET, RUET, KUET, SUST, NSU, IUB, DPHE, LGED, WSP-WB, UNDP, DANIDA, WHO, NGO Forum, WATER-AID, PLAN BANGLADESH, WB, ADB and other organizations to finalize this book is gratefully acknowledged. Their valuable comments and reviews have enriched the publication.
We express sincere thanks to ITN-BUET for publishing this book. Our sincere appreciation also goes to Prof. Dr. Md. Mafizur Rahman, Center Director of ITN-BUET and Engr. Sk. Abu Jafar Shamsuddin, former Center Manager for their support during process of development and getting the book published.
We are also grateful to our Dutch friend Mr. Bert Van de Wiel, for his sincere and effortless support to provide data/information and many lecture notes about Europe especially England and the Netherlands while writing this book.
Many students of AUST have assisted in preparing this textbook and the authors acknowledge their support with thanks.
The useful lecture notes of different course teachers of Environmental Engineering division of BUET, which were very helpful while preparing this manuscript, are acknowledged also with respect.
Finally, an honorable mention goes to our families and friends for their understandings and supports extended to us in completing this book. We remain indebted to all of them.
M. Habibur Rahman
Abdullah Al-Muyeed
-
x xi
Preface
Acknowledgement
List of Tables
List of Figures
Chapter 1 Introduction to Environmental Engineering
1.1 Environmental engineering
1.2 Sanitary engineering
1.3 Public health
1.4 Ecology and environment
1.5 Biodegradation
1.6 Aerobic and anaerobic decomposition
1.7 Climate change
1.8 Biodiversity
1.9 Ethics
1.10 Environmental engineering as a profession
1.11 Water supply and sanitation
1.12 Water supply system
1.13 Public water supply
1.14 Elements of public water supply
1.15 Planning a municipal water supply system
1.16 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2 Water Pollution
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sources of water pollution
2.3 Effect of pollution on streams
2.4 Effect of pollution on lakes
2.5 Effect of pollution on groundwater
2.6 Effect of pollution on oceans
2.7 Heavy metals and toxic substances
2.8 Conclusion
References
viii
ix
xviii
xxii
1
3
7
8
8
13
14
17
20
27
33
34
54
55
55
63
65
66
69
71
71
74
86
90
92
93
96
97
ContentsAcknowledgementWe would like to express our sincere thanks to all those who have inspired us for the development and publication of this textbook. Formal and informal comments/suggestions from friends and colleagues of BUET, AUST, DUET, CUET, RUET, KUET, SUST, NSU, IUB, DPHE, LGED, WSP-WB, UNDP, DANIDA, WHO, NGO Forum, WATER-AID, PLAN BANGLADESH, WB, ADB and other organizations to finalize this book is gratefully acknowledged. Their valuable comments and reviews have enriched the publication.
We express sincere thanks to ITN-BUET for publishing this book. Our sincere appreciation also goes to Prof. Dr. Md. Mafizur Rahman, Center Director of ITN-BUET and Engr. Sk. Abu Jafar Shamsuddin, former Center Manager for their support during process of development and getting the book published.
We are also grateful to our Dutch friend Mr. Bert Van de Wiel, for his sincere and effortless support to provide data/information and many lecture notes about Europe especially England and the Netherlands while writing this book.
Many students of AUST have assisted in preparing this textbook and the authors acknowledge their support with thanks.
The useful lecture notes of different course teachers of Environmental Engineering division of BUET, which were very helpful while preparing this manuscript, are acknowledged also with respect.
Finally, an honorable mention goes to our families and friends for their understandings and supports extended to us in completing this book. We remain indebted to all of them.
M. Habibur Rahman
Abdullah Al-Muyeed
-
Chapter 3 Water Requirement
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Factors affecting per capita consumption
3.3 Consumption categories
3.4 Water demand patterns
3.5 Fire demand
3.6 Fire hydrants
3.7 Demand calculation
3.8 Demand frequency distribution
3.9 Elements for water supply system
3.10 Designing water consumption
3.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4 Water Supply
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Sources of water
4.3 The hydrologic cycle and water availability
4.4 Surface water supplies
4.5 Groundwater supplies
4.6 Aquifer and its types
4.7 Hydraulic characteristics
4.8 Safe yield
4.9 Source contamination
4.10 Ground water development
4.11 Flow of groundwater
4.12 Safeguards in groundwater development
4.13 Interference between multiple extraction wells
4.14 Infiltration gallery
4.15 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5 Pumps and Pumping Machineries
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Classification of pumps
5.3 Selection of pumps
99
101
104
107
115
130
132
133
142
147
147
149
150
151
153
154
154
156
157
160
162
167
168
169
171
172
172
173
175
176
177
179
179
188
5.4 Pump curves
5.5 Valving
5.6 Flow meters
5.7 Pumping layouts
5.8 Control
5.9 Reliability factors
5.10 Pump hydraulics
5.11 Economical diameter of pumping main
5.12 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6 Water Treatment Process
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Classification of impurities
6.3 Physical impurities
6.4 Microbiological quality of water
6.5 Indicator organism
6.6 Radioactivity in water supplies
6.7 Organic contaminants
6.8 Process selection factors
6.9 Preliminary treatment
6.10 Aeration
6.11 Coagulation and flocculation
6.12 Sedimentation basin
6.13 Filtration
6.14 Problems caused by deficiencies in washing
6.15 Disinfection
6.16 Water fluoridation
6.17 Advanced water treatment processes
6.18 Taste and odor control
6.19 Softening
6.20 Adsorption
6.21 Chemical oxidation
6.22 Membrane processes including reverse osmosis
6.23 Arsenic removal
6.24 Design Consideration of Water Treatment Plant
193
193
195
197
198
199
201
207
214
215
217
219
220
220
228
229
230
230
230
232
234
241
256
268
280
289
304
306
312
313
324
325
326
328
330
xii xiii
-
Chapter 3 Water Requirement
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Factors affecting per capita consumption
3.3 Consumption categories
3.4 Water demand patterns
3.5 Fire demand
3.6 Fire hydrants
3.7 Demand calculation
3.8 Demand frequency distribution
3.9 Elements for water supply system
3.10 Designing water consumption
3.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4 Water Supply
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Sources of water
4.3 The hydrologic cycle and water availability
4.4 Surface water supplies
4.5 Groundwater supplies
4.6 Aquifer and its types
4.7 Hydraulic characteristics
4.8 Safe yield
4.9 Source contamination
4.10 Ground water development
4.11 Flow of groundwater
4.12 Safeguards in groundwater development
4.13 Interference between multiple extraction wells
4.14 Infiltration gallery
4.15 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5 Pumps and Pumping Machineries
