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NON-CONFIDENTIAL
THERAMINFrom waste acceptance criteria to
waste disposability
Benjamin FRASCA - Andra
13th June 2019
DRD/CM/19-0047
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
Content
1. Radioactive waste
2. Waste Classification and Disposal Routes
IAEA classification
Example of national classification
3. French radioactive waste disposal concepts
Surface disposal facilities
Deep geological disposal project: Cigéo
4. Disposability Criteria
General observations on disposability criteria
Generic disposability criteria for thermally treated waste
From WAC to disposability
1. Radioactive Waste
THERAMIN – Technical School
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
Uses of radioactivity
Radioactivity was discovered by French physicist Henri
Becquerel in the late 19th century. Since then, its properties
have been put to use in many industrial, military and medical
applications.
Medicine
cancer diagnosis, tumour
treatment, equipment
sterilisation …
Research
chemsitry, biology…
Electricity
generation
(NPPs…)
Industry
food preservation,
inspection of welds …
Geology – Climatology - Archaeology
age of the Earth, analysis of ice core samples
protection of art objects, dating..
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What is radioactive waste?
Radioactive waste is substances generated by the use of the properties of radioactivity
that cannot be reused or reprocessed
The vast majority of this waste looks like conventional waste : tools, clothing, scrap
metal, plastic…
However, it has been made radioactive from exposure to radioactivity and thus emits
radiation that can be hazardous to people and the environment.
This waste is therefore managed in a specific manner.
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
Sources of radioactive waste in France
Estimation of the share of radioactive waste existing in France at the
end of 2017 by economic sector and by volume
Médical
Industrie nonélectronucléaire
Défense
Recherche
Electronucléaire
1%
3%9%
28%59%
Medical
Non-nuclear power industry
Defence
Research
Nuclear power plants
Mines Enrichment
Fuel
fabrication
Reactors
Spent fuel
reprocessing
Recycling:
MOX
fuel
fabrication
ChemistryNatural uranium
Enriched uranium
Disposal
Uranium
Plutonium
Front end Use in reactors Back end
Ultimate waste after
reprocessing of spent fuel
Waste from tailings and fuel
fabrication
Waste produced during facility
operation and maintenance
Waste resulting from dismantling
operations
Sources of radioactive waste: Fuel Cycle
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Polluted sites and collect of radioactive
waste and objects
•
Bayard (watchmaking industry)
Radioactive lightning conductors Examples of uses of
radioactivity First half of the twentieth century
Hospital waste
2. Waste Classification and
Disposal Routes
THERAMIN – Technical School
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
International Classification: IAEA
• Radioactive waste can be divided into different “classes”according to its radiological or other properties
• Different countries may have different classifications forsimilar wastes, depending on their policies and needs
• IAEA General Safety Guide (GSG-1) groups waste by half-life and radioactivity level: Based on long term safety implication, and thus, disposal route
of the waste IAEA classification does not include quantitative boundaries
between waste classes: the boundaries are left up tocountries
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International Classification: IAEA
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National Classification
• Many countries adopt classifications similar to IAEA, but include boundaries that match their policies and infrastructures
Boundaries between classes are normally based on the safety case for the disposal facilities
• National classes and boundaries are usually defined in primary legislation, regulations, national standards and/or guidance material
• Not all countries recognize all IAEA waste classes
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Example National Classification: BELGIUM
• Four-level hierarchical classification system
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Example National Classification: FRANCE
• Based on activity level and half-life
• Specific disposal routes for each class
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Example National Classification: GERMANY
• All radioactive wastes in Germany are destined for
deep geological disposal
• The German waste classification system is based on
heat generating capacity of the waste:
Non-heat-generating radioactive wastes are
radioactive waste with negligible heat generation (e.g.
LLW, ILW).
Heat-generating radioactive wastes are characterized
by high activity concentrations and therefore by high
decay heat (e.g. HLW).
3. French radioactive waste
disposal concepts
THERAMIN – Technical School
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
1) The 'head in the sand policy'
• Ignore the problem,
• It's not urgent; we'll think about it later.
