the changing face of africa’s legislatures: women and quotas aili mari tripp

The Changing Face of Africa’s Legislatures: Women and Quotas

Aili Mari Tripp

Women in National Parliaments, June 2004 (Percent)

Data from In terparliamentary Union

WORLD REGION SINGLE HOUSEOR LOWERHOUSE

UPPER HOUSEOR SENATE

BOTH HOUSESCOMBINED

SCANDINAVIA 39.7 -- 39.7AMERICAS 18.4 18.2 18.4EUROPE INCLUDING SCANDINAVIAOSCE MEMBER COUNTRIES

18.1 15.3 17.6

EUROPE EXCLUDING SCANDINAVIAOSCE MEMBER COUNTRIES

16.0 15.3 15.9

ASIA 16.5 13.8 16.2SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 14.4 12.8 14.3PACIFIC 10.9 20.5 13.6ARAB STATES 6.0 7.5 6.4WORLD TOTAL 15.8 14.3 15.05

I ntroduction of quotas

Ghana 1960Egypt 1979

What difference do quota’s make?

Average % of female-held legislative seats in Africancountries, 2003

Countries with quotas 17.0Countries with quotas between 20-30% 23.0All African countries 14.3Countries without quotas 9.3

Country

Month/year of

lastelection

Size oflegislature

Number ofwomen inlegislature

Women inlegislature(%)

Quotaover20%

Rwanda 11 2003 80 39 48.8 yesMozambique 12 1999 250 75 30.0 yesSouth Africa 4 2004 400 131 32.8 yesSeychelles 12 2002 34 10 29.4

Namibia 11 1999 72 19 26.4 yes

Uganda 6 2001 304 75 24.7 yesTanzania 10 2000 274 61 22.3 yesEritrea 2 1994 150 33 22.0 yesGuinea 6 2002 114 22 19.3Senegal 4 2001 120 23 19.2 yesBurundi 6 1993 179 33 18.4Botswana 10 1999 47 8 17.0Angola 9 1992 220 34 16.4Sierra Leone 5 2002 124 18 14.5Gambia 1 2002 53 124 13.2Zambia 12 2001 158 19 12.0Burkina Faso 5 2002 111 13 11.7Lesotho 5 2002 120 14 11.7

Types of quotas:

• Mandated by parties• Mandated by constitution or legislation

Country % Womenmandatedby quota

Year quotaintroduced

% women inlegislature in

2004Burkina Faso* ADF CPD

25 25

20022002

11.7

Cameroon Cameroon People’s Democratic Movement

25-30 1996 8.9

Cote d’Ivoire Ivorian Popular Front 30

8.5

Mali Alliance for Democracy 30

10.2

Mozambique Frelimo 30 1994

30.0

Namibia (targets) South West Africa Peoples Organisation Congress of Democrats

5050

19971999

26.4

Senegal** Senegalese Democratic Party Parti Socialiste

3325

20011982

19.2

South Africa African National Congress 33 1994

32.8

Tunisia Democratic Constitutional Rally 20

11.5

*Election not yet held under new quota arrangement.

Countries with legislative quotas mandated by legislature or constitution

Country Type of quota % Womenmandated by

quota

Year quotaintroduced

% women inlegislature in

2004Djibouti 10% all party

seats allocatedfor women** 10.0 2002 10.8

Eritrea Reserved seat 30.0 1995 22.0Kenya Executive

nomination 3.0 1997 7.1Morocco Women-only

national list* 10.0 200210.8

Niger*** 10% elective25% nominative 35.0 2000

1.2

Rwanda Reserved seat 30.0 2003 48.8Somalia Transitional National Government

Women-onlylists*

10.0 2001

10.0

Sudan Reserved seat 9.7 2000 9.7Tanzania Reserved seats

Special seats** 4.020.0

19752000

8.321.4

Uganda Reserved seat 17.0 1989 24.7

* Only women can vie for these reserved seats regardless of party affiliation, notbased on constituency as in reserved seats** The special seat quota for women is allocated to political parties based on theproportional number of parliamentary seats won in an election*** Election not yet held under new quota arrangement.

Table 7.

Regime type # in Africa # with quotasSemi-authoritarian 23 10Authoritarian 9 5Democratic 9 5

Majority of quotas were introduced after 1995,the year the UN Conference on Women in Beijing.

Factors accounting for introduction of quotasafter 1994

ß Many countries introduced quotas after civilconflict (Rwanda, Uganda, Mozambique,Somalia) or liberation wars (Eritrea, Namibiaand South Africa).

International women’s movement

Pressured regional bodies

• African Union: 2003 Protocol on the Rights of Women in Africa

• SADC: 1997 declaration

• ECOWAS: 1997 treaty

Sought one third representation in:

• East African Legislative Assembly• ECOWAS• West African Economic and

Monetary Union

Sought at least 50% representation in

• African Union

• Introduction of multipartyism

• Growth of independent organizations with new agendas and leaders

• Demise of women’s wings and mass organizations tied to ruling single-party or state

Nana RawlingsDecember 31st Women’s Movement

New Organizations:

• Selected own leaders• Had independent sources of funds• Introduced new issues, e.g.,

domestic violence, rape, reproductive rights, media portrayals of women, sex education, politics

Green Belt Movement, Kenya

Members of Egi Women's Council in Erema, Egiland, Nigeria

• Diffusion factor: Senegal 2000 parliamentary elections

• Symbolic appeals to women voters• Creation of new state patronage

networks

• Increase in educational opportunities for girls and women

• New donor funds

Arguments for quotas:

Special measures need to be taken to change thestatus quo. Gender based discrimination will notreverse itself on its own.

Obstacles preventing women from running areonerous. Capable women often lack the resources,political experience, education and politicalconnections to run for office. Cultural factors.Gendered division of labor. Women aremarginalized from old boys networks, patronagenetworks.

The principle of equality. It is a matter of justicethat women be integrated into all key societalinstitutions and have parity with men.

Interests of women will not be adequately foughtfor without female representation. Women havedifferent interests from men at times.

ß Quotas can influence popularperceptions of the acceptability ofwomen being active in politics

Arguments against quotas:

Quotas are simply a political maneuver by those inpower to win women’s votes and ensure a solidblock of female supporters in parliament.

ß Women elected will not be qualified and willsimply serve as tokens who are unable to workthe system

ß Quotas have also been said to be patronizing,especially if other measures are not taken toimprove the position of women.

ß Quota system contradicts a basic democraticvalue that people should be able to freely choosetheir representatives

ß Other debates have to do with theimplementation of the quotas, e.g., use ofelectoral colleges in Uganda, biases inherent inelectoral college system

ß Party quotas require voluntary compliancewhere they are not mandated by the legislature(Senegal). Unreliable.

ß Reserved seats become ceiling

ß Women elected will not be qualified and willsimply serve as tokens who are unable to workthe system

What difference have women made?

• Constitutional changes• Legislative changes: land rights,

inheritance, citizenship, property rights, domestic violence, rape