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Classification of pumps
5.3 Selection of pumps
99
101
104
107
115
130
132
133
142
147
147
149
150
151
153
154
154
156
157
160
162
167
168
169
171
172
172
173
175
176
177
179
179
188
5.4 Pump curves
5.5 Valving
5.6 Flow meters
5.7 Pumping layouts
5.8 Control
5.9 Reliability factors
5.10 Pump hydraulics
5.11 Economical diameter of pumping main
5.12 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6 Water Treatment Process
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Classification of impurities
6.3 Physical impurities
6.4 Microbiological quality of water
6.5 Indicator organism
6.6 Radioactivity in water supplies
6.7 Organic contaminants
6.8 Process selection factors
6.9 Preliminary treatment
6.10 Aeration
6.11 Coagulation and flocculation
6.12 Sedimentation basin
6.13 Filtration
6.14 Problems caused by deficiencies in washing
6.15 Disinfection
6.16 Water fluoridation
6.17 Advanced water treatment processes
6.18 Taste and odor control
6.19 Softening
6.20 Adsorption
6.21 Chemical oxidation
6.22 Membrane processes including reverse osmosis
6.23 Arsenic removal
6.24 Design Consideration of Water Treatment Plant
193
193
195
197
198
199
201
207
214
215
217
219
220
220
228
229
230
230
230
232
234
241
256
268
280
289
304
306
312
313
324
325
326
328
330
xii xiii
-
6.25 Operating considerations of a water treatment plant
6.26 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7 Arsenic Crisis
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Causes of arsenic contamination
7.3 Effects on health
7.4 Treatment of arsenic contaminated water
7.5 Arsenic removal technologies practised in bangladesh
7.6 Comparison of arsenic removal technologies practised in bangladesh
7.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8 Ground Water Extraction: Tubewell Technology
8.1 Tubewell technology
8.2 Designing of well
8.3 Cased section
8.4 Intake section
8.5 Selection of casing and screen materials
8.6 Sanitary protection
8.7 Well construction
8.8 Installing well casing
8.9 Grouting and sealing casing
8.10 Well alignment
8.11 Installation of well screens
8.12 Fishing operations
8.13 Well completion
8.14 Well maintenance and rehabilitation
8.15 Planning for Well Maintenance
8.16 Maintenance Operations of Well
8.17 Well point instal1ation in dug wells
8.18 Summary of designing and constructing tubewells in Bangladesh
8.19 Conclusion
References
330
338
339
341
343
345
347
347
351
362
363
364
367
369
380
381
382
402
405
408
425
428
431
434
446
454
463
464
465
469
470
480
481
Chapter 9 Water Distribution
9.1 Surface water collection
9.2 Intakes
9.3 Water distribution: Terminology
9.4 Methods of distribution
9.5 System planning
9.6 Cross conection
9.7 Pressure regulation alternatives
9.8 Distribution mains
9.9 Distribution systems pressures
9.10 Distribution system equipment
9.11 Water pipe materials
9.12 Service connections
9.13 Forces acting on pipe
9.14 Strength of pipe
9.15 The joints
9.16 Pipe laying
9.17 Distribution system design
9.18 Main concepts and definitions
9.19 Hydraulic losses
9.20 Transmission line design
9.21 The manning equation
9.22 Comparison of the friction loss equations
9.23 Minor losses
9.24 Single pipe calculation
9.25 Serial and branched networks
9.26 Looped networks
9.27 Pressure-related demand
9.28 Thrust resistant
9.29 Hydraulics of storage and pumps
9.30 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10 Household Plumbing System and Fixtures
10.1 Plumbing system
10.2 Principles of designing household water supply connection
483
485
489
499
500
504
504
505
509
515
516
525
530
532
544
547
547
549
552
563
566
578
578
584
586
599
602
614
617
621
643
644
645
647
651
xiv xv
-
6.25 Operating considerations of a water treatment plant
6.26 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7 Arsenic Crisis
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Causes of arsenic contamination
7.3 Effects on health
7.4 Treatment of arsenic contaminated water
7.5 Arsenic removal technologies practised in bangladesh
7.6 Comparison of arsenic removal technologies practised in bangladesh
7.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8 Ground Water Extraction: Tubewell Technology
8.1 Tubewell technology
8.2 Designing of well
8.3 Cased section
8.4 Intake section
8.5 Selection of casing and screen materials
8.6 Sanitary protection
8.7 Well construction
8.8 Installing well casing
8.9 Grouting and sealing casing
8.10 Well alignment
8.11 Installation of well screens
8.12 Fishing operations
8.13 Well completion
8.14 Well maintenance and rehabilitation
8.15 Planning for Well Maintenance
8.16 Maintenance Operations of Well
8.17 Well point instal1ation in dug wells
8.18 Summary of designing and constructing tubewells in Bangladesh
8.19 Conclusion
References
330
338
339
341
343
345
347
347
351
362
363
364
367
369
380
381
382
402
405
408
425
428
431
434
446
454
463
464
465
469
470
480
481
Chapter 9 Water Distribution
9.1 Surface water collection
9.2 Intakes
9.3 Water distribution: Terminology
9.4 Methods of distribution
9.5 System planning
9.6 Cross conection
9.7 Pressure regulation alternatives
9.8 Distribution mains
9.9 Distribution systems pressures
9.10 Distribution system equipment
9.11 Water pipe materials
9.12 Service connections
9.13 Forces acting on pipe
9.14 Strength of pipe
9.15 The joints
9.16 Pipe laying
9.17 Distribution system design
9.18 Main concepts and definitions
9.19 Hydraulic losses
9.20 Transmission line design
9.21 The manning equation
9.22 Comparison of the friction loss equations
9.23 Minor losses
9.24 Single pipe calculation
9.25 Serial and branched networks
9.26 Looped networks
9.27 Pressure-related demand
9.28 Thrust resistant
9.29 Hydraulics of storage and pumps
9.30 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10 Household Plumbing System and Fixtures
10.1 Plumbing system
10.2 Principles of designing household water supply connection
483
485
489
499
500
504
504
505
509
515
516
525
530
532
544
547
547
549
552
563
566
578
578
584
586
599
602
614
617
621
643
644
645
647
651
xiv xv
-
10.3 Hot water connection system
10.4 Plumbing fixtures
10.5 Drainage system of building
10.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11 Water Demand Management and Loss Control
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Economic theory of supply and demand
11.3 Timing
11.4 The cost of water
11.5 Value of water
11.6 Loss control
11.7 Auditing of water
11.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12 Physical Integrity of Water
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Physical integrity
12.3 Recommendations and conclusions
References
Chapter 13 Risk Management for Distribution System
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Water safety plans
13.3 Water safety plans for distribution systems
13.4 Summary of water safety plan content
13.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14 Alternative Water Supply Options
14.1 Deep tubewell
14.2 Shallow shrouded tubewell and very shallow shrouded tubewell