( places the burden on future generations)
2) Easy (and sloppy) fix to the problem
• Sea disposal
• Quick land burial in earthen trenches, etc.
3) 'Outlandish' ideas
• Launch waste into the Sun, etc.
• Burial in subduction zones, etc.
• Burial in marine areas with high
sedimentation rates, etc.
• …
4) Scientific and technological management
• Disposal method adapted to each type of
waste
What is to be done with radioactive waste?
On average, each person in France
generates 2 kg of radioactive waste each year.
What should be done with it?
What is to be done with radioactive waste?
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
Managing radioactive waste
• France has opted for a long-term solution: Dispose of waste in geological repositories
•
Contain radioactivity in repositories and monitor
these repositories while radioactivity decreases to a
safe level
Geological media are a long-term solution for
keeping waste away people and the environment
and for delaying the migration of the radioactive
substances contained in waste.
Geological repositories: natural barriers
Package
Engineered barrier
Geological barrier
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Waste disposal concepts adapted to each type of waste must sequester
radioactive materials from the environment until their radioactivity has decayed to
an acceptable level. Repository safety is based on three components :
The packages
containing the wasteThe repository structures containing
the conditioned packages
The geology of the sites making
up a permanent natural barrier
The multi-barrier design
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The various disposal solutions
The disposal concepts implemented by Andra are commensurated with the
hazardousness of the waste contained and the changes in this
hazardousness over time.
In France, different disposal solutions are currently in operation or are
under development for all types of radioactive waste generated:
surface disposal (in operation)
near-surface disposal (under
consideration)
deep geological disposal
(500 m below ground, under
consideration)
VLLW repository:
Cires
THERAMIN – Technical School
Cires waste repository
The first repository for very-low-level radioactive waste, the second repository located
in north-central France (Morvilliers).
Capacity: 650 000 m3
Commissioned: 1st October 2003
Planned operating life: 30 years
Surface area: 45 ha
Volume in storage (end 2013): 250 000 m3
Cires waste repository
• VLLW
VLL waste results primarily from the dismantling of nuclear
facilities or conventional industries that use radioactive
materials (scrap metal, plastic, rubble, earth, etc.)
VLL waste is conditioned in metal drums or super sacks,
primarily to facilitate its handling.
It is emplaced in cells excavated in the clay soil at a
shallow depth at the VLLW repository at Morvilliers
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
Management of the Cires waste repository
Excavation of the disposal cells
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Management of the Cires waste repository
Repository cells being filled
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Management of the Cires waste repository
Capping with soil
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Management of the Cires waste repository
Laying of the impermeable membrane
LILW repository facility:
The CSA case
THERAMIN – Technical School
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
LILW repository: the CSA
The largest radioactive waste repository is located at Soulaines-Dhuys. It
has been designed to dispose 1 million m3 of LIL/SL waste, generated
mainly from the maintenance (clothing, tools, gloves…) or operation
(treatment of liquid and gaseous effluents) of nuclear facilities.
Commissioned :13th January 1992
Planned operating life: 60 years
Monitoring period: 300 years
Capacity : 1 million m3
(~280 000 m3 emplaced by late 2013)
Surface: 95 ha (total)
Initial investment: € 221 million
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CSA waste repository
• The LILW waste is conditioned in a metal or concrete
container and then encapsulated mainly in concrete.
• There is a specific type of package for the volume,
radioactivity and nature of the waste: casks or drums
made of metal or concrete.