14.3 Infiltration gallery/well
14.4 Dug well
651
658
664
671
672
673
675
679
686
691
697
698
701
714
715
717
719
719
767
769
771
773
773
774
788
789
790
791
793
794
795
795
14.5 Construction
14.6 Sanitary protection
14.7 Pond sand filters
14.8 Conventional surface water treatment plant
14.9 Household/pitcher filters
14.10 Solar disinfection
14.11 Rainwater harvesting
14.12 Rainwater availability
14.13 Rainwater catchment
14.14 Storage tank
14.15 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15 Sustainable Water Supply Management in Developing Countries
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Elements of SuWM
15.3 Principles of SuWM
15.4 The role of institutions in shaping water behaviour
15.5 Appropriate technology in SuWM
15.6 Operation and maintenance
15.7 Benefits
15.8 Management options and public/private partnerships
15.9 Conclusion
References
Appendix
List of abbreviation
795
796
798
799
799
799
800
801
803
803
805
806
807
809
809
810
812
813
813
814
817
822
824
825
827
xvi xvii
-
10.3 Hot water connection system
10.4 Plumbing fixtures
10.5 Drainage system of building
10.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11 Water Demand Management and Loss Control
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Economic theory of supply and demand
11.3 Timing
11.4 The cost of water
11.5 Value of water
11.6 Loss control
11.7 Auditing of water
11.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12 Physical Integrity of Water
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Physical integrity
12.3 Recommendations and conclusions
References
Chapter 13 Risk Management for Distribution System
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Water safety plans
13.3 Water safety plans for distribution systems
13.4 Summary of water safety plan content
13.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14 Alternative Water Supply Options
14.1 Deep tubewell
14.2 Shallow shrouded tubewell and very shallow shrouded tubewell
14.3 Infiltration gallery/well
14.4 Dug well
651
658
664
671
672
673
675
679
686
691
697
698
701
714
715
717
719
719
767
769
771
773
773
774
788
789
790
791
793
794
795
795
14.5 Construction
14.6 Sanitary protection
14.7 Pond sand filters
14.8 Conventional surface water treatment plant
14.9 Household/pitcher filters
14.10 Solar disinfection
14.11 Rainwater harvesting
14.12 Rainwater availability
14.13 Rainwater catchment
14.14 Storage tank
14.15 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15 Sustainable Water Supply Management in Developing Countries
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Elements of SuWM
15.3 Principles of SuWM
15.4 The role of institutions in shaping water behaviour
15.5 Appropriate technology in SuWM
15.6 Operation and maintenance
15.7 Benefits
15.8 Management options and public/private partnerships
15.9 Conclusion
References
Appendix
List of abbreviation
795
796
798
799
799
799
800
801
803
803
805
806
807
809
809
810
812
813
813
814
817
822
824
825
827
xvi xvii
-
Table 1.1 General impacts of climate change in Bangladesh
Table 1.2 Status of inland and resident vertebrates of Bangladesh
Table 1.3 Status of marine and migratory vertebrates of Bangladesh
Table 1.4 World average annual rate of increase of selected aspects of human activities (%)
Table 1.5 Categories of water, sanitation and hygiene related diseases
Table 1.6 Drinking water supply coverage of Bangladesh
Table 1.7 Comparison of Sanitation progress reported by Sanitation Secretariat (SS) and other organizations
Table 1.8 Status of sanitary latrine in Bangladesh
Table 1.9 Composition of solid waste in Dhaka city
Table 1.10 Types of Pollutants and Applied Pollution Measure in Major Polluting Industries in Bangladesh
Table 1.11 Typical effluent quality of selected industries
Table 1.12 Linkage between diarrhoeal frequency and access to water, sanitation and hygiene
Table 2.1 Reaeration constants
Table 2.2 Diversity and equitability of aquatic organisms
Table 3.1 Water demand in the Netherlands in 2001
Table 3.2 Specific demand around Lake Victoria in Africa
Table 3.3 Domestic vs. non-domestic consumption in some African states
Table 3.4 Industrial water consumption
Table 3.5 Seasonal crop water needs
Table 3.6 Animal water consumption
Table 3.7 Water consumption in institutions
Table 3.8 Tourist water consumption in Southwest England
Table 3.9 Example of domestic unit water consumption
Table 3.10 Empirical formula for computing rate of fire demand
Table 3.11 Flow required by the national board of fire underwrites
Table 3.12 Water demand and production by DWASA
Table 3.13 Year wise water connection and water production
Table 4.1 Estimate of average permeability and porosity for selected materials
Table 4.2 Distance to source of contamination
23
27
27
35
37
40
43
44
45
46
47
54
77
84
102
104
108
112
113
113
113
114
116
130
131
146
146
159
169
List of TableTable 5.1 Information on pump selection
Table 6.1 Difference between potable and palatable water
Table 6.2 Impurities in water
Table 6.3 Difference between color and turbidity
Table 6.4 Analogy between taste and odor
Table 6.5 Water quality standards
Table 6.6 Design criteria for sedimentation tank
Table 6.7 Variable affecting filter operation and design
Table 6.8 Types of filter and characteristic difference
Table 6.9 Characteristics of private/public management options
Table 6.10 Effectiveness of various unit processes for reducing chloroform formation potentia
Table 6.11 Conventional water treatment unit processes
Table 6.12 Classification of hardness
Table 6.13 CO yields of common fuels2
Table 6.14 Species of arsenic
Table 6.15 Selection of processes in potable water treatment system
Table 7.1 Arsenic contamination situation in Bangladesh
Table 7.2 Arsenic and Iron removal efficiencies in AIRPs
Table 7.3 Arsenic and iron removal efficiencies in 18-DTP AIRPs
Table 7.4 Installation, operation and maintenance costs of selected presently operating water supply options
Table 7.5 Comparison of arsenic removal mechanisms and costs in Bangladesh
Table 8.1 Intake areas for selected widths of slot openings, (square inches per foot of screen)
Table 9.1 Pipe materials and valves
Table 9.2 Valve applications and standards
Table 9.3 Hydrant distribution
Table 9.4 Pipe type comparison
Table 9.5 Value of the coefficient c for Eqs. 9.9 and 9.10
Table 9.6 Values of the coefficient c for Eqs. 9.11p
189
220
221
224
225
231
267
270
280
298
298
303
314
320
330
331
344
353
354
354
362
399
510
517
523
526
540
541
xviii xix
-
Table 1.1 General impacts of climate change in Bangladesh
Table 1.2 Status of inland and resident vertebrates of Bangladesh
Table 1.3 Status of marine and migratory vertebrates of Bangladesh
Table 1.4 World average annual rate of increase of selected aspects of human activities (%)
Table 1.5 Categories of water, sanitation and hygiene related diseases
Table 1.6 Drinking water supply coverage of Bangladesh
Table 1.7 Comparison of Sanitation progress reported by Sanitation Secretariat (SS) and other organizations
Table 1.8 Status of sanitary latrine in Bangladesh
Table 1.9 Composition of solid waste in Dhaka city
Table 1.10 Types of Pollutants and Applied Pollution Measure in Major Polluting Industries in Bangladesh
Table 1.11 Typical effluent quality of selected industries
Table 1.12 Linkage between diarrhoeal frequency and access to water, sanitation and hygiene
Table 2.1 Reaeration constants
Table 2.2 Diversity and equitability of aquatic organisms
Table 3.1 Water demand in the Netherlands in 2001
Table 3.2 Specific demand around Lake Victoria in Africa
Table 3.3 Domestic vs. non-domestic consumption in some African states
Table 3.4 Industrial water consumption
Table 3.5 Seasonal crop water needs
Table 3.6 Animal water consumption
Table 3.7 Water consumption in institutions
Table 3.8 Tourist water consumption in Southwest England
Table 3.9 Example of domestic unit water consumption
Table 3.10 Empirical formula for computing rate of fire demand
Table 3.11 Flow required by the national board of fire underwrites
Table 3.12 Water demand and production by DWASA
Table 3.13 Year wise water connection and water production
Table 4.1 Estimate of average permeability and porosity for selected materials
Table 4.2 Distance to source of contamination
23
27
27
35
37
40
43
44
45
46
47
54
77
84
102
104
108
112
113
113
113
114
116
130
131
146
146
159
169
List of TableTable 5.1 Information on pump selection
Table 6.1 Difference between potable and palatable water
Table 6.2 Impurities in water
Table 6.3 Difference between color and turbidity
Table 6.4 Analogy between taste and odor
Table 6.5 Water quality standards
Table 6.6 Design criteria for sedimentation tank
Table 6.7 Variable affecting filter operation and design
Table 6.8 Types of filter and characteristic difference
Table 6.9 Characteristics of private/public management options
Table 6.10 Effectiveness of various unit processes for reducing chloroform formation potentia
Table 6.11 Conventional water treatment unit processes
Table 6.12 Classification of hardness
Table 6.13 CO yields of common fuels2
Table 6.14 Species of arsenic
Table 6.15 Selection of processes in potable water treatment system
Table 7.1 Arsenic contamination situation in Bangladesh
Table 7.2 Arsenic and Iron removal efficiencies in AIRPs
Table 7.3 Arsenic and iron removal efficiencies in 18-DTP AIRPs
Table 7.4 Installation, operation and maintenance costs of selected presently operating water supply options
Table 7.5 Comparison of arsenic removal mechanisms and costs in Bangladesh
Table 8.1 Intake areas for selected widths of slot openings, (square inches per foot of screen)
Table 9.1 Pipe materials and valves
Table 9.2 Valve applications and standards
Table 9.3 Hydrant distribution
Table 9.4 Pipe type comparison
Table 9.5 Value of the coefficient c for Eqs. 9.9 and 9.10
Table 9.6 Values of the coefficient c for Eqs. 9.11p
189
220
221
224
225
231
267
270
280
298
298
303
314
320
330
331
344
353
354
354
362
399
510
517
523
526
540
541
xviii xix
-
Table 9.7 Values of load coefficient (e ) for concentrate and distributed 1superimpose loads
Table 9.8 (a) Crushing strength of clay and concrete pipes by the three-edge bearing test: (all strength in pounds per linear foot)
Table 9.8 (b) Absolute roughness
Table 9.9 The HazenWilliams factors
Table 9.10 Correction of the HazenWilliams factors
Table 9.11 Losses in pipe fittings and appurtenances
Table 9.12 The Manning factors
Table 9.13 Hydraulic gradient in pipe D = 300 mm, Q = 80 l/s, T = 10oC
Table 9.14 Hydraulic gradient S (-) in pipe D = 400 mm at Q = 200 l/s
Table 9.15 Soil friction and cohesion factors
Table 9.16 Reduction factors
Table 11.1 The ten key steps identified by the POLIS project to achieve water sustainability
Table 11.2 Demand management methods and their use
Table 11.3 Factors affecting water prices
Table 11.4 The benefits of water supply
Table 11.5 Type of losses in water supply
Table 11.6 Components and definitions of the water balance used in the IWA/AWWA leakage model
Table 11.7 The various options for pricing metered water
Table 11.8 Different components of domestic wastewater that can be separated and the potential for reuse
Table 11.9 Breakdown of water usage for an average US family
Table 11.10 Code of American Water Work Association
Table 12.1 Infrastructure components, what they protect against, and common materials
Table 12.2 Causes of loss in physical integrity
Table 12.3 Most common problems that lead to pipe failure for various pipe materials
Table 12.4 Potential for contaminant entry during water main activities
Table 12.5 Examples of ways to detect a loss in physical integrity
Table 12.6 Examples of ways to maintain physical integrity
Table 12.7 Material life expectancies
543
545
566
580
581
581
582
582
595
621
621
676
687
694
695
698
702
706
710
712
713
720
722
725
730
741
751
757
Table 12.8 Use of backflow prevention devices by degree of hazard and mechanism
Table 12.9 Ways to recover from a loss in physical integrity
Table 13.1 Example of a simple risk scoring table for prioritizing risks
Table 13.2 Examples of definitions of likelihood and severity categories for risk scoring
Table 13.3 Types of monitoring in the management of distribution systems
Table 13.4 Example of verification schedule for calibration of equipment
Table 13.5 Summary of requirements of a water safety plan
Table 14.1 Arsenic contamination situation of tubewell in Bangladesh
Table 14.2 Installation, operation and maintenance costslected presently operating water supply options
Table 14.3 Advantages and disadvantages of rainwater collection system
Table 15.1 Ten SuWM principles and objectives
Table 15.2 Characteristics of private/public management options
760
762
781
782
784
787
789
793
793
801
811
818
xx xxi
-
Table 9.7 Values of load coefficient (e ) for concentrate and distributed 1superimpose loads
Table 9.8 (a) Crushing strength of clay and concrete pipes by the three-edge bearing test: (all strength in pounds per linear foot)
Table 9.8 (b) Absolute roughness
Table 9.9 The HazenWilliams factors
Table 9.10 Correction of the HazenWilliams factors
Table 9.11 Losses in pipe fittings and appurtenances
Table 9.12 The Manning factors
Table 9.13 Hydraulic gradient in pipe D = 300 mm, Q = 80 l/s, T = 10oC
Table 9.14 Hydraulic gradient S (-) in pipe D = 400 mm at Q = 200 l/s
Table 9.15 Soil friction and cohesion factors
Table 9.16 Reduction factors
Table 11.1 The ten key steps identified by the POLIS project to achieve water sustainability
Table 11.2 Demand management methods and their use
Table 11.3 Factors affecting water prices
Table 11.4 The benefits of water supply
Table 11.5 Type of losses in water supply
Table 11.6 Components and definitions of the water balance used in the IWA/AWWA leakage model
Table 11.7 The various options for pricing metered water
Table 11.8 Different components of domestic wastewater that can be separated and the potential for reuse
Table 11.9 Breakdown of water usage for an average US family
Table 11.10 Code of American Water Work Association