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CSA waste repository: design
Role of the repository structures :
oProtect the physical integrity of waste packages and structures
oShield waste from external hazards/prevent the spread of
radioactivity
o Inspect and monitor (environment, site and structures)
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CSA waste repository: design
Concrete being poured over
short-lived packages
Disposal cells
Gravels being poured over long-
lived packages
THERAMIN – Technical School
HLW & ILW-LL
The Cigeo project
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
High-level and intermediate-level long-lived
waste
HLW
ILW-LL
1- Waste from spent fuel treatment (ILW-LL and HLW)
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High-level and intermediate-level long-lived
waste
2- Technology waste, research activities and legacy waste (ILW-LL)
Cigeo Forecast volumes
≈ 72, 000 m3 for ILW-LL (of which 60% produced)
≈ 10, 000 m3 for HLW (of which 30% produced)
NB - To consider the eventual evolutions of industrial strategies and energetic
policies, spent fuel and some LLW-LL are also taken into consideration in the
‘Adaptability' studies of Cigeo's facilities
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A bit of history: the Bataille Act of 30th
December 1991
France's first law on radioactive waste management
A 15-year research program
Study of three options (technical and scientific approach)
- Partitioning and transmutation of long-lived radionuclides
- Geological disposal, reversible or non-reversible
- Long-term storage
Governance
Responsibilities, Control bodies, Support to the territories
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A bit of history: a progressive and
converging approach
Successive acquisition of knowledge/design/safety iterations: 1998, 2001,
2005, 2009, 2015 each one being suited to the corresponding development
phase of the project
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Forecast schedule
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Cigeo project
2 surface facilities:
Nuclear: Receiving,
inspecting, and
preparing packages
Non Nuclear: Shafts
for construction work
Underground facility in
clay (500m depth)
Shafts
HLW zone
ILW-LL zone
ramps
Underground footprint of
the repository: about 15
km2
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Cigeo project: surface installations
Digging area (200 Ha)
(non nuclear)
Reception Area (100 Ha)
(nuclear)
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Ramp Funicular
Cigeo project: waste packages transfer
Upper station with HLW transfer
cask
Lower station with HLW transfer
cask
Funicular proposed by POMA
Length: 4.2 km
Slope: 12%
Payload: 130 t
Total rolling weight: 175 t
Pulley effort required: 750 kW
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Cigeo project: HLW cells
HLW disposal cells (Dossier 2009)
Length: ~100 m
Diameter: 0,7 m
Nb containers: 7-20
Storage-disposal complementarity:
management of the radioactive decay
of HLW (approx. 60 years)
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Cigeo project: HLW cells
HLW packages
• Slightly different types of waste package: 'standard' overpacks,
• An overpack contains just one primary package
dia. 590 with runners
The runners are
locked in place by
non-alloy steel
hoops
Runners
equidistant at
60°
Non-alloy
steel lid Handling
groove
Continuous,
Leaktight weld seam
Primary package
The body of the disposal
package is made of non-
alloy steel
Two objectives:
1) Long-term safety = corrosion:
water in contact with the glass if
T°< 50°C
2) Facilitated retrievability
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Cigeo project: ILW-LL cells
ILW disposal cells are horizontal tunnels located at the median of the host clay
layer:
• Thick concrete lining to limit long term deformations
• Length: ~500 m
• No. of containers: ~2000
• Ventilation of ILW repository cells as long as they are not closed
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Cigeo project: ILW-LL waste packages
ILW-LL waste packages
Various waste different types of primary packages several primary packages in a
waste package
• Less handling operations,
• Standardisation that makes stack and retrievability easierWHY ?
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Reversibility & retrievability issues
Waste
Package(s) in
storage
Waste
Package(s) in
disposal cell
WPackage(s)
in sealed
disposal cell
WPackage(s)
in sealed
disposal zone
WPackage(s)
in closed
repository
Distant future
evolution
Waste Package
emplacement
Disposal cell
backfilling and/or
sealing
Access gallery
backfilling and/or
sealing
Repository
closure
Waste Package
slow degradation
• To implement the principle of reversibility, a TOOLBOX is needed
• The toolbox will contain governance and technical measures
4. Disposability Criteria
THERAMIN – Technical School
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
Disposability Criteria
• Disposability criteria identify the characteristics required for a waste
product in order to ensure that the waste cannot have a significant
detrimental impact on :
the handling of the waste in a disposal facility
the operational safety
the long-term safety provided by a disposal facility
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Disposability Criteria
• Origin of criteria is strongly linked to status of national
disposal programmes and policy
Some criteria apply to long-lived LILW disposal; others apply to
short-lived LILW disposal
Some criteria consider deep geological disposal; some near-
surface or surface disposal
The importance of certain criteria may vary depending on the
depth of disposal and the safety functions applicable to the
waste form in different disposal contexts.
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Disposability Criteria
• Some national criteria refer to generic plans for disposal
Particularly in the cases of geological disposal in countries that
have not yet identified a proposed site or host rock in which to
construct a repository.
In such cases, the criteria are often preliminary / provisional,
and will be developed further as plans for the disposal facility
progress.
• Some national criteria are site-specific
Reflect formal WAC associated with an existing disposal
facility (or one that is in the advanced stages of planning).
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French example of WAC for ILW-LL
• The French geological disposal dedicated to ILW-LL and HLW
(Cigéo) is under development.
Preliminary WAC (in 2017)
• Cigéo Preliminary WAC are declined as: Declarative: characteristics, quantified or not, that has to be declared by
the producers
Qualitative: criteria are expressed in terms of objectives (no value limit)
Quantitative: value limit which must be respected
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French example of WAC for ILW-LL
• The primary packages delivered by the producers will be introduced
into specific standardised storage packaging to provide
mechanical and thermal protection (in case of fire), to allow gas
release
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French example of WAC for ILW-LL
• Physical dimension:
Primary packages must be congruent to standard specified
designs (specific sizes)
- This ensures that packages can be handled with the tools available in the
facility and be introduced into standard storage containers and potentially be
stacked
The specified dimensions and weights are derived from the
waste primary package characteristics already produced
- Future primary packages will be produced in line with these specifications
The maximum weight and volume are respectively about
- 11 t and 5 m3 for primary packages
- 17 t and 10 m3 for storage packages
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
French example of WAC for ILW-LL
• Activity content:
The activity of 144 radionuclides must be declared
- declaration thresholds have been defined for each of them
There is no explicit activity limit. However, the radioactive content
is limited indirectly by other criteria such as dose rate, heat
output and material release in case of package drop
Impacts operational and after closure safety
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French example of WAC for ILW-LL
• Surface contamination:
Non-fixed contamination on the primary packages external
surface must be less than:- 0.4 Bq/cm2 for alpha emitters
- 4 Bq/cm2 for beta and gamma emitters
No limit is defined for fixed contamination
Impacts operational safety
• Criticality:
Some criteria will be defined in order to avoid criticality risk
(fissile material mass limits, isotopic spectrum, moderator type
…)
Impacts operational and after closure safety
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French example of WAC for ILW-LL
• Radiological gas generation:
A maximum release of radioactive gas (3H, 14C, 129I, 36Cl, 85Kr)
per package will be precisely defined
Impacts operational safety
• Hydrogen release:
A maximum release of hydrogen gas per package will be
precisely defined. The limit will be several tenth of liter by year
per package- Currently, the value of 40L per storage package per year is retained
This criteria is derived from the explosion risk study
Impacts operational safety
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French example of WAC for ILW-LL
• Chemical content:
Chemical content in general must be declared, in particular:
- Pyrophoric or other reactive materials. Producers must demonstrated that
such materials/substances are no longer reactive
- Corrosive substances (not submitted to a limit) in order to check
containment demonstration
- Toxic substances and complexing compounds (not submitted to a limit) to
confirm after closure safety
Some substances are prohibited, e.g.:
- self-explosive substances
- very inflammable substances
- substances and mixtures the more reactive in contact with water
(exothermic reaction) and emitting flammable gases
- free liquids both organic and aqueous
- infectious substances.
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French example of WAC for ILW-LL
• Containment:
The containment of solid radioactive material inside the primary
package is required upon receipt of it on the storage facility. This must
be demonstrated and justified by the producer
Otherwise, the storage package shall be confining to solid radioactive
material all the operation period of the facility (more than a hundred
years)
If necessity, a reinforced storage container could be used if the
primary package doesn't complied the containment criteria
Impacts operational safety
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French example of WAC for ILW-LL
• And also:
General characteristics (declarative & qualitative)
- Such as handling interface, package identification…
Mechanical criteria (limits & declarative)
- Such as drop resistance, volume of void…
Thermal output (limits)
Dose rate (limits)
Fire performance (limits)
Radionuclide release model (declarative)
….