Table 12.1 Infrastructure components, what they protect against, and common materials
Table 12.2 Causes of loss in physical integrity
Table 12.3 Most common problems that lead to pipe failure for various pipe materials
Table 12.4 Potential for contaminant entry during water main activities
Table 12.5 Examples of ways to detect a loss in physical integrity
Table 12.6 Examples of ways to maintain physical integrity
Table 12.7 Material life expectancies
543
545
566
580
581
581
582
582
595
621
621
676
687
694
695
698
702
706
710
712
713
720
722
725
730
741
751
757
Table 12.8 Use of backflow prevention devices by degree of hazard and mechanism
Table 12.9 Ways to recover from a loss in physical integrity
Table 13.1 Example of a simple risk scoring table for prioritizing risks
Table 13.2 Examples of definitions of likelihood and severity categories for risk scoring
Table 13.3 Types of monitoring in the management of distribution systems
Table 13.4 Example of verification schedule for calibration of equipment
Table 13.5 Summary of requirements of a water safety plan
Table 14.1 Arsenic contamination situation of tubewell in Bangladesh
Table 14.2 Installation, operation and maintenance costslected presently operating water supply options
Table 14.3 Advantages and disadvantages of rainwater collection system
Table 15.1 Ten SuWM principles and objectives
Table 15.2 Characteristics of private/public management options
760
762
781
782
784
787
789
793
793
801
811
818
xx xxi
-
Figure 1.1 Human waste disposal from an old woodcut
Figure 1.2 A typical terrestrial ecosystem
Figure 1.3 Homeostatic mechanisms
Figure 1.4 Energy loss in biodegradation
Figure 1.5 Aerobic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles
Figure 1.6 Anaerobic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles
Figure 1.7 Effect of greenhouse gases
Figure 1.8 Transmission of disease from faeces
Figure 1.9 Proportion of the worlds population using improved or an unimproved drinking water source
Figure 1.10 Population using an unimproved drinking water source
Figure 1.11 Percentage of population using an unimproved drinking water source in south-east Asian countries
Figure 1.12 Coverage with improved sanitation facilities
Figure 1.13 Sanitation practice scenario by proportion of the worlds population
Figure 1.14 Sanitation coverage of South Asia
Figure 1.15 Diseases contributing to the water, sanitation and hygiene related disease
Figure 1.16 Sanitation coverage and diarrhoeal deaths in South Asian countries
Figure 1.17 Sanitation coverage and under 5 mortality rate in South Asian countries
Figure 1.18 Sanitation coverage of Bangladesh and under 5 mortality rate in different years
Figure 1.19 Diagram of public water supply chain
Figure 1.20 Different sources of water
Figure 1.21 Essential elements of water supply system
Figure 2.1 Dissolved oxygen downstream from a source of organic pollution
Figure 2.2 Amount of oxygen required at any time t(z(t)) for various deoxygenation constants (q)
Figure 2.3 Dissolved oxygen used (BOD) at any time t
Figure 2.4 Example of dissolved oxygen
Figure 2.5 Plot of 7-day, 10-year low flows, for Example 2.2
Figure 2.6 The number of species and the total number of organisms
Figure 2.7 Typical variations in nitrogen compounds
Figure 2.8 Typical temperature depth relationships in lakes
6
11
12
14
16
16
18
36
39
39
40
41
41
42
49
50
50
57
56
58
63
75
76
77
78
82
83
84
87
List of figure Figure 2.9 Schematic representation of lake ecologyFigure 2.10 Water quality profiles for a water supply reservoir
Figure 3.1 Flows in water supply systems
Figure 3.2 Specific consumption in Asian cities
Figure 3.3 Domestic and nondomestic consumption in The Netherlands
Figure 3.4 Water use in Europe
Figure 3.5 Domestic water use in Europe
Figure 3.6 Structure of domestic consumption in The Netherlands
Figure 3.7 Simultaneity diagram
Figure 3.8 Simultaneity diagram of various categories of accommodation
Figure 3.9 Instantaneous demand
Figure 3.10 Night-time demand during football game
Figure 3.11 Evening demand during football game
Figure 3.12 Urban demand pattern
Figure 3.13 Industrial demand pattern example from Bosnia and Herzegovina
Figure 3.14 Tourist demand pattern example from Croatia
Figure 3.15 Commercial/ institutional demand pattern example from USA
Figure 3.16 Typical structure of diurnal demand in urban areas
Figure 3.17 Peak factor diagrams of various categories from Figure 3.16
Figure 3.18 Weekly demand variations Alvington, UK
Figure 3.19 Seasonal demand variation in a sea resort
Figure 3.20 Weekly and monthly peak factor diagrams
Figure 3.21 Annual demand patterns in Ramallah, Palestine
Figure 3.22 Fire Hydrant
Figure 3.23 Hypothetical annual range of flows in a distribution system
Figure 3.24 Domestic consumption increase in some European countries
Figure 3.25 Domestic consumption increase in Germany
Figure 3.26 Water consumption of washing appliances in Europe
Figure 3.27 Population and demand growth
Figure 3.28 Consumption growthaccording to the exponential model
Figure 3.29 Example of a typical diurnal demand pattern
Figure 3.30 Example of the annual range of the peak factors
Figure 3.31 Example of the annual range of hourly demands
Figure 3.32 Frequency distribution of the diurnal peak factors
Figure 3.33 Cumulative frequency distribution of the diurnal peak factors
88
91
101
103
108
109
109
111
118
119
119
120
121
122
123
123
124
124
125
126
127
127
128
133
136
139
139
140
141
141
143
143
144
144
145
xxii xxiii
-
Figure 1.1 Human waste disposal from an old woodcut
Figure 1.2 A typical terrestrial ecosystem
Figure 1.3 Homeostatic mechanisms
Figure 1.4 Energy loss in biodegradation
Figure 1.5 Aerobic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles
Figure 1.6 Anaerobic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles
Figure 1.7 Effect of greenhouse gases
Figure 1.8 Transmission of disease from faeces
Figure 1.9 Proportion of the worlds population using improved or an unimproved drinking water source
Figure 1.10 Population using an unimproved drinking water source
Figure 1.11 Percentage of population using an unimproved drinking water source in south-east Asian countries
Figure 1.12 Coverage with improved sanitation facilities
Figure 1.13 Sanitation practice scenario by proportion of the worlds population
Figure 1.14 Sanitation coverage of South Asia
Figure 1.15 Diseases contributing to the water, sanitation and hygiene related disease
Figure 1.16 Sanitation coverage and diarrhoeal deaths in South Asian countries
Figure 1.17 Sanitation coverage and under 5 mortality rate in South Asian countries
Figure 1.18 Sanitation coverage of Bangladesh and under 5 mortality rate in different years
Figure 1.19 Diagram of public water supply chain
Figure 1.20 Different sources of water
Figure 1.21 Essential elements of water supply system
Figure 2.1 Dissolved oxygen downstream from a source of organic pollution
Figure 2.2 Amount of oxygen required at any time t(z(t)) for various deoxygenation constants (q)
Figure 2.3 Dissolved oxygen used (BOD) at any time t