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WAC for thermally treated waste
• Available data on current waste acceptance criteria were
collected from Theramin partner countries
Some generic disposability criteria were developed based
on examination of these data
• The objective of these generic disposability criteria is to
propose a common set of disposability criteria that can be
used to evaluate any products from any form of thermal
treatment for disposal at any type of facility
• Generic disposability criteria are defined here as: “Factors
affecting the disposability of conditioned waste produced from
application of some form of thermal treatment”
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Generic disposability criteria
• 20 Generic disposability criteria identified for thermally
treated waste
Dimensions / mass of packages
Provisions for transport, handling and emplacement
Package integrity and required lifetime
Activity content
Radionuclide inventory
Dose rate limits
Surface contamination
Nuclear criticality
Thermal output
Gas generation
Chemical content
Chemical durability
Voids
Waste package stacking
Impact performance
Fire performance
ID / labelling
QA / QC requirements
Data management
Secondary waste
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Generic disposability criteria for
thermally treated waste
• Dimensions / mass of packages:
The dimensions and mass of containers used to package
thermally treatment waste (and other aspects of the container
design) should be compatible with the thermal processing route
being employed.
The dimensions and mass of containers used to package
thermally treated waste (and other aspects of the container
design) should be compatible with relevant safety functions for
storage and disposal, and with all applicable constraints on
waste classification, handling, transport and disposal, taking
account of the processed waste characteristics.
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Generic disposability criteria for
thermally treated waste
• Provisions for handling, transport and emplacement
No additional criteria on provisions for handling, transport and
emplacement for thermally treated waste – apply existing criteria
for the disposal context in question.
The characteristics of thermally treated waste should be
considered as part of demonstrating compliance with existing
requirements on transport, handling and emplacement.
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
• Package integrity and required lifetime
Apply existing criteria for the disposal context in question.
Any additional criteria on package integrity defined for thermally
treated waste should be linked to safety functions applied to such
waste.
The characteristics of thermally treated waste should be
considered as part of demonstrating compliance with existing
requirements.
Generic disposability criteria for
thermally treated waste
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
• Activity content
No additional criteria on activity content for thermally treated
waste – apply existing criteria for the disposal context in
question.
Demonstrating compliance with existing criteria should take
account of the potential for activity to become concentrated in a
smaller volume during thermal treatment. Associated implications
for waste classification and waste package handling should be
considered.
Generic disposability criteria for
thermally treated waste
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
• Radionuclide inventory
No additional criteria on declaration of the radionuclide inventory
for thermally treated waste – apply existing criteria for the
disposal context in question.
The choice of thermal processing route and waste form
morphology / formulation should be tailored to the radionuclide
inventory (and other characteristics) of the waste, particularly if
thermal treatment is driven by the need to produce a durable,
long-lived waste form.
Generic disposability criteria for
thermally treated waste
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
• Dose rate limits:
No additional criteria on dose rate limits for thermally treated
waste – apply existing criteria for the disposal context in
question.
Demonstrating compliance with existing criteria should take
account of the potential for activity to become concentrated in a
smaller volume during thermal treatment.
Generic disposability criteria for
thermally treated waste
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
• Surface contamination:
No additional criteria on surface contamination for thermally
treated waste – apply existing criteria for the disposal context in
question.
Ensuring compliance with existing criteria should account for
potential contamination mechanisms that are specific to the
thermal treatment route employed.
Generic disposability criteria for
thermally treated waste
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
• Nuclear criticality:
No additional criteria relating to criticality safety for thermally
treated waste – apply existing criteria for the disposal context in
question.
The potential impacts of fissile material concentration on
transport, operational and post-closure safety should be
considered.
Generic disposability criteria for
thermally treated waste
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
• Thermal output:
The thermal output of thermally treated waste should not have a
detrimental impact on performance of the engineered and natural
barriers that make up the disposal system, taking account of the
potential for activity to be concentrated during thermal treatment.