Figure 2.4 Example of dissolved oxygen
Figure 2.5 Plot of 7-day, 10-year low flows, for Example 2.2
Figure 2.6 The number of species and the total number of organisms
Figure 2.7 Typical variations in nitrogen compounds
Figure 2.8 Typical temperature depth relationships in lakes
6
11
12
14
16
16
18
36
39
39
40
41
41
42
49
50
50
57
56
58
63
75
76
77
78
82
83
84
87
List of figure Figure 2.9 Schematic representation of lake ecologyFigure 2.10 Water quality profiles for a water supply reservoir
Figure 3.1 Flows in water supply systems
Figure 3.2 Specific consumption in Asian cities
Figure 3.3 Domestic and nondomestic consumption in The Netherlands
Figure 3.4 Water use in Europe
Figure 3.5 Domestic water use in Europe
Figure 3.6 Structure of domestic consumption in The Netherlands
Figure 3.7 Simultaneity diagram
Figure 3.8 Simultaneity diagram of various categories of accommodation
Figure 3.9 Instantaneous demand
Figure 3.10 Night-time demand during football game
Figure 3.11 Evening demand during football game
Figure 3.12 Urban demand pattern
Figure 3.13 Industrial demand pattern example from Bosnia and Herzegovina
Figure 3.14 Tourist demand pattern example from Croatia
Figure 3.15 Commercial/ institutional demand pattern example from USA
Figure 3.16 Typical structure of diurnal demand in urban areas
Figure 3.17 Peak factor diagrams of various categories from Figure 3.16
Figure 3.18 Weekly demand variations Alvington, UK
Figure 3.19 Seasonal demand variation in a sea resort
Figure 3.20 Weekly and monthly peak factor diagrams
Figure 3.21 Annual demand patterns in Ramallah, Palestine
Figure 3.22 Fire Hydrant
Figure 3.23 Hypothetical annual range of flows in a distribution system
Figure 3.24 Domestic consumption increase in some European countries
Figure 3.25 Domestic consumption increase in Germany
Figure 3.26 Water consumption of washing appliances in Europe
Figure 3.27 Population and demand growth
Figure 3.28 Consumption growthaccording to the exponential model
Figure 3.29 Example of a typical diurnal demand pattern
Figure 3.30 Example of the annual range of the peak factors
Figure 3.31 Example of the annual range of hourly demands
Figure 3.32 Frequency distribution of the diurnal peak factors
Figure 3.33 Cumulative frequency distribution of the diurnal peak factors
88
91
101
103
108
109
109
111
118
119
119
120
121
122
123
123
124
124
125
126
127
127
128
133
136
139
139
140
141
141
143
143
144
144
145
xxii xxiii
-
Figure 4.1 Distribution of Earths water
Figure 4.2 Hydrologic cycle
Figure 4.3 The flow of water through a soil sampler
Figure 4.4 Permeameter for Example 4.1
Figure 4.5a Confined and Unconfined aquifers
Figure 4.5b Drawdown in the groundwater table when water is pumped out of a well
Figure 4.6a Radial flow to a well in an unconfined aquifer
Figure 4.6b A cylinder with water flowing through its sides towards the centre
Figure 4.6c Two monitoring wells showing drawdown during extraction
Figure 4.7 Radial flow to a well in a confined aquifer
Figure 4.8 Graphical determination of safe yield by the Hill method
Figure 4.9 Interference between two extraction wells
Figure 4.10 Infiltration
Figure 5.1 Booster pump station
Figure 5.2 Single acting reciprocating pump
Figure 5.3 Double acting reciprocating pump
Figure 5.4 Hand operate reciprocating pump
Figure 5.5 Rotary pump
Figure 5.6 Volute pump
Figure 5.7 Diffuser pump
Figure 5.8 Turbine pump
Figure 5.9 Over-the-well jet pump installment
Figure 5.10 Pump curves
Figure 5.11 Pump hydraulics
Figure 5.12 Pump characteristic curves
Figure 5.13 System head curve
Figure 5.14 Determination of pump operation point
Figure 5.15 Pump characteristic curves with two pumps in parallel and in series
Figure 5.16 System head curve with two pumps in parallel
Figure 5.17 Variation curve of diameter of main and its cost
Figure 6.1 (a) Turbidimeter
Figure 6.1 (b) Mechanism in Spectrophotometer to measure turbidity
Figure 6.1 (c) Levels of turbidity in NTU/FTU
154
155
158
160
161
161
163
163
165
166
168
173
174
180
182
183
184
185
185
186
187
188
194
202
204
205
206
207
207
208
222
223
223
Figure 6.2 (a) Different types of aerators
Figure 6.2 (b) Different types of aerators
Figure 6.3 The colloidal model showing zeta potential
Figure 6.4 Electrostatic repulsion
Figure 6.5 Van der Waals attraction
Figure 6.6 The energy barrier from DVLO theory
Figure 6.7 Lowering of the colloid surface charge
Figure 6.8 Flocculator used in water treatment
Figure 6.9 Schematic of rectangular setting tank
Figure 6.10 Schematic of circular setting tank
Figure 6.11 Conical sedimentation basin
Figure 6.12 Elevation of type I setting tank
Figure 6.13 Settling of different types of particles in water
Figure 6.14 Schematic of rapid sand operational controls
Figure 6.15 A slow sand filtration unit
Figure 6.16 Equipment for making mud ball volume measurements
Figure 6.17 Mud balls on filter surface
Figure 6.18 Cracks in filter beds
Figure 6.19 Relation between the loss of head and settlement of sand in filters
Figure 6.20 Cracks along sidewalls of filters
Figure 6.21 Sketch showing typical surface cracks in top 3 in of filter beds
Figure 6.22 Clogged areas in a filter bed
Figure 6.23 Sand ridged by clogged places in the filter bed
Figure 6.24 Cross section of typical pressure filter
Figure 6.25(a) Dissociation of HOCl
Figure 6.25(b) Generalized curve of chlorine
Figure 6.26 Fluoride Levels
Figure 6.27 Schematic of a groundwater treatment plant
Figure 6.28 Schematic of the particle size
Figure 6.29 Schematic of reverse osmosis
Figure 6.30 Flow diagram of removal of arsenic from groundwater
Figure 7.1 North-south cut through Bangladesh delta
Figure 7.2 Typical community arsenic and iron removal plant
Figure 7.3 18-DTP arsenic and iron removal plant
Figure 7.4 Double bucket household unit
236
237
244
245
246
247
248
251
257
258
259
262
266
273
278
281
282
283
283
284
285
286
287
288
290
293
307
311
327
328
329
343
353
355
355
xxiv xxv
-
Figure 4.1 Distribution of Earths water
Figure 4.2 Hydrologic cycle
Figure 4.3 The flow of water through a soil sampler
Figure 4.4 Permeameter for Example 4.1
Figure 4.5a Confined and Unconfined aquifers
Figure 4.5b Drawdown in the groundwater table when water is pumped out of a well
Figure 4.6a Radial flow to a well in an unconfined aquifer
Figure 4.6b A cylinder with water flowing through its sides towards the centre
Figure 4.6c Two monitoring wells showing drawdown during extraction
Figure 4.7 Radial flow to a well in a confined aquifer
Figure 4.8 Graphical determination of safe yield by the Hill method
Figure 4.9 Interference between two extraction wells
Figure 4.10 Infiltration
Figure 5.1 Booster pump station
Figure 5.2 Single acting reciprocating pump
Figure 5.3 Double acting reciprocating pump
Figure 5.4 Hand operate reciprocating pump
Figure 5.5 Rotary pump
Figure 5.6 Volute pump
Figure 5.7 Diffuser pump
Figure 5.8 Turbine pump
Figure 5.9 Over-the-well jet pump installment
Figure 5.10 Pump curves
Figure 5.11 Pump hydraulics
Figure 5.12 Pump characteristic curves
Figure 5.13 System head curve
Figure 5.14 Determination of pump operation point
Figure 5.15 Pump characteristic curves with two pumps in parallel and in series
Figure 5.16 System head curve with two pumps in parallel
Figure 5.17 Variation curve of diameter of main and its cost
Figure 6.1 (a) Turbidimeter
Figure 6.1 (b) Mechanism in Spectrophotometer to measure turbidity
Figure 6.1 (c) Levels of turbidity in NTU/FTU
154
155
158
160
161
161
163
163
165
166
168
173
174
180
182
183
184
185
185
186
187
188
194
202
204
205
206
207
207
208
222
223
223
Figure 6.2 (a) Different types of aerators
Figure 6.2 (b) Different types of aerators
Figure 6.3 The colloidal model showing zeta potential
Figure 6.4 Electrostatic repulsion
Figure 6.5 Van der Waals attraction
Figure 6.6 The energy barrier from DVLO theory
Figure 6.7 Lowering of the colloid surface charge
Figure 6.8 Flocculator used in water treatment
Figure 6.9 Schematic of rectangular setting tank
Figure 6.10 Schematic of circular setting tank
Figure 6.11 Conical sedimentation basin
Figure 6.12 Elevation of type I setting tank
Figure 6.13 Settling of different types of particles in water
Figure 6.14 Schematic of rapid sand operational controls
Figure 6.15 A slow sand filtration unit
Figure 6.16 Equipment for making mud ball volume measurements
Figure 6.17 Mud balls on filter surface
Figure 6.18 Cracks in filter beds
Figure 6.19 Relation between the loss of head and settlement of sand in filters
Figure 6.20 Cracks along sidewalls of filters
Figure 6.21 Sketch showing typical surface cracks in top 3 in of filter beds
Figure 6.22 Clogged areas in a filter bed
Figure 6.23 Sand ridged by clogged places in the filter bed
Figure 6.24 Cross section of typical pressure filter
Figure 6.25(a) Dissociation of HOCl
Figure 6.25(b) Generalized curve of chlorine
Figure 6.26 Fluoride Levels
Figure 6.27 Schematic of a groundwater treatment plant
Figure 6.28 Schematic of the particle size
Figure 6.29 Schematic of reverse osmosis
Figure 6.30 Flow diagram of removal of arsenic from groundwater
Figure 7.1 North-south cut through Bangladesh delta
Figure 7.2 Typical community arsenic and iron removal plant
Figure 7.3 18-DTP arsenic and iron removal plant
Figure 7.4 Double bucket household unit
236
237
244
245
246
247
248
251
257
258
259
262
266
273
278
281
282
283
283
284
285
286
287
288
290
293
307
311
327
328
329
343
353
355
355
xxiv xxv
-
Figure 7.5 Stevens institute technology
Figure 7.6 Three-pitcher filter
Figure 7.7 Granular ferric hydroxide unit
Figure 7.8 Tetrahedron unit
Figure 7.9 DPHEdanida fill and draw unit
Figure 8.1 Types of tubewell technologies
Figure 8.2 A no. 6 handpump tubewell
Figure 8.3 A rower pump
Figure 8.4 Disco handpump technology
Figure 8.5 Tara handpump tubewell
Figure 8.6 Moon handpump tubewell
Figure 8.7 Mark II handpump tubewell
Figure 8.8 Fabrication of a continuous slot type of well screen
Figure 8.9 Section of continuous slot type screen showing v-shaped openings
Figure 8.10 The V-shaped openings of the continuous-slot type of screen
Figure 8.11 Louver or shutter type well screen, best used in artificially gravel packed wells
Figure 8.12 Continuous right angled slot of well axis
Figure 8.13 Slotted plastic pipe
Figure 8.14 Recommended positioning of well screens in various stratified, water bearing sand formations
Figure 8.15 Recommended sets of standard sieves for analyzing samples of water bearing sand or gravel
Figure 8.16 Typical sieve-analysis curve shows distribution of grain sizes in percent by weight
Figure 8.17 Typical sieve analysis curves for water-bearing sands and gravels
Figure 8.18 Sequence illustrates possibility of fine sand entering lip per part of lower section of screen
Figure 8.19 Sanitary protection of upper terminal of well
Figure 8.20 Sanitary well seals
Figure 8.21 Hand augers
Figure 8.22 Spiral auger
Figure 8.23 Simple tool for driving well points to depths of 15 to 30 ft
Figure 8.24 Drive-block assemblies for driving well points
Figure 8.25 Bits for jet drilling
Figure 8.26 Simple equipment for jet or rotary drilling
356
357
359
360
360
369
371
373
374
375
378
379
383
384
384
386
388
389
392
394
395
396
398
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
Figure 8.27 Bamboo scaffolding, pivot and lever used in drilling by the sludger method
Figure 8.28 Man on scaffolding of drill at lowing drill fluid and cutiings to escape
Figure.8.29 Rotary drill bits
Figure 8.30 Roller-type rotary drill bit
Figure 8.31 Rotary drilling rig
Figure 8.32 Some other type of drilling bit available in market
Figure.8.33 Balance for determining mud weight stop watch marsh funnel
Figure 8.34 Star 91 cable-tool drilling rig
Figure 8.35 Components of a string of drill tools for cable-tool precession method
Figure 8.36 Casing drive shoe, rotary table or other support placed
Figure 8.37 Driving casing with drive clamps as hammer and drive head as anvil
Figure 8.38 Hoisting plug
Figure 8.39 Casing elevator
Figure 8.40 A gravity placement method of cement grouting well casing
Figure 8.41 Inside-tubing method of cement grouting well casing
Figure 8.42 Outside tubing method of cement grouting well casing
Figure 8.43 A plumb bob
Figure 8.44 Screen hook installation method
Figure 8.45 Pull-back method of setting well screens
Figure 8.46 Swedge block
Figure 8.47 Closed bottom plug in open hole screen casing
Figure 8.48 Wash-Down method
Figure 8.49 Jetting well screen
Figure 8.50 Double-Casing method
Figure 8.51 Elements of sand-joint method
Figure 8.52 Impression block
Figure 8.53 Tapered tap and overshots
Figure 8.54 Wall hook
Figure 8.55 Center spear
Figure 8.56 One directional flow can cause sand bridging during well development
Figure 8.57 Typical solid type surger plunger
Figure 8.58 Solid-type surge plunge ready for use in developing a well
Figure 8.59 Typical valve-type surge plunger with valve leather raised to show one port holes
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
422
423
425
426
427
428
430
431
432
433
435
436
437
438
439
440
442
444
449
451
452
453
456
457
457
458
xxvi xxvii
-
Figure 7.5 Stevens institute technology
Figure 7.6 Three-pitcher filter
Figure 7.7 Granular ferric hydroxide unit
Figure 7.8 Tetrahedron unit
Figure 7.9 DPHEdanida fill and draw unit
Figure 8.1 Types of tubewell technologies
Figure 8.2 A no. 6 handpump tubewell
Figure 8.3 A rower pump
Figure 8.4 Disco handpump technology
Figure 8.5 Tara handpump tubewell
Figure 8.6 Moon handpump tubewell
Figure 8.7 Mark II handpump tubewell
Figure 8.8 Fabrication of a continuous slot type of well screen
Figure 8.9 Section of continuous slot type screen showing v-shaped openings
Figure 8.10 The V-shaped openings of the continuous-slot type of screen
Figure 8.11 Louver or shutter type well screen, best used in artificially gravel packed wells
Figure 8.12 Continuous right angled slot of well axis
Figure 8.13 Slotted plastic pipe
Figure 8.14 Recommended positioning of well screens in various stratified, water bearing sand formations
Figure 8.15 Recommended sets of standard sieves for analyzing samples of water bearing sand or gravel