• Chemical content:
Apply existing criteria for the disposal context in question.
The choice of thermal treatment route and the design of the
associated disposal facility should ensure the chemical
compatibility of thermally treated waste with other disposal
system components.
Generic disposability criteria for
thermally treated waste
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
• Chemical durability:
Existing requirements on chemical durability for the applicable
disposal route should be applied to thermally treated waste. No
additional generic disposability criteria for thermally treated
waste are considered necessary, although requirements relating
to the containment provided by a waste form may be justified,
depending on the post-closure safety case.
If criteria relating to the durability of a thermally treated waste
form are deemed to be required for application in a particular
context, then it is recommended that these should be linked to a
required containment lifetime (as assumed in the relevant post-
closure safety case), rather than to a threshold dissolution rate.
Generic disposability criteria for
thermally treated waste
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
• Voids:
Void space within packages of thermally treated waste should be
minimised wherever practicable; this may influence aspects of
how thermal treatment is implemented.
• Waste package stacking & Gas generation & ID / labelling
& QA / QC requirements:
No additional criteria for thermally treated waste – apply existing
criteria for the disposal context in question.
Generic disposability criteria for
thermally treated waste
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
• Waste package impact performance:
No additional criteria on impact performance for thermally treated
waste – apply existing criteria for the disposal context in
question.
Consideration should be given to how an impact event could
affect the long-term durability of a waste form resulting from
thermal treatment / conditioning and the safety functions it
provides.
Generic disposability criteria for
thermally treated waste
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
• Data management:
Data management requirements for the relevant disposal route
should be applied to thermally treated waste. In addition, records
of the thermal treatment regime applied to the waste should be
kept.
• Secondary waste :
Secondary waste associated with thermal treatment should be
minimised to the extent that is practicable.
Generic disposability criteria for
thermally treated waste
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
From WAC to disposability
Generic WAC
Physicochemical
properties related to
WAC
Evaluation of how the
thermal treatment influences
the disposability of the waste
Characterisation of
thermally treated
samples
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From WAC to characterisation
Waste Acceptance Criteria Physicochemical properties Measurements
No free liquid or gas Homogeneity of the waste
Thermogravimetric analysis, X-Ray
Fluorescence mapping
Electronic microscopy
…
Permeability and/or diffusivity of the waste
sufficient to evacuate gas or other productsPermeability + diffusivity
X-Ray Fluorescence mapping
Electronic microscopy
…
No or limited content of hazardous materials
(combustible, pyrophoric, reactive, etc.)
Homogeneity of the waste (not
untreated area) + identification of
chemical species in the waste
X-Ray Fluorescence mapping
X-Ray Diffraction
ICP analysis after acid material dissolution
…
Immobilization of radionuclides Localization of RN in the waste
spectrometry, autoradiography,
Raman spectroscopy
…
Limited voids / limited porosity PorosityWAXS, BET (open porosity)
…
No hot spotsHomogeneity of the waste /
microstructure
X-Ray Fluorescence mapping
Electronic microscopy
…
• Characterisation tools for the measurement of identified
physicochemical properties based on Generic WAC (1/2)
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• Characterisation tools for the measurement of identified
physicochemical properties based on Generic WAC (2/2)
Waste Acceptance Criteria Physicochemical properties Measurements
Leaching behavior of the waste product Chemical durability
Leaching tests
ICP-AES, ICP-MS,
ion chromatography, UV-Vis
spectroscopy, spectrometry
…
Mechanical resistance of the waste product
(mechanical constraint in disposal, impacts, etc.)Mechanical behavior
Hardness, Young’s modulus, toughness
…
No metal with a redox lower than 0.84 V HSEHomogeneity of the waste /
microstructure
X-Ray Fluorescence mapping
Electronic microscopy
…
Thermal conductivity of the waste product
(especially for self-heating waste)
Thermal conductivity /
thermal behavior
Thermal conductivity measurement
…
From WAC to characterisation
NON-CONFIDENTIAL
Thank you for your attention
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