Figure 8.16 Typical sieve-analysis curve shows distribution of grain sizes in percent by weight
Figure 8.17 Typical sieve analysis curves for water-bearing sands and gravels
Figure 8.18 Sequence illustrates possibility of fine sand entering lip per part of lower section of screen
Figure 8.19 Sanitary protection of upper terminal of well
Figure 8.20 Sanitary well seals
Figure 8.21 Hand augers
Figure 8.22 Spiral auger
Figure 8.23 Simple tool for driving well points to depths of 15 to 30 ft
Figure 8.24 Drive-block assemblies for driving well points
Figure 8.25 Bits for jet drilling
Figure 8.26 Simple equipment for jet or rotary drilling
356
357
359
360
360
369
371
373
374
375
378
379
383
384
384
386
388
389
392
394
395
396
398
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
Figure 8.27 Bamboo scaffolding, pivot and lever used in drilling by the sludger method
Figure 8.28 Man on scaffolding of drill at lowing drill fluid and cutiings to escape
Figure.8.29 Rotary drill bits
Figure 8.30 Roller-type rotary drill bit
Figure 8.31 Rotary drilling rig
Figure 8.32 Some other type of drilling bit available in market
Figure.8.33 Balance for determining mud weight stop watch marsh funnel
Figure 8.34 Star 91 cable-tool drilling rig
Figure 8.35 Components of a string of drill tools for cable-tool precession method
Figure 8.36 Casing drive shoe, rotary table or other support placed
Figure 8.37 Driving casing with drive clamps as hammer and drive head as anvil
Figure 8.38 Hoisting plug
Figure 8.39 Casing elevator
Figure 8.40 A gravity placement method of cement grouting well casing
Figure 8.41 Inside-tubing method of cement grouting well casing
Figure 8.42 Outside tubing method of cement grouting well casing
Figure 8.43 A plumb bob
Figure 8.44 Screen hook installation method
Figure 8.45 Pull-back method of setting well screens
Figure 8.46 Swedge block
Figure 8.47 Closed bottom plug in open hole screen casing
Figure 8.48 Wash-Down method
Figure 8.49 Jetting well screen
Figure 8.50 Double-Casing method
Figure 8.51 Elements of sand-joint method
Figure 8.52 Impression block
Figure 8.53 Tapered tap and overshots
Figure 8.54 Wall hook
Figure 8.55 Center spear
Figure 8.56 One directional flow can cause sand bridging during well development
Figure 8.57 Typical solid type surger plunger
Figure 8.58 Solid-type surge plunge ready for use in developing a well
Figure 8.59 Typical valve-type surge plunger with valve leather raised to show one port holes
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
422
423
425
426
427
428
430
431
432
433
435
436
437
438
439
440
442
444
449
451
452
453
456
457
457
458
xxvi xxvii
-
Figure 8.60 Arrangement for introducing acid inside well screen from bottom upwards
Figure 8.61 Dug well
Figure 8.62 Grain size distribution curve
Figure 9.1 Mass curve for determining required reservoir capacity
Figure 9.2 Frequency analysis of reservoir capacity
Figure 9.3 Typical reservoir intake
Figure 9.4 Typical lake intake
Figure 9.5 Typical submerged crib intake
Figure 9.6 Screened pipe intake
Figure 9.7 Typical intake, conduit, and pumping station
Figure 9.8 Elevated steel tank
Figure 9.9 Effect of elevated storage on pressure
Figure 9.10 Diurnal variation in water consumption
Figure 9.11 Water distribution system patterns
Figure 9.12 Double disc gate valve
Figure 9.13 (a) typical butterfly valve and (b) typical small-diameter ball valve
Figure 9.14 Schematic of typical dry- barrel fire hydrant
Figure 9.15 How water hammer can develop in a pipe line
Figure 9.16 How air chambers cushion the initial shock wave generated by water hammer
Figure 9.17 Construction conditions of pipes
Figure 9.18 Load production forces
Figure 9.19 Concentrated superimposed load vertically centered over the pipe
Figure 9.20 Distributed superimposed load vertically centered over pipe
Figure 9.21 Some methods of laying pipes
Figure 9.22 Steady and uniform flow
Figure 9.23 The continuity equation validity in tanks
Figure 9.24 The continuity equation validity in pipe junctions
Figure 9.25 The momentum equation
Figure 9.26 The bernoulli equation
Figure 9.27a Hydraulic grade line
Figure 9.27 b The hydraulic gradient
Figure 9.28 Moody diagram
Figure 9.29 Typical plan and profile drawings
466
470
471
486
488
490
491
492
493
494
502
502
503
512
518
519
522
534
536
539
539
542
543
546
553
555
555
556
560
562
562
565
568
Figure 9.30 (a) Nomograph for Hazen-Williams formula in which c = 150
Figure 9.30 (b) Nomograph for Hazen-Williams formula in which c = 100
Figure 9.31 Illustration of pipe line pressure
Figure 9.32 Comparison of the friction loss equations: mid range diameters, v = 1 m/s, l = 200 m
Figure 9.33 Comparison of the friction loss equations: large diameters, v = 1 m/s, l = 2000 m
Figure 9.34 Comparison of the friction loss equations for various PVC roughness factors
Figure 9.35 Minor loss caused by valve operation
Figure 9.36 Example of minor loss diagram from valve operation
Figure 9.37 Example of a pipe chart
Figure 9.38 Equivalent diameters
Figure 9.39 Branched network with a single supply point
Figure 9.40 Branched network with two supply points
Figure 9.41 Branched network with two supply points, showing an increase of nodal flow q1
Figure 9.42 Looped network
Figure 9.43 Linear theory
Figure 9.44 Pressure-related leakage
Figure 9.45 Discharge through an orifice
Figure 9.46 Pressure-related demand relation
Figure 9.47 Negative pressures - as a result of a calculation without pressure-related demand
Figure 9.48 Pressures as the result of the calculation with pressure-related demand
Figure 9.49 Typical thrust blocking
Figure 9.50 Pipe characteristics
Figure 9.51 Capacity reduction of the system
Figure 9.52 Gravity system: regular supply
Figure 9.53 System characteristics: regular operation
Figure 9.54 Gravity system: network extension
Figure 9.55 System characteristics: network extension
Figure 9.56 Gravity system: supply from two sides
Figure 9.57 Gravity system (for example 9.24)
Figure 9.58 Pumping head
Figure 9.59 Pumping characteristics
Figure 9.60 Typical pump characteristics curve
571
572
574
579
579
582
585
587
595
597
599
600
601
604
611
614
615
616
616
616
619
622
623
624
625
625
626
627
627
628
630
630
xxviii xxix
-
Figure 8.60 Arrangement for introducing acid inside well screen from bottom upwards
Figure 8.61 Dug well
Figure 8.62 Grain size distribution curve
Figure 9.1 Mass curve for determining required reservoir capacity
Figure 9.2 Frequency analysis of reservoir capacity
Figure 9.3 Typical reservoir intake
Figure 9.4 Typical lake intake
Figure 9.5 Typical submerged crib intake
Figure 9.6 Screened pipe intake
Figure 9.7 Typical intake, conduit, and pumping station
Figure 9.8 Elevated steel tank
Figure 9.9 Effect of elevated storage on pressure
Figure 9.10 Diurnal variation in water consumption
Figure 9.11 Water distribution system patterns
Figure 9.12 Double disc gate valve
Figure 9.13 (a) typical butterfly valve and (b) typical small-diameter ball valve
Figure 9.14 Schematic of typical dry- barrel fire hydrant
Figure 9.15 How water hammer can develop in a
